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ENTCf^OLOGY SUB-BRANCH

UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
LIBRARY

424

Book number ^^^^

162012

fl po 8—7671

To the throng of eager question-
ing brothers and sisters in the art of
bee culture, in our own and other
countries, this work is especially
dedicated. The Authors.

i/ THE

ABC and X Y Z

OF

BEE CULTURE

A C^^clopedia of Everything Pertaining
to the Care of the Honeybee; Bees,
Hives, Honey, Implements, Honey
Plants, etc. Facts Gleaned from the
Experience of Thousands of Beekeepers
and Verified in the Authors' Apiarv.

By A."L and E. R. Root

186th Thousand

MEDINA, OHIO

THE A. I, ROOT COMPANY
1920

Copyright 1920 by The A. I. Root Company

JUL -3 iS20

1620 J ■■^

1877 Preface

In preparing this work I have been much indebted to the books of Langstrotli, Moset.
Quinby, Prof. A. J. Cook, King, and some others, as well as to all of the bee journals; but,
more than to all these, have I been indebted to the thousands of friends scattered far and
wide who have so kindly furnished the fullest particulars in regard to all the improve-
ments as they have come up in our beloved branch of rural industry. Those who ques-
tioned me so much a few years ago are now repaying by giving me such long kind letters
in answer to any inquiry I may happen to make that I often feel ashamed to think what
meager answers I have been obliged to give them under similar circumstances. A great
part of this ABC book is really the work of the people ; and the task that devolves on
me is to collect, condense, verify, and utilize what has been scattered thru thousands of
letters for years past. My own apiary has been gi^eatly devoted to testing carefully each
new device, invention, or process as it came up. The task has been a very pleasant one,
and if the perusal of the following pages affords you as much pleasure I shall feel amply
repaid.

November, 1877. A. I. Root.

I '

Preface to the 1920 Edition

Over forty years have elapsed since the original edition of this work, then consisting
of 200 pages, was placed before the public. Since that time great changes have taken
place in the beekeepers' world. The keeping of bees was hardly known then as a busi-
ness; but now it has grown to enormous proportions. Thousands of colonies are today
handled by single individuals and by syndicates, and honey is shipped by the carload and
almost by the shipload to various parts of the world. The wonderful and almost startling
strides in commercial beekeeping have brought about new methods of management as well
as new appliances. While the fundamental methods of keeping bees are the same, the
details have been materially modified.

The remarkable growth of the industrj^ has called for numerous editions of this work.
Failing health and cares of a rapidly growing business made it impossible for the original
author, A. I. Root, to make the revisions necessitated by the newer conditions. That task,
since the second edition, has devolved principally on his oldest son, the author and reviser,
who has been ably assisted by his brother, H. H. Root, Miss lona Fowls, and John H.
Lovell.

Little did A. I. Root di-eam in 1879 that his work would continue to grow, not only
in the siz;e of the book itself, but in the size of the editions, until a grand total of 186,000
copies have come off the press. The original work consisted of 212 pages, while the
present volume contains 856. Altho it was originally intended as a work for the Ijeginner
only, it has continued to develop in size and maturity until it is now the X Y Z as well as
the A B C of bee culture — admittedly the largest work from the standpoint of actual
matter that has ever been issued on bees in any language. "While it is more than ever a
work for beginners, it is likewise more than ever a work for the advanced be'^keeper. For
the former class it contains more articles than it ever has had before; and for the latter

PREFACE

class almost every known method that has proved successful in the hands of our best
producers has been incorporated.

In 1885 the author and reviser, owing to the ill health of his father, gradually
assumed the editorial work on Gleanings in Bee Culture, and at the same time the revision
of the A B C of Bee Culture, then a modest work of only 250 pages. Since that time he
has prepared most of the matter on the practical management of bees for the last thirteen
editions. In order that he might be the better fitted to do this work he traveled extensively
over the United States, with camera and note book, visiting some of the best beekeepers
in the United States and Canada. This, together with voluminous correspondence in
connection with bee culture, has enabled him to present, as he hopes, in this volume the
very latest practices to be found in this country.

It has been thought advisable to call in the help of others. Foremost among them
has been Dr. C. C. Miller, the veteran comb-honey producer, now in his 90th year — a man
who bridges the past and present, and one who is well known in Europe. He rendered
important and valuable aid in the preparation of the articles on comb-honey production
and swarming, with which he is so intimately familiar.

The author spent the winter of 1918-1919 in California with headquarters in Los
Angeles, where the major portion of the matter for this edition was prepared and sent on
to Medina. The work of welding the new and the old matter devolved on the author's
assistant. Miss lona Fowls. That the work was well done will be shown by the pages that
follow. In this connection it should be stated that the peculiar conditions of California
and other semi-tropical climates have been incorporated in various portions of the work.
This will be noted particularly in the articles on Wintering Outdoors.

In the line of the scientific and technical, the author acknowledges his indebtedness to
Dr. E. F. Phillips, Apicultural Expert in the Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C.
He is a trained entomologist — one who likewise has traveled extensively over the United
States. He is also author of the book " Beekeeping," published by the McMillan Co.,
New York. Gr. F. Demuth, his assistant in the Bureau, one who is a practical comb-honey
producer as well as an expert on the subject of swarming, has rendered helpful advice in
both subjects.

A younger brother, H. H. Boot, who has done special work in the matter of extracting
honey in a large way, and has conducted a long series of experiments in wax-rendering,
has written the articles on Buildings, Extracting, and Wax. Besides this he has read
much of the proof.

John W. Love, of the Cleveland Plain Dealer, besides writing the articles on Alfalfa
and Sweet Clover, for which he w^as eminently fitted, also offered many suggestions that
were adopted.

The technical articles on Honey, Glucose, Invert Sugar, Sugar and Honey Analysis,
were prepared by A. Hugh Bryan, formerly of the Bureau of Chemistry, Washington,
D. C. While in the Bureau he specialized on the subject of honey; so it is safe to say
that what Mr. Bryan has written is technically correct.

Articles on bee botany required some one who was not only a botanist, entomologist,
and naturalist but one who was also a beekeeper. That rare combination was found in
John H. Lovell of Waldoboro, Maine, who prepared nearly all the articles on honey
plants. He was assisted in his work by Prof. Edwin G. Baldwin, of DeLand University,
Florida.

In the matter of laws relating to bees and beekeepers' rights, it seemed necessary
to have one who was not only a beekeeper but a lawyer. Leslie Burr, who has kept bees
in several States of the Union, who is now a practicing attorney in Honolulu, wrote the
article entitled " Laws Relating to Bees."

The article on the Anatomy of the Honeybee was written by R. E. Snodgrass,
formerly of the Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C, reference to whom is made
later in this preface.

Last, but by no means least, the writer acknowledges his indebtedness to his father,
A. I. Root, with whom he was associated in his early experimental work from the late

PREFACE

60's up to 1885, when ill health compelled the senior Mr. Root to take up other matters.
It was A. I. Root who conceived the idea of an A B C book for the beginner, on the plan
of an encyclopedia that could be frequently revised. To that end he had it set up
originally in standing type. It was he who looked far enough ahead to see that bee-
keeping was a rapidly advancing industry, and that any book on the subject would soon
be out of date unless it were frequently revised. That his vision was not an idle one is
attested by the fact that some seventeen editions, consisting of 186,000 copies in all, have
come from the press. The matter for the book is now set up on a modern linotype, a
part of this edition having been reset.

While A. I. Root's name does not appear in any individual article, yet much of his
original matter is scattered thruout the work. Some of it will never be stricken out,
because it was fundamentally right for all time. His Preface and Introduction of 1877,
for example, will always be retained.

Taking it all in all, it will be seen that this work is the product of many minds.
While the reviser has written probably four-fifths of the matter, ^-et he feels that it is
only right that he should acknowledge his indebtedness to all of those who have so kindly
assisted him during the forty years that have made the ABC and X Y Z of Bee Culture
what it is and has been.

This and the previous edition differ also from their predecessors in that they have more
elementary articles on bees and beekeeping than ever before. The A B C of Beekeeping,
for example, at the very beginning of the work, assumes that the readei- has had practi-
cally no knowledge of bees ; and it proceeds, therefore, to give him a general scope of the
fundamentals of the industry before he plunges into the general articles. All thru the
work there are articles for beginners, such as Beginning with Bees, Backlot Beekeepers,
Farmer Beekeepers, Transferring, and almost every article starts out with a definition
of the subject in hand, so that the novice may more readily understand that which follows.

Each article is a complete monograph, or a little text-book in itself, on the subject of
which it treats. While there are numerous cross-references from one article to another, an
effort was made to get almost everything pertaining to any one subject under that sub-
ject's particular head. The numerous cross-references in the articles themselves, together
with a very complete index, will enable the intelligent reader to develop each subject
thoroly if he will carry the work into the beeyard and test out every teaching. By so
doing he will soon have a thoro knowledge of the business.

The discriminating reader may discover in the treatment of the various articles what
to him is a repetition of what is said elsewhere under another head. Where this occurs
it is for a purpose. The restatement of a certain proposition, from a different angle,
necessarily clears up a subject that might otherwise be misunderstood. For example it
will be found that the treatment of Windbreaks under Apiaries and under Wintering
Outdoors, while similar, are enough different to require a special restatement under each
heading. Again in so complex a subject as the management of bees a reiteration of the
same subject in a different form, as well as from a different angle, helps to make plain to
the beginner a matter that he should not and must not misunderstand, if he would succeed.
How to Open Up a Hive of Bees is considered under head of A B C of Beekeeping,
Anger of Bees, Manipulation of Colonies, Robbing, and Stings. Under the general head
of Swarming there will be found the sub-head. The Cause of Swarming and likewise the
sub-head. Prevention of Swarming. There is some material under both that is similar.
Knowing the cause one would naturally apply the remedy, but in explaining the remedy
it is important that many details in connection with the cause be stated.

The author has traveled all over the United States, given hundreds of lectures on
beekeeping, and he finds that many important subjects are misunderstood for the simple
reason that they have not been amplified enough. It requires line upon line and more
or less of repetition in a different form and from a different viewpoint. For this reason
it has seemed best to repeat some propositions from different angles, especially when
they are important. The author therefore makes no apology for the repetitions that
occur, and even then he is convinced that many of his readers will make some mistakes.

PREFACE

In order that the reader may be able to trace authorship, the following has been
prepared, emphasizing the statement that this book is the result of the work of many
minds.

ARTICLES WRITTEN EY E. R. ROOT.

Foreword : A B C of Beekeeping ; Apiarj- ; Artificial Fertilization ; Backlot Beekeeping ; Barrels ; Bee-
spaces ; Bees and Fruit-growing ; Bees and Poultry ; Bees and Truck Gardening ; Bees as a Nuisance ; Bees
Attacking Fruit ; Bees on Shares ; Beginning with Bees ; Bleaching Comb Honey ; Bottling Honey ; Box
Hives ; Breeding ; Comb Honey ; Comb Honey, to Produce ; Combs ; Contraction ; Diseases of Bees ; Dividing ;
Drifting; Drones; Dysentery; Enemies of Bees; Entrances to Hives; Farmer Beekeepers; Feeding and
Feeders ; Feeding Back ; Feeding Outdoors ; Flight of Bees ; Foul Brood ; Gloves for Handling Bees ; Grading
Comb Honey ; Granulated Honey ; Hermaphrodite Bees ; Hive-making ; Hives ; Honey and its Colors ;
Honeydew ; Honey Exhibits ; Honey-peddling ; H3'brids ; Increase ; Inspectors ; Introducing ; Inventions
Kciating to Bee Culture ; Italianizing ; Laying Workers ; Locality ; Manipulation of Colonies ; Marketing
Honey; Migi-atory Beekeeping; Moth Miller; Moving Bees; Nucleus; Overstocking; Playspells of Young
Bees; Poisonous Honey; Profits in Bees; Propolis; Queen-rearing; Queens; Races of Bees; Rats;
Record-keeping of Hives; Reversing; Robbing; Sage: Scale Hive; Shipping Bees; Shipping Cases for
Comb Honey: Skep ; Spacing Frames; Specialty in Bees; Specific Gravity of Honey; Spreading Brood;
Spring Dwindling; Spring Management; Statistics Concerning the Bee and Honey Business; Stings;
Swarming; Temperature; Transferring; Uniting Bees; Veils; A'entilation ; Vinegar; Wintering; Win-
tering Outdoors ; Wintering in Cellars ; Wintering in the Southern States.

Articles vrritten by H. H. Root. — Buildings; Extracted Honey; Extracting; Wax.

Articles written conjointly by E. R. Root and A. I. Root. — ^Absconding Swarms; After-swarming; Age of
Bees ; Ants ; Anger of Bees ; Artificial Heat ; Artificial Pasturage ; Bee-hunting ; Brood-rearing ; Candy for
Bees ; Italians ; Robbing.

Articles written conjointly by E. R. Root and II. H. Root. — Extracting, Smoke and Smokers ; Comb Honey,
Appliances for ; Honeycomb ; Honey as a Food.

Articles written conjointly by E. R. Root and Dr. C. C. Miller. — Langstroth ; Out-apiaries.
Articles written by J. W. Love. — Alfalfa ; Sweet Clover.

Articles written conjointly by E. R. Root and Arthur C. Miller.- — Observatory Hives.

Articles written conjointly by E. R. Root and J. H. Lovell. — Buckwheat ; Clover ; Dzierzon Theory ; Fruit
Blossoms ; Pollen ; Pollination of Flowers ; Tupelo.

Articles written conjointh' by E. R. Root and W. K. Morrison. — Ants.

Articles written by H. H. Root. — Buildings ; Extracted Hcney ; Extracting Honey ; Wax.
Articles written by L. C. Root. — Quinby.

Articles written by J. H. Lovell. — Bumblebees ; Campanilla ; Canada Thistles ; Carpet Grass ; Catclaw ;
Catnip ; Cotton ; Cucumber ; Dandelion ; Fig^'ort ; Gallberry ; Goldenrod ; Heartsease ; Holly ; Honey
Plants ; Hoarhound ; Horsemint ; Huajilla ; Locust ; Logwood ; Marigold ; Mesquite ; Milkweed ; Mustard ;
Poplar Tree ; Raspberry ; Solitary Bees ; Sourwood ; Spanish Needles , Sumac ; Sunflower ; Willow.

Articles written by Prof. E. G. Baldwin, DeLand University, Florida. — Magnolia ; Mangrove ; Orange ;
Palmetto; Partridge Pea ; Pennyroj'al ; Phacelia ; Titi ; Wild Cherry.

Articles written by A. Hugh Bryan, formerly of Bureau of Chemistry, Washington, D. C. — Cane Sugar :
Glucose ; Honey, Analysis of ; Honey ; Invert Sugar ; Labels for Honey ; Sugar.

Anatomy of the Bee, by R. E. Snodgrass, Bureau of Entomology, Washington.

Bee Behavior, by A. C. Miller.

Beekeeping for AVomen, by Mrs. J. H. Comstock.

Development of Bees, by James A. Nelson, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C.
Dzierzon, British Bee Journal.

Eye, Compound: Parthenogenesis: by Dr. E. F. Phillips, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C.
Laws Relating to Bees, b-^' Leslie Burr.

July 1, lV/20.

E. R. Root.

Introduction to the First Edition

BY A. I. ROOT.

About the year 1865, during the month of August, a swarm of bees passed overhead
where we were at work, and my fellow-workman, in answer to some of my inquiries
respecting their habits, asked what I would give for them. I, not dreaming he could by
any means call them down, offered him a dollar, and he started after them. To my
astonishment, he, in a short time, returned with them., hived in a rough box he had hastily
picked up, and, at that moment, I commenced learning my A B C in bee culture. Before
night I had questioned not only the bees but every one I knew, who could tell me an^i;hing
about these strange new acquaintances of mine. Our books and papers were overhauled
that evening; but the little that I found only puzzled me the more, and kindled anew the
desire to explore and follow out this new hobby of mine; for, dear reader, I have been
all my life mucli given to hobbies and new projects.

Farmers who had kept bees assured me that they once paid, when the country was
new, but of late years they were no profit, and everybody was abandoning the business.
I had some headstrong views in the matter, and in a few daj'S I visited Cleveland,
ostensibly on other business, but I had really little interest in anji-hing until I could visit
the bookstores and look over the books on bees. I found but two, and I very quickly
chose Langstroth. May God reward and forever bless Mr. Langstroth for the kind and
pleasant way in which he unfolds to his readers the truths and wonders of creation to be
found inside the beehive.

What a gold mine that book seemed to me as I looked it over on my journey home!
Never was romance so euticing — no, not even Robinson Crusoe; and, best of all, right at
my own home I could live out and verify all the wonderful things told therein. Late as it
was, I yet made an observatory hive and raised Cjueens from worker eggs before winter,
and wound up by purchasing a queen of Mr. Langstroth for $20.00. I should, in fact,
have wound up the whole business, queen and all, most effectually, had it not been for
some timely advice toward Christmas, from a plain practical farmer near by. With his
assistance, and by the purchase of some more bees, I brought all safely thru the winter.
Thru Mr. Langstroth I learned of Mr. Wagner, who shortly afterward was induced to
recommence the publication of the American Bee Journal, and thru this I gave accounts
monthly of my blunders and occasional successes.

In 1867, news came across the ocean from Germany, of the honey-extractor ; and by
the aid of a simple homemade machine I took 1,000 lbs. of honej' from 20 stocks, and
increased them to 35. This made quite a sensation, and numbers embarked in the new
business ; but when I lost all but 11 of the 35 the next winter, many said : " There ! T
told you how it would turn out."

I said nothing, but went to work quietly and increased the 11 to 18 during the one
season, not using the extractor at all. The 48 Avere wintered entirely without loss, and I
think it was mainly because I took care and pains with each individual colony. From the
48 I secured 6,162 lbs. of extracted honey, and sold almost the entire crop for 25 cents
per lb. This capped the climax, and inquiries in regard to the new industry began to
come in from all sides. Beginners were eager to know what hives to adopt, and where to
get honej'-extractors. As the hives in use seemed very poorly adapted to the use of the
extractor, and as the machines offered for sale Avere heavy and poorly adapted to the
purpose, besides being " patented," there really seemed to be no other way before me than
to manufacture these implements. Unless I did this I should be compelled to undertake
a correspondence that would occupj' a great part of m^^ time without affording any

INTRODUCTION

compensation of any account. The fullest directions I knew how to give for making plain
simple hives, etc., were from time to time published in the American Bee Journal; but
the demand for further particulars was such that a circular was printed, and, shortly
after, a second edition; then another, and another. These were intended to answer the
greater part of the queries; and from the cheering words received in regard to them it
seemed that the idea was a happy one.

Until 1873 all these circulars were sent out gratuituously ; but at that time it was
deemed best to issue a quarterly at 25 cents per year, for the purpose of answering these
inquiries. The very first number was received with such favor that it was immediately
changed to a monthly at 75 cents. The name of it was Gleanings in Bee Culture, and it
was gradually enlarged until, in 1876, the price was changed to $1.00. During all this
time it has served the purpose excellently of answering questions as they came up, both
old and new; and even if some new subscriber should ask in regard to something that had
been discussed at length but a short time before, it is an easy matter to refer him to it or
send him the number containing the subject in question.

When Gleanings was about commencing its fifth year, inquirers began to dislike
being referred to something that was published half a dozen years before. Besides, the
decisions that were then arrived at perhaps needed to be considerably modified to meet
present wants. Now you can see whence the necessity for this ABC book, its office, and
the place we propose to have it fill.

December, 1878.

A. I. Root.

A. I. ROOT

Foreword

It is hardly necessary to remind the reader that this is an encyclopaedia on
bees. It should not therefore be read consecutively, but taken up subject by
subject in the order indicated later. A preliminary statement should first be
made in order that the beginner, at least, may be able to form at the very outset
some idea of the scope and character of the industry which he is to study.

Bees have been kept from time almost immemorial. References to bees and
"honey in the honeycomb" appear all thru ancient history. Honey, aside from
the sugar in fruit, was the only sweet then known, and hence was always highly
prized. Bees were kept in caves, earthen jars, old logs, straw baskets or skeps.
When man contrived the art of making boards out of trees he constructed rude
boxes which were called gums or hives. The skeps were made of braided straw,
and these are still used to a considerable extent in Europe among the peasant
classes who cannot afford modern equipments, and who lack, even more, the
mental capacity to put into effect modern methods. See "Skeps."

The keeping of bees in the old days was but little more than an avocation
or sideline in connection with some other business or profession. While the
great majority of the beekeepers of today are probably amateurs or back-lotters,
those who keep a few bees for pleasure and profit, there are now thousands
upon thousands who make beekeeping a vocation ; that is, their sole means oi
livelihood. Their colonies are numbered by the hundreds and even thousands,
and their annual production of honey is measured by the ton and carload.
While there were a few, both in Europe and America, who had as many as two
or three hundred colonies, and produced honey by the ton, beekeeping as a
specialty and as an exclusive business was scarcely known until after the advent
of the movable-frame hive of Langstroth and the honey-extractor of Hruschka.
See "Hives' and "Extractors." These inventions revolutionized the industry
to such an extent that it is now possible for the beekeeper so to manipulate his
colonies that he can produce tons where he could produce only pounds before.

The time was when Moses Quinby, in the 50 's, and that was before the
invention of the movable-frame hive by Langstroth, sent a canalboat-load of
honey to the city of New York. This was more than the metropolis had ever
seen before — so much honey, indeed, that it "broke down the market," and the
honey went begging for a customer. Now, in these latter days that same market
is able to dispose of hundreds and hundreds of carloads of honey that have been
shipped in from all over the United States, but mainly from the irrigated
regions of the West.

In addition to the specialist class of beekeepers there are many hundreds
of thousands who keep a few bees in the back yard in cities and towns. There
is also another large class, the farmer beekeepers, who keep a few bees on the
farm, not only for the purpose of pollinating their fruit trees, the clovers and
buckwheat, but to supply the family table with honey, the purest and best sweet
in the world.

A conservative estimate would place the total number of persons who keep
bees, either as a vocation or as an avocation, anywhere from 750,000 to
1

2

FOREWORD

1,000,000 in the United States alone. If we estimate that the average beekeeper
owns ten colonies, we shall have 10,000,000 hives of bees.

On a very conservative estimate, based on United States statistics and on
the records of sales of the largest bee-supply factories in the United States, there
is at least $20,000,000 worth of honey produced annually in the United States,
and something like $2,000,000 worth of beeswax. The business of keeping bees
has grown to be so enormous that there are several large bee-supply manufac-
turers who send out carloads of hives and honey-boxes all over the United
States and to foreign countries.

Modern appliances and modern methods have now made it possible for
specialists, backlotters, and farmers, to handle bees with few or no stings; to
take the honey away without destroying the hives, combs, or bees — indeed, they
all alike find both pleasure and profit in the study and in the handling of these
wonderful little insects, that, in the language of the day, ''work for nothing and
board themselves. ' ' While this is not literally true, of course, the little creatures
will toil day in and day out and allow their owner to take the product of their
toil before their very eyes, and rob them day after day, without so much as
offering a single sting, that is, provided, of course, their owner knows how.
It is the province of this work to show "how" all these things can be done and
are being done by many thousands scattered all over the United States.

The modern movable frame, as already mentioned, has made it possible for
the owner of bees to go clear thru his hives, remove the combs, and inspect every
portion of the hives and the bees. After learning their condition he can put the
combs back, close the hive up, and, if he follows directions, he will probably
receive no stings.

The use of the bee-smoker and bee-veil to protect the face, and sometimes
gloves for the hands of the more timid, has made it also possible for the owner
to play with bees as he might with kittens ; to rob them of their honey whenever
he sees fit ; to invade their homes ; to take away their queen ; to take everything
they have, if he is so minded, without a protest and without a sting.

In this connection it would be unfair to imply that the modern beekeeper
never receives any stings. He certainly does; but when he knows the modem
methods that are taught in this work or any other standard book on bees, the
bugaboo of stings fades away.

As a matter of fact the beekeeper receives comparatively few stings, and
what he does receive leave no after-effect in swelling, because his system soon
becomes immune to the poison, and, beyond the sharp prick of pain which lasts
for a full minute, there is no local fever or swelling.

The modern bee-smoker (see "Smokers") Avill quiet bees, and, when neces-
sary, and that is not often, drive them down thru the combs in utter confusion.
In fact, smoke so diverts their attention from the thought of defense and offense
that they become passive and tractable. While the smoker may be used as a
means of control, it also in the hands of an ignorant or careless person may be
used as an instrument of torture. If instructions are followed there will be no
need of causing any pain, much less of killing any bees by its use. See "Stings"
and "Smokers."

Honey is being used as a food as it never was before. See "Honey,"
"Honey as a Food," "Extracted Honey," and "Comb Honey." Honey is now
found in our best hotels and restaurants, on dining-cars of the great trunk line
railroads, and in all of our leading groceries. It is now being put up attractively
in comb and liquid form. Traveling men are out buying and selling it as a
regular commodity. Sometimes they will contract for ten or even twenty car-
loads at a time. It is then repacked, put up in small packages, and sold to the
consuming trade, either direct or at the large wholesale or retail groceries. See
"Bottling Honey."

FOREWORD

3

Some of the darker and stronger-flavored honeys are being used by the
large baking concerns in making their cakes and cookies. As high as one
hundred carloads have been bought at a time for the purpose. Honey is an
invert sugar, and as such it keeps the cakes, cookies, and jumbles soft and moist
for months at a time. The cakes that contain the most honey are known as
"honey jumbles," some of which have kept for a period of twelve years, and
were found to be still as good, almost, as the day they were made. See "Honey
as a Food."

The question might be raised at this point whether there are not too many
beekeepers already or whether the ten million colonies are not using all the
honey or nectar there is in the -flowers. The fact is, more nectar goes to waste
than is gathered. It has been estimated that from 50 to 80 per cent of it is
lost simply because there are no bees in the vicinity to gather it. It is at
least conserv^ative says Dr. Phillips, Apieultural Expert of the Department of
Agriculture, in his book, "Beekeeping," to say that ten times as much honey
could be produced in localities where there are now no bees or an insufficient
number, as is now produced. In other words, the resources of this country
could furnish $200,000,000 worth of honey. If that much were produced next
year the market would certainly be glutted. But experience shows that the
increase in the number of beekeepers keeps at about an even pace with the
increase in the number of honey consumers, so that by the time the bees produce
$200,000,000 worth of honey there will be a market for eYery pound.

The farmers of this country are just beginning to discover the value of
sweet clover as a forage plant for cattle and hogs (see "Sweet Clover"). In
many localities it is nearly if not quite the equal of alfalfa. Unlike it, it will
grow on poor land, and restores poor soil as almost nothing else will do. The
farm papers all over the country are already proclaiming the virtues of sweet
clover. The experiment stations extol it everywhere. So far from being a
"noxious weed," it is one of the most valuable legumes ever known. Now,
sweet clover is a honey-plant — one of the best in this country. When the acre-
aige of this plant is increased, as it is sure to be in the near future, it will be
possible to produce not only $200,000,000 worth of honey, but even $500,000,000
worth. No beekeeper need be alarmed, however, as it may be centuries ]3erhaps
before that amount will be secured. We simply mention the resources for honey
so that the reader will see there is plenty of room for him in every town and on
every farm.

But there is another big factor that will make an enormous increase in the
amount of nectar. We made the statement that about $20,000,000 worth of
honey is produced in the United States alone. If that were all the bees do in
this country it would be a fine record. From an economic standpoint they do
far more than this. There is no other agency in the world that does such
perfect work in pollination — that is, bringing the pollen 'of one blossom to that
of another — as the honeybees. There are countless thousands of them at a time
of the year when comparatively few other insects are present. They therefore
make it possible to produce more and better fruit. See "Fruit Blossoms," also
"Pollination."

If a limb of an ordinary apple tree, the blossoms of which are sterile to
their own pollen, be covered with mosquito netting, before the tree comes to
bloom, effectually excluding all insects, including bees, it will be found that not
much over two or three per cent of the fruit so covered will mature. The blossoms
will drop as soon as they come into bloom, while those on the uncovered portions
of the tree will remain and develop the usual amount of fruit.

Experiments show that bees are about the only insects that will m.ake an
enormous increase in the amount of fruit. The largest fruit-growers find that

4

FOREWOKI)

they cannot get their full quota of fruit unless they have bees in their orchards,
aud the growers of bees are now having calls for them as they never did before.

Briefly we have given a general survey of the industry, and now it will be
proper to refer the reader to the series of subjects which he should take up. Each
will be found in its appropriate alphabetical order; and when these have been
read, the reader can then take up the other subjects as he chooses. But we may
suggest that, if he can possibly secure a colony of bees, he should do so in order
that he may study them intelligently and apply the teachings of this book as he
goes along. The following course of reading is suggested:

A B C of Beekeeping ; Beginning with Bees ; Anger of Bees ; Manipulation
of Colonies; Apiary; Smoke and Smokers ; Stings ; Hives ; Transferring; Rob-
bing; Feeding; Backlot Beekeeping; Swarming; Comb Honey; Extracting;
Spring Management ; Uniting ; Wintering. The other subjects may be taken
up in any order that may seem best.

A

A B C OF BEEKEEPING. — lu tliis
preliminary article we shall assume that
the reader knows nothing about bees or
beekeeping except that bees sting, and
are ready to sting anywhere at any time
any one who approaches within a hundred
yards of their hive." By reading this ar-
ticle and the one on Stings it will be seen
that nothing could be further from the
truth.

At the outset it is important that we take
a general birds-eye view^ of the whole in-
dustry; and to do that we shall make a
brief summarj^ of the entire contents of this
work. The reader, having a comprehen-
sive view of tlie business, the ways and
means and wherefores, will then be able to
take up specifxcally a course of reading as
suggested at the close of the Foreword.

There are two different kinds of bees —
solitaiy bees (see Solitary Bees) and so-
cial bees, those that live in colonies or
communities. There are many species of
both kinds: but for the purpose of this
work we shall concern ourselves with the
social bees and mainly the species known
as Apis mellifica, or " honey-makers." This
name comes from three Latin words — apis,
meaning bee: mel, honej^; and faceo, 1 make.
Putting the words together we have Apis
mellifica. Some scientists designate tliem as
Apis mellifera, or " honey-bearers," from
Apis, a bee, and fero, I bear or carry. But
the great majority accept the former name,
and we accept it because it is more accurate.

There are three classes of individuals in
each colony— namely, the queen bee or true
female, the drones, and the worker, or
neuter bees as some call them, but more
correctly undeveloped females. Each work-
er bee is functionally the same as the queen
bee except that her tongue, mouth parts,
pollen-gathering bristles on the legs, and
the sting are more fully developed than the
same organs in the only true female, Imown
as the " queen." See Pollen.

A colony of bees may contain anywhere
from 25,000 to 75,000 individuals, and in

rare cases as high as 100,000, ail the daugh-
ters of one queen bee. But the average
good colony for producing honey will run
anywhere from 50,000 to 75,000 workers.
During the winter this number will be
reduced, possibly a half ; for Nature appar-
ently goes on the assumption that it is wise
not to produce a lot of unnecessary con-
sumers for winter.

The duties of the worker bees are quite
varied. Primarily their business is to gath-
er nectar or sucrose; and by some chemi-
cal process, which no one seems to under-
stand fully, change it into invert sugar or
honey. Since they gather nectar and make
it over into honey, it is scientifically ac-
curate to say that bees " make honey."

Bees also gather pollen from the flowers,
and store it in combs the same as they
store noney. The pollen and honey are
used for making a milky-white nitrogenous
food to feed the larva} of baby bees. This
food is YQvy much like thin condensed
milk. As the larvae develop, this same food
or " pap " is made richer and stronger.
See Development of Bees.

Bees also gather a kind of glue for mak-
ing up what is called bee glue, or propolis.
This is used to seal up all cracks that might
let cold air into the hive. The word " pro-
polis " is derived from two Greek words —
pro, meaning in front, and polis, a city. Tn
ancient times, especially with some strains
of Apis mellifica, the bees used this sub-
stance in front of the hive to contract the
entrance in order to keep out other insects
and rodents, hence the name, in front of
the city, or propolis.

Worker bees naturally fall into two divi-
sions— young bees for taking care of young-
brood, building comb, protecting the en
trance against robbers, and in other ways
performing the inside work of the hive.
The older bees, or "fielders," are those that
gather the nectar, pollen, and bee glue.
When there are few or no young bees tlse
older ones can and do assume the duties of
nurse bees. See Brood.

6

A B C OF BEEKEEPING

The fully developed, or true female, is
what is called the " queen." As already
stated, she functionally is much the same
as the workers with this difference: Her
mouth parts, pollen-gathering apparatus, as
well as her sting, are atrophied or aborted,
while her ovaries are highly developed.
She is capable of laying as many as 5,000
eggs in a day, but usually 3,000 is the limit.
During the height of the season she will
not average, probably, over 1,500 eggs a
day. At the close of the active season she
lets up on her egg-laying, sometimes stop-
ping altogether. This seems to be a wise
provision in nature to prevent the rearing
of a lot of useless consumers that would
simply use up all the stores before winter
comes on. Along in the fall, if there should
be a fall flow, egg-laying will start again,
and a lot of young bees V7ill be reared to
make up a colony that will go into winter
quarters. The bees that gather the crop
during an active honey season very seldom
if ever live to go into winter quarters. The
fruit of their toil goes to their successors.

Only one queen bee, under normal condi-
tions, is allowed in the hive at a time. The
worker bees, apparently, are willing to tol-
erate one or more queens ; but evidently the
queens themselves are jealous of each other,
and, when they meet, a mortal combat fol-
lows, during which one of them receives a
fatal sting. The reigning queen bee, then,
is often the survival of the fittest. Some-
times mother and daughter will get along
very nicely together and perhaps even win-
ter together, but usually along toward fall
the mother disappears. Whether the
daughter helps to make away with her,
whether she dies of old age, or whether the
bees take a hand in the matter, is not known.

Two strange queens, therefore, cannot,
as a rule, live together in a hive. (See In-
troducing.) The moment they meet they
clinch each other in mortal combat, and
the one that is successful enough to sting
her antagonist comes out the victor. As
soon as the vanquished receives her wound
she quivers a moment and dies. This is
about the only time a queen uses her sting,
for she rarely stings a human being, altho
she may at times sting a worker.

The average queen bee will remain the
mother of a colony for from two to three
years. She may live to be as old as five or

six years, but these cases are very rare.
Usually a queen over two years old is not
worth much, and some believe that a queen
over a year should be replaced by younger
blood. See Age of Bees.

The other individuals in the hive are
male bees or drones. Their mouth parts
and pollen-gathering apparatus are all very
much aborted, and they have no sting. They
are completely at the mercy of their sisters,
and their only function is to mate the
queen bee. This act takes place in the air,
for apparently Nature has designed to pre-
vent in-breeding. After the main honey
flow is over, the drones are rudely pushed
out at the entrance by their sisters, where
they soon starve to death. See Drones.

The average young queen, when she sal-
lies forth in the air on her wedding trip,
may or may not find her consort from the
same hive, but the probabilities are she will
find one from some other hive. As soon as
the act of copulation has taken place the
two whirl aroimd in the air until they
drop, when the queen tears herself loose,
carrying with her the drone organs, after
which the drone dies. Soon after she en-
ters her hive the drone organs are removed
by the worker bees, but the spermatic fluid
is retained in the spermatheca, where a
supply sufficient to last the rest of her life
is held. The queen is from that time on
able to lay fertilized eggs that will produce
worker bees, and infertile eggs that pro-
duce only drones. See Bees and Dzierzon
Theory.

The same egg that produces a worker bee,
strangely enough, will also produce a queen
bee. The question of whether an egg shall
be developed into a queen or an ordinary
worker depends entirely on conditions. If
the bees desire to raise a queen, or several
of them, they will build one or more large
cells, and feed the baby grubs a special
food. (See Queens and Queen-Rearing.)
In 16 days a perfect queen will emerge;
while in the case of the worker, fed on a
coarse food in small cells, 21 days elapse.
Such, in brief, is a statement concerning
the inmates of the hive and their duties.

Before proceeding any further it will be
proper for us to say something about the
hive. In doing this we shall start with the
old box hive of our forefathers, working
up to the modern hive which has made it

A B C OF BEEKEEPING

7

possible for us to handle bees with such
infinite pleasure and profit,

THE OLD WAY OF KEEPING BEES.

The old priuntive box hive of our grand-
fathers, consisting of a rude box (hence the
name), was 12 or 15 inches square, and
from two to three feet deep. Thru the
center were secured two cross-cleats at right

when building their combs in such a hive,
fastened them to the sides and ends over
and around the cross-cleats before mention-
ed. The combs, when so built, would, of
course, permit of no examination nor han-
dling, as do the modern hives ; and when it
was desired to take the honey, the bees of
the heaviest hives in the fall were brim-
stoned, while those of the lio-htest were al-

Modern Hive with Hoffman frames for production of extracted honej\ Between super and hive body should
be a queen excluder. (Deep extracting super identical with hive body may be substituted for shallow extracting super.)

angles to each other, to help support the
combs. See Box Hives. This box hive
standing on a board or slab usually had a
notch at the bottom in front, to provide an
entrance and exit for the bees. The bees,

lowed to live over until the next season, to
provide for swarms to replace those brim-
stoned. The honey taken from box hives
was mixed with beebread and brood, and
was of inferior quality. The combs were

8

A B C OF BEEKEEPING

cut out of the hive and dumped into buck-
ets to be used as necessity required.

The modern hive has long since elimin-
ated these crude and cruel methods, and in
their stead there is accessibility to every
part; and, so far from destroying the little
servants, one can take their honey without a
sting if directions are followed. Every
comb is now built in movable frames that
permit of easy examination. (See Frames.)
One can open the hive and remove the
frames, playing with the bees by the hour
if he knows how. There is no more al-
luring pastime for the business or profes-
sional man or the houseAvife than the keep-
ing of bees. They all say it's just fun, and
it's "fun" that makes money. (See
Backlot Beekeeping.)

the modern hive for the production of
comb and extracted honey.

The modern hive, or exterior housing, in
its simplest form consists of a floor or
bottom-board; a hive body (box without
cover or bottom) to hold the frames or
racks to contain the combs; supers (shal-
low box rims) to hold section-holders for
the sections or extracting- frames for ex-
tracted honey ; a thin wooden lid, or " super
cover," and over the whole a " telescope
cover," as shown, to shield the hive from
the weather. In addition there is an en-
trance-contracting cleat that can be re-
moved so that a wide or narrow entrance
may be used, depending on the season. In
the best-regulated apiaries, hive-stands are
used for holding the hives. These protect
the bottom and hive proper from unneces-
sary exposure to the ground and rot, and

Hive stand.

at the same time provide an easy grade or
alighting-board for the convenience of
heavily laden bees as they come in from
the field. When a bee is filled with honey

it very often drops down a foot or two
from the hive. It is, therefore, very im-
portant to have an easy runway into the
hive proper, and hence the hive-stand pro-
vided with an alighting-board, as shown.

Each of the hive parts here enumerated
is separable. One part can be piled on top
of another in such a way as to accommo-
date the largest colonies and the largest
yields of honey that may be secured. The
modern hive, therefore, is capable of all
degrees of expansion, to accommodate any
colony or any honey crop. Some large colo-
nies will store enough honey to make a hive
four and even five stories high.

BROOD-FRAMES.

Movable frames to hold the combs are
called " brood-frames." The tops of these
have projections resting upon rabbets cut
in the upper ends of the hive. (See illus-
trations page 9.) The end bars of the
frames have, near the top, projecting
ends just wide enough so that the combs
will be spaced the correct distance apart.
Such self-spacing frames for holding the
combs are called " Hoffman brood-frames,"
and any one of them can be removed and
replaced. A set of frames of the same pat-
tern, but shallower, is sometimes used. Any
hive containing a set of frames in which
there is brood (unhatched bees) is called a
brood-chamber. A hive containing a set of
frames used for the storage of surplus
honey is called a " super." Brood-cham-
bers are generally deep, but the supers
may be either deep or shallow. The honey
may be removed by cutting the combs from
the frames in the supers and storing them
in tin cans, or it may be " extracted " from
the frames of combs by means of a honey-
extractor. The honey so taken is called
extracted honey. See Extracting.

Every comb has a series of honey cells on
each side, which, when filled with honey, are
capped over with a thin film of wax. This
capping is sliced off with a sharp-bladed
knife made for the purpose, called an " un-
capping-knife." The combs, with the cap-
pings removed, are then placed in the bas-
kets or wire pockets, of a centrifugal hon-
ey-extractor. These baskets, fastened in
multiples of two or more in a reel, are
geared to run at a relatively high rate of
speed inside of a metal can. The honey is

A B C OF BEEKEEPING

9

thrown out by centrifugal force from the
side of the comb next to the can. The ma-
chine is stopped; the combs are reversed,
when the reel is started revolving, throw-
ing the honey out from the other side
also. When emptied the combs are put
back into the hive and refilled with honey,
after which they are again extracted as
before. This process may be repeated one
or more times during the season, or as long
as the honey flow lasts.

Extracted honey can be produced for
less money than that in the comb, because
the empty combs can be used over and over
again, year after year. As the bees con-
sume anywhere from 5 to 10 poimds of
honey to make a pound of wax, the ex-
tracted lioney, or honey separated from
the comb, saves making comb each time.

As a matter of fact, before the great war
the market price for extracted was but a lit-
tle more than half that of comb honey.

SECTIONS AND SEPARATORS AS USED IN COMB-
HONEY PRODUCTION.

The production of honey in the comb
requires a different set of fixtures. Comb
honey is produced in little square boxes
technically called " sections." These are
usually either 4 x 5 x 1% inches wide, or
4%, square by 1% wide. These sections,
four in number, are placed in a sort of
frame called a " section-holder." Between
each two rows of sections, when placed on the
hive, is a wooden separator consisting of a
thin piece of veneer wood a little narrower
than the section is deep. Sometimes a se-
ries of thin slats, fastened together bv

^fnrlprn TFivo with Hoffman frames for the proauction of comb honey,
Qiay be used.)

(Any style of comb honey super

10

A B C OF BEEKEEPING

cross-cleats, are used in place of separators.
Teclinically these are called fences. The
function of the separator or fence is to
separate the rows of sections from each

^-i^T^r- ^ 43/2 ^ ]bV8^ —

Separator.

other. Without them the bees would build
the comb in these sections too fat or too
lean. So far as possible it is highly im-
portant, from the marketing point of view,
to have each comb in each section approxi-
mately the same weight — something be-
tween 12 and 1-i ounces. While the sec-

Feiu-e.

tions, including- the wood, will hold an even
pound when filled entirely full, it is very
seldom that the producer of comb honey
can get his bees to make his sections run
uniformly one pound in weight. The aver-
age market permits and expects that comb-
honey sections will run slightly less than
one pound. See Comb Honey.

COMB FOUNDATION.

In order to start the bees building their
combs centrally in the sections or brood-
frames, a product known as " comb founda-
tion " (quite generally abbreviated " fdn.")
is used. This consists of a thin sheet or
sheets of pure beeswax embossed or favos-
ed, so that the surface shall be an exact
duplicate of the midrib or center of the
honeycomb with the cells sliced off. In
other words, comb foundation is a dupli-
cate of the foundation of the natural comb,
and hence the name. The artificial prod-
uct has more wax in the initial cells than
the natural product. This surplus is used
by the bees in building out their combs.

In modern apiculture foundation is al-
most an indispensable article. It is used
either in narrow strips called " foundation
starters," or in full sheets. The latter are
preferable, because the bees will build more
nearly perfect combs — combs that are flat

as a board and a duplicate of the article
built wholly by the bees. Without comb
foundation the bees will show a tendency
to build their own product in all kinds of
fantastic shapes, crosswise of the section

Brood Frames with inch foundation starters.

honey-boxes or the brood-frames. Practi-
cally all the combs in modern apiculture
today are built on comb foundation. This
is filled with honey by the bees, and cap-
ped over, and in all respects is equal and
even superior to that made by the bees
without the use of starters. See Comb
Foundation.

tools for handling bees.

The tools required by a beekeeper for
opening his hives and doing other necessary
work in the production of honey are not
elaborate. The total outlay need not ex-
ceed $3.00. First and foremost, there must
be a bee-smoker — a device consisting of a
stove and bellows for blowing smoke from
some slow-burning fuel on the bees. With-
out smoke, many manipulations would be
very difficult; and the novice, at least,
would be inclined to give up the business
after his first experience in trying to han-
dle a colony of bees, especially if weather
conditions were unfavorable. But with
smoke, and an instrument for applying it,
one can, if he knows how, perform all pos-
sible manipulations with bees when weather
conditions are right. In fact, a large num-
ber of beekeepers, except during a time
when the weather is bad, do not use a veil,
gloves, nor any special protection except

A B C OF BEEKEEPING

11

the smoker, as an intelligent use of the
latter will often put the bees on their good
behavior, to such an extent that the use of

other protectors is rendered useless. Per-
haps a majority of hone^'-producers ^York
with a veil on the hat, but not drawn down
except when an angry bee seems disposed
to show fight.

The other tool, if it may be so regarded,
is designed for face protection. This may
be in the form of a wire-cloth cylinder with

suitable cape to protect the neck and shoul-
ders, or it may be made of some sort of
netting, preferably black, so as to obscure
the vision as little as possible. The higher-
priced veils of silk Brussels netting offer
practically no obsti'uction to the eyes, and
at the same time give the wearer a sense of
secm-ity that he cannot otherwise have.

Some beekeepers, wishing to get thin
with as large an amount of work as possi-
ble, and knowing that rapid manipulation
has a tendency, in spite of smoke, to make
bees sting, wear both bee-veil and gloves;
and a few of the careless bunglers go so far
as to wear cowhide boots in addition, tuck-
ing the trousers into the boots. Good bee-
keepers do not approve of such bungling.

slam-bang methods, that only irritate the
bees. One will accomplish as much or more
in a day, provided he works cautiously and
deliberateh", using his brains to save mak-

ing a multiplicity of quick moves. A few
slow movements carefully planned will ac-
complish much with bees.

Almost the only other tool required is a
strong screwdriver, a knife with a good stiff
blade, or, better still, a specially construct-
ed hive-tool made of spring steel Avith a
broad blade for the purjDOse of a pry or
scraper. A tool of some sort is indispensa-
ble for separating the frames and the parts

of a hive, because the bees make use of
what is known as bee glue, cementing the
frames together. In warm or hot weather
this bee glue does not cause as much ti'ouble
in handling the hives as during cold weath-
er, when it is stiff and hard. Ordinarily
bees should not be handled at such times.

One more tool is sometimes used, and
that is a swarming-box or a swarm-basket
— a device invented by the late A. E. Man-
um. A wire basket is moimted on the end
of a long pole so that a majority of the
swarms can be reached and captured from
the gTOund. If the wings of the queens
are clipped, as explained imder Queexs
and SwAEMiXG, no such appliance is need-
ed except in instances when a second
swarm comes off with a virgin queen.

12

A B C OF BEEKEEPING

MANIPULATING A COLONY OF BEES.

Having considered the inmates of a
hive, the hive itself, and the several parts
and the tools for manipulating the same,
it is now in order to take up the manipula-
tion of the hive, or the handling of a colo-
ny of bees.

The average beginner at this point may
feel that he has a job on his hands. He
may get stung, when his face will be dis-
figured so that he will not be presentable
to coiiipany. While it is not denied that he
may get stung, the one who tries for the
first time to handle bees should protect his
hands with gloves and his face with a veil,
Dot because they are essential, but because
it will take away that feeling of fear that
might cause him to make a false move and
thus incite the bees to sting.

If he will follow the directions that are
DOW given, he should not receive a single
sting even in his clothing. First of all, it
is important that the beginner select a
warm day, between ten and three o'clock.
After having lighted his smoker (sea
Smokers), he should put on his veil and
gloves and approach his hive. He should
be sure that the smoker delivers a good
smoke. The best fuel is old rags or greasy
waste, which can be had for the asking at
almost any machine shop. The smoke of
this is not pungent, but is a bluish white
and quite opaque. This can be easily ig-
nited with a match. Work the bellows
until a good volume of smoke is secured.
Care should be taken not to work the
smoker bellows too hard, as othei'wise the
fuel will burst into flame.

With the smoker just right, blow a light
puff of smoke into the entrance. Too
much smoke will start the bees on a stam-
pede, especially if they are blacks or hy-
brids. Wliile bees will not sting in this
condition, it renders subsequent manipula-
tion exceedingly difficult.

The next movement is to take the screw-
driver or hive-tool and pry the cover up
about a sixteenth of an inch — not wider,
because the bees would escape. Thru the
gap so made between the cover and the
hive itself two puffs of smoke should be
blown. Next, the cover should be gently
lifted, the movement being followed with
perhaps two or three light puffs of smoke.
It is just as important not to use too much
smoke as not enough.

One may now proceed to lift out individ-
ual frames. If they are stuck together on
account of the bee glue, a little smoke may
be required to follow each operation in
separating the frames; but usually the
smoker can be set down alongside the hive,
and frame after frame be lifted out with-
out receiving a single sting.

Care should be taken not to pinch any
bees. The fingers should always be placed
at some point where there are no bees. If
they are very numerous, they should be
gently brushed over to one side by pushing
tiie fingers down between them, being care-
ful not to pinch them in doing it.

After one has opened a hive a few times
he will be able to discard the gloves, and
later he can dispense with the veil at
times, because he will find that an intelli-
gent use of the smoker will do more to
eliminate stings than any other one. thing.
After one has acquired a sense of freedom
and knows the bees will not sting, he can
work over them for hours at a time, getting
more real joy out of his pets than from
anything else on the place. See Manipu-
lation OF Colonies.

Before the reader proceeds further he
should read very carefully the following
subjects, found in their alphabetical order;
viz., Beginning with Bees, Manipula-
tion OF Colonies, Beood and Brood-rear-
ing, Anger of Bees, Stings, Smoke and
Smokers, Apiary, Backlot Beekeeping,
Farmer Beekeeping, Hives^ Transferring,
Robbing, Uniting, and Wintering. This
order is suggested because the arrangement
is progressive, and enables the beginner to
proceed from one subject to another. After
he has read the subjects already indicated
he may take up Queen-rearing, Comb and
Extracted Honey, or any other subject in
which he may be interested.

ABNORMALITIES IN BEES. — S e e
Hermaphrodite Bees; also " Drones with
Heads of Different Colors," under Drones.

ABSCONDING SWARMS.— No part of
animated creation exhibits a greater love of
home than do the honeybees. No matter
how humble or uninviting the surroundings
they seem very much attached to their
home ; and, as they parade in front of their
doorway after a hard day's work, they
plainly indicate that they have a keen idea
of the rights of ownership and exhibit a

ABSCONDING SWARMS

18

willingness to give their lives freely, if need
be, in defense of their hard-earned stores.
It is difficult to understand how they can
ever be willing to abandon it altogether,
and with such sudden impulse and
common consent. No matter if they
have never seen or heard of such a
thing as a hollow tree, and have for in-
numerable bee generations been domesti-
cated in hives made by human hands, none
the less they have that instinctive longing
tliat prompts them to seek the forest or
rocks in mountainous country as soon as
they get loose from the chains of civilized
man.

It is very unusual for a swarm to go to
the woods without clustering ; the bees usu-
ally hang from 15 minutes to an houi",
and many times several hours; in fact, we
have known them to hang over night, and
sometimes stay and build comb; but usu-
ally it is better to take care of them
inside of 15 or 20 minutes to make sure
of them. Long before swarming time,
hives should all be in readiness, and they
should also be located near where the new
colony is to stand. If one is going to have
a model apiary, he should not think of
waiting until the bees swann before he lays
it out, but take time by the forelock, and
with careful deliberation decide where every
hive shall be before it is stocked with bees,
if he would keep ahead and prevent his
bees from taking " French leave."

But they sometimes leave, even after they
have been carefully hived in modern hives
on frames of foundation. If the swarming
mania gets under way in a beeyard, a
swarm is more apt to come oat the second
time, even when hived in a new location in
a different hive, than where there is only a
very little swarming. It was once thought
that giving a frame of unsealed brood to
these second-time absconders would hold
them. While this, no doubt, acts as a re-
strainer, yet when a swarm leaves its new
quarters it should be recaptured, hived
back into the hive, and then carried down
cellar, where it should be kept several days
until it gets over its mania. The bees may
then be set out on their permanent sum-
mer stands.

How is one to avoid losing the occasion-
al swarm that goes off without clustering at
all? or the quite frequent cases of coming

out unobserved, or when no one is at home ?
There is a very certain and safe remedy for
all cases of first swarming, in having the
wings of the queen clipped, or using an
Alley trap so she cannot fly. See Queexs,
subhead " How to Clip the Queen's
Wings." Wing-clipping is in very general
use, and answers excellently for all first
swarms; but, alas! the after-swarms are
the very ones that are most apt to abscond,
and the wings of their queens cannot be
clipped, nor should such queens be restrain-
ed by an Alley trap, because they have not
yet taken their wedding flight. What shall
be done? In the first place, second or af-
ter-swaiTLis should not he allowed. If the
jjarent hive, after it has cast its fii'st swann.
is treated as recommended under the head
of After-swarming^ there will be no fur-
ther swarming from that colony for that
season. The Heddon method, given at the
close of After-swarmixg, is recommended
for the prevention of after-swanns.

Clipping the wings of the queen (or put-
ting on drone-traps — see Droxes) will
prevent losing first swarms by absconding;
but it does not always prevent losing the
queen. She goes out with the bees as usu-
al, and, after hopping about in front of
the hive, sometimes gets ready to go back
at about the same thne that the bees do,
after having discovered she is not in the
crowd. Even if she goes some little dis-
tance from the hive, the loud hum they
make as they return will guide her home
many times; but unless the apiarist is at
hand to look after affairs, many queens will
be lost, and the bees will rear a lot of young
queens and go into after-swarming in good
earnest, making even the first swarm an
after-swarm." A friend, who knows little
of bee culture, once told us our bees were
swarming, and if we did not ring the bells,
they would certainly go to the woods. As
we quietly picked up the queen in passing
the hive, we told him if they started to
go away we would call them back. Sure
enough they did start for the woods, and
had gone so far that we really began to be
frightened ourselves, when, away in the
distance, we saw them suddenly wheel
about, and then return to the hive at our
very feet. While he gave us the credit of
having some supernatural power over bees,
we felt extremely glad we had taken pre-

14

ABSCONDING SWARMS

cautions to clip all our queens' wings but
a few days before. After this we felt a lit-
tle proud of our control over these way-
ward insects, until a fine swarm of Italians
started oif under similar circumstances, and,
despite our very complacent, positive re-
marks, to the effect that they would soon
come home, they went off and stayed " off."
In a humble and wiser frame of mind, we
investigated, and found they had joined
with a very small third swarm of black bees
that had just come from one of the neigh-
bor's hives. We tried to " explain," but
it required a five-dollar bill to make matters
so clear that we could carry back our rous-
ing swarm of yellow bees, and sort out the
black unfertile queen, that they might be
made to accept their own.

ABSCONDING FOR WANT OF FOOD.

Aside from normal swarming perhaps
bees oftener desert their hives because
they are short of stores than from any
other cause; and many times, in the spring,
they seemed to desert because they were
nearly out. This generally happens about
the first spring day that is sufficiently
warm and sunny. They issue from the hive,
and alight in a tree very much like a nor-
mal swarm during the swarming season.
The remedy, or, rather, preventive, is so
plain that it need not be discussed. After
they have swarmed out, and are put back
into the hive, give a heavy comb of sealed
stores; if that cannot be obtained, feed
them a little at a time, until they have plen-
ty, and be sure that they have brood in the
combs. If necessary, give them a comb of
unsealed larvae from some other hive, and
then feed them until they have a great
abundance of food. One should be asham-
ed of having bees abscond for want of food.

ABSCONDING NUCLEUS.

A very small nucleus — if it contains no
more than 200 bees — is liable to swarm out.
Queen-breeders, in attempting to mate
queens in baby nuclei containing only one,
or two section boxes, had considerable trou-
ble in keeping the bees in the hive, espe-
cially when the young queen went out to
mate. Accordingly it was found necessary
to make the baby hives much larger, with
frames 5% x 8 inches, and tAvo nuclei to a
hive. See Queen-rearing.

With these there will be much less trou-
ble from swarming, provided that they
have some brood and honey and are not
too strong, and provided also the queen
is taken out as soon as she is laying.

ABSCONDING FOR MORE SATISFACTORY
QUARTERS.

There is still another kind of absconding
that seems to be for no other reason than
that the bees are displeased with their hive,
or its surroundings, and, at times, it seems
rather difficult to assign any good reason
for their having suddenly deserted. We
have known a colony to swarm and desert
their hive because it was too cold and
open, and we have known them to desert
because the combs were soiled and filthy
from dysentery in the spring. We have
known them to swarm because their en-
trance was too large, and, if we are not
mistaken, because it was too small.

We have also known them to swarm be-
cause they were so " pestered " with a
neighboring ant hill — see Ants — that they
evidently thought patience ceased to be a
virtue.

ABSCONDING IN THE SPRING.

They often swarm in the spring Avhere
no other cause can be assigned than that
they are weak and discouraged, and in such
cases they usually try to make their way in-
to other colonies. While it may not always
be possible to assign a reason for such be-
havior with medium or fair colonies, one
may rest assured that good, strong colo-
nies, with ample supplies of sealed stores,
seldom, if ever, go into any such foolish-
ness.

It seems to occur just at a time when
their owner can ill afford to lose a single
bee, and, worse still, only when his stocks
are, generally, rather weak, so that he dis-
likes to lose any of them. In this case
they do not, as a general thing, seem to care
particularly for going to the woods, but
rather take a fancy to pushing their way
into some of the adjoining hives, and, at
times, a whole apiary will seem so crazy
with the idea as to become utterly demoral-
ized.

A neighbor, who made a hobby of small
hives — less than half the usual size — one
fine April day had as many as 40 colonies

ADULTERATION OF HONEY

15

leave their hives and cluster together in all
sorts of promiscuous combinations. To say-
that their owner was perplexed, would be
stating the matter very mildly.

Similar cases, tho perhaps not as bad,
have been reported from time to time, ever
since novices commenced to learn the sci-
ence of bee culture; and altho cases of
swarming in the spring were known once
in a gTeat while before the recent improve-
ments, they are nothing like the mania that
has seemed to possess entire apiaries —
small ones — since the time of artificial
swarming and honey-extractors. We would
by no means discourage these improve-
ments, but only warn beginners against
experimenting before they have had suf-
ficient experience. We would not com-
mence dividing our bees until they are
abundantly strong. They should go into
winter quarters with an abimdance of seal-
ed honey in tough old combs as far as may
be; and should have hives with walls thick
and warm, of some ])orous material, such
as leaves or planer shavings, and there
should also be a good thickness of the same
above ; then there will be little cause to fear
trouble from bees absconding in the spring.

ACTIVITIES OF BEES.— See Bee Be-
havior.

ADULTERATION OF HONEY. — The

adulteration of this product dates back
many years, but the methods of detecting
the same are of comparatively recent date.
Accum, in his " Treatise on Adulterations
of Food and Culinary Provisions " (one of
the earliest works devoted to food adultera-
tion) published in London in 1820, does not
cover the subject of honey. Hassall in his
" Adulteration Detected," published about
1855, mentions honey. His examinations
were made with the microscope, and he was
able from the pollen to tell the kinds of
flowers visited by the bees. He also noted
crystals of sucro=:p intermingled with those
of dextrose when a honey was evaporated
to a crystalization point. In his later
editions he gives methods for detection
of sucrose and also commercial glucose.
The two works cited above were written in
England. Hoskins in his book "What to
Eat," possibly the first book on food adul-
teration written by an American, and pub-
lished in Boston about 1861, states that
" Factitious and adulterated honey is very

common in our markets. The substances
used are generally ordinary sugar, made
into a syrup with water, and flavored with
different articles. This preparation is usu-
ally mixed with genuine honey, and so
extensive is this practice that very little
' Strained Honey ' can be found which is
pure. The only really injurious adultera-
tion as regards health which I have found
in such honey is alum." He noted " Glu-
cose and starch sugar among the adulter-
ants of honey," but never verified their
presence. Later work has brought forth
the same statement as above; viz., "If one
wants pure honey, he should purchase it in
the comb." This statement was possibly true
up to the passage of the National Pure-
food Law, which went into effect January
1, 1907. Yet just previous to this time
extracted honey was not as much adulterat-
ed as formerly, due in part to the many
state food laws, and also, in greater part,
to the fact that chemical methods had ad-
vanced to a point where adulterations with
glucose, sugar syrup, etc., were easily rec-
ognized. Part 6. Bulletin 13, of the Divi-
sion of Chemistry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture ( a report of investigations
made imder direction of Dr. H. W. Wiley
about 1890), contains some 75 pages de-
voted to honey. In this are given numerous
analyses of honey. The adulterants noted
were glucose, cane sugar, and invert sugar.
The number of samples containing glucose
was very large. See Glucose^ Cane Sugar^
Invert Sugar for descriptions of the sub-
stances; also Analysis of Honey for meth-
ods of their detection.

Examining the first 4,000 Notices of
Judgment given pursuant to Section 4 of
the Food and Drug Act, published from
the office of the Secretary, United States
Department of Agriculture, which repre-
sents the whole published information on
prosecutions under this act up to October
21, 1915, one finds 12 notices referring to
honey.

In one. No. 1,123, the product was labeled
as containing 8 ounces of honey, but exam-
ination showed that the containers were
short some 4.86 per cent. In another, No.
352, the label stated the contents as " one
pint," but examination showed much less to
be present. Both cases resulted in favor of
the Government.

16

ADULTERATION OF HONEY

In one, No. 269, the product was labeled
" Compound Pure Comb and Strained Hon-
ey and Corn Syrup." Analysis revealed
that the product was largely composed of
corn syrup (commercial glucose) with
some comb honey and strained honey. The
case was lost by the Government in that
it was held that " it was impossible to say
what portion of the label as printed would
signify greatei' percentage of the product."
In opposition to this, some state laws re-
quire that the substances composing a com-
pound should be stated on the label in the
order in which they predominate in the
finished product.

In the other cases, the adulteration was
with invert sugar (see Invert Sugar).
Nos. 18, 19, 20, and 21 refer to shipments
in barrels where the only mark was a
capital H enclosed in a square, but this
product had been consigned as a pure
strained honey. Examination showed it to
contain invert sugar and some glucose. The
case was not fought in court, the claiiuant
failing to answer a decree of seizure, and
condemnation was rendered by the court.

In the other cases, Nos. 3401, 2, 3, 4, and
6, evidence was introduced on each side,
with the result that the jury returned a
verdict in favor of the United States. This
being an important case, it is well to give it
with some . detail. The trial came off in
Philadelphia on November 20—25, 1913.
The product was placed on tlie market in
36- and 60-pound cans labeled " Excelsior
Choice Pure Strained Honey."

The manufacturer claimed that the mix-
ture in the cans consisted of Cuban and
buckwheat honey, and that he boiled and
strained this. It was koshered for the
purpose of selling to the Jewish trade. On
direct testimony the manufacturer stated
that the skimming was the koshering. but
on being recalled to the stand he stated that
the boiling and the straining — in fact, the
whole process, was the koshering. The
judge in his charge to the jury says on this
point: "He boils this article that is here
in question (the cans of honey), and
whether it was for the purpose of kosher-
ing it or not is not very clear in his state-
ment, because honey is cleaned by strain-
mg it, and it is heated to a certain point,
but he says he boils and skims the top off
and then strains it, and then he calls it
koshered honey." The chemist for the

manufacturer gave an analysis similar to
the Government chemists', but not as full
as theirs. The Government chemists show-
ed that no Cuban nor any buckwheat honey
ever contained less than .07 per cent ash.
(The chemist for the manufacturer also
claimed this.) The sample in question con-
tained only .028 per cent ash, hence there
could be only 40 parts of these honeys in
every 100 parts of the mixture, and the
other 60 was commercial invert sugar which
had no ash. They also showed that the
honey in question responded to all the
color tests indicative of commercial invert
sugar (the manufacturer's chemists claimed
that these color tests were produced by the
boiling of the pure honey, a point not held
by the government chemists). The govern-
ment chemists also showed that the sample
under question contained 0.08 per cent tar-
taric acid, an acid not hitherto found in
pure honey, and the acid that is used in
making commercial invert sugar (see In-
vert Sugar). It was also shown that
Cuban honey at 41/2 cts. a pound and
buckwheat honey at 7V2 cts. a pound used
in the mixture in the proportion of 80
parts Cuban to 20 parts buckwheat would
cost $5.10 a hundred pounds, while with
sugar at 6V2 cts. a pound 100 parts of in-
vert sugar would cost $4.55 a hundred
pounds. Hence a possible motive for the
use of the invert sugar.

In the course of his charge to the jury
the judge says:

" Every man, woman, and child in the
United States when hungry needs food, and
when sick needs drugs, but the individual
citizen is unable to see to it that the food
purchased or the drugs he must purchase
are pure, and the Government has taken on
itself the work of performing that for the
whole people. So that this is a contest for
pure food, for the protection of the indi-
vidual citizen who has not the facilities or
the information to protect himself, and it
is a very beneficial and commendatory act,
because we all know that impure foods are
manufactured and sold, and it is against
the manufacturer and vendor of these im-
pure foods and the manufacturer and ven-
dor of these impure drugs that this act is
aimed, and it has no terrors for the man
who manufactures or sells a pure article
and brands it what it is. Notwithstanding
the attempt to throw a very great deal of

AFTER-SWARMING

17

doubt and uncertainty over the work' of
the experts in this case, chemistry has been
brought to such a high point of efficiency
that it can be told with certainty, or, at
any rate, with that degree of certainty
which should authorize us to act, what is
contained in almost any substance you put
into the possession of the expert chemist.
They can tell whether or not honey is pure,
or whether it has some substance mixed in
it, and it may be that they cannot tell it
with the same degree of certainty that joi\
can AYork a geometrical demonstration, but
they can say, with a degree of certainty"
that should authorize us to act, in the
examination of questions which come before
courts as to whether foods or drugs of a
specific kind are pure or adulterated or

misbranded Now you will notice,

gentlemen of the jury,, that an article is
adulterated if any substance has been sub-
stituted wholly or in part for the article
It is not the dictionary definition of adul-
teration. You must take the statutory def-
inition. It makes no difference what the
article is, if any substance has been substi-
tuted wholly or in part it is an adulteration.
There is no question as to whether it is
deleterious or injimous to health; it may
or may not be; the substitution may be as
beneficial or more beneficial than the orig-
inal article. What the law aims at is to
guarantee to the consumer that when he
desires to purchase a certain article, and
goes to a manufacturer or vendor for that
article, and states what he wants, he shall
know that he gets what he pays for, ....
The evidence upon which you will have
to rely to ascertain whether it was pure or
adulterated, and, if adulterated, misbrand-
ed, is the evidence adduced upon the stand
by the experts for the Government, and
by the experts and the defendant for the
defendant."

The jury retired and returned a verdict
in favor of the United States Government.
On May 13, 1915, final judgment of con-
demnation and forfeiture was entered, the
court finding the product adulterated and
misbranded, and it was ordered that the
product should be sold by the United States
Marshal, and the owners should pay all
costs of the proceedings.

The winning of this case by the Govern-
ment has stopped much of the adulteration
of honey with commercial invert sugar.

Furthermore, since the passage and general
enforcement of federal and state pure-food
laws, honey adulteration, instead of being
common, is becoming exceedingly rare.

AFTER-SWARMING.— All swanns that
come out after the first season, or are led
out by a virgin queen, or a plurality of
them are generally termed after-swarms;
and all swarms after the first are accom-
panied by such queens. There may be
from one all the way up to a half-dozen
swarms, depending on the yield of honey,
amount of brood or larvse, and the wea-
ther ; but whatever the number, they are all
led 0&. by queens reared from one lot of
queen-cells, and the number of bees ac-
companying them is, of necessity, less each
time. The last ones frequently contain no
more than a pint of bees, and, if hived in
the old way, would be of little use under
almost any circumstances; yet when sup-
plied with combs already built and filled
with honej^, such as every enlightened api-
arist should alwaj'S keep in store, they may
develop into the very best of colonies, for
they have young and vigorous queens.

It has been said that when a colony has
decided to send out no more swarms, all
the 5'Oung queens in the hive are sent out,
or, it may be, allowed to go out with the
last one. Whether this is true or not is
uncertain; but during the swarming sea-
son, some novice writes about the wonder-
ful fact of his ha™g found three or four,
or it may be half a dozen queens in one
swarm. On one occasion, a friend, who
weighed something over 200, ascended to
the top of an apple tree during a hot July
day to hive a small third swarm. He soon
came down, in breathless haste, to inform
us that the swarm was all queens; and, in
proof of it, he brought two or three in his
closed-up hands.

Years ago after-swarming was considered
a sort of necessary e^-il that had to be tol-
erated because it could not be obviated:
but in no well-regulated apiaiy should it be
allowed. Many consider it good practice
to permit one swarm — the first one. After
that all others are restrained. Cutting out
all the queen-cells but one may have the
effect of preventing a second swarm; but
the practice is objectionable — chiefly be-
cause one cannot be sure that he destroys
all but one. If there are two cells not the
same age the occupant of one of them,

18

AGE OF BEES

when she hatches^ is likely to bring out an
after-swarm; indeed, as long" as there are
young queens to hatch, there are likely to
be after-swarms up to the number of three
or four.

But many practical honey-producers con-
sider cell-cutting for the prevention of
these little swarms as waste of time, altho
they may and do cut out cells to prevent
prime or first swarms. There are some who
deem it advisable to prevent swarming. The
plan usually adopted to prevent after-
swarms is about as follows :

The wings of all laying queens in the api-
ary should be clipped, or entrance guards
should be placed over the entrances of all
colonies having laying queens. As soon as
the first swarm comes forth, and while the
bees are in the air, the queen, if clipped, is
found in front of the entrance of the old
hive. She is caged, and the old hive is
lifted off the old stand, and an empty one
containing frames of foundation or empty
combs is put in its place. A perforated
zinc honey-board is then put on top, and
finally the supers, taken from the old
hive. The queen in her cage is placed in
front of the entrance, and the old hive is
next carried to an entirely new location.
In the mean time the swarm returns to find
the queen at the old stand; and when the
bees are well started to running into the
entrance she is released, and allowed to go
in with them. Most of the old or flying
bees that happen to be left in the old colo-
ny, now on the new location, will go back to
the old stand to strengthen further the
swarm. This will so depopulate the parent
colony that there will hardly be bees enough
left to cause any after-swarming, and the
surplus of young queens will have to fight
it out among themselves — the " survival of
the fittest " being of course, the only one
left. She will be mated in the regular way,
and the few bees with her will not, of
course, follow her. In a short time com-
paratively the old parent colony will be
strong enough for winter.

HEDDON^S METHOD.

The first swarm is allowed to come forth ;
and while it is in the air the parent colony
is removed from its stand and placed a few
inches to one side, with its entrance point-
ing at right angles to its former position.
For instance, if the old hive faced the east,

it will now look toward the north. Another
hive is placed on the old stand, filled with
frames of wired foundation. The swarm is
put in the hive on the old stand, and at the
end of two days the parent hive is turned
around so that its entrance points in the
same direction as the hive that now has the
swarm. Just as soon as young queens of
the parent colony are about to hatch, it is
carried to a new location during the mid-
dle of the day or when the bees are flying
thickest. The result is, these flying bees
will go back to the hive having the swarm.
This, like the other method described, so
depletes the parent hive that any attempt
at after-swarming is effectually forestalled.

A variation from this plan is somewhat
easier and just as good. The swarm is hived
on the old stand, and the old hive is set
close beside it, both facing the same way.
A week later, when most of the bees are out,
the old hive is removed to a new stand.
That leaves the old colony just as much
depleted as the longer way ; and the deple-
tion coming more suddenly will more thoro-
ly discourage all thought of further swarm-
ing.

AGE OF BEES.— It may be rather diffi-
cult to decide how long a worker bee would
live if kept from wearing itself out by the
active labors of the field; six months cer-
tainly, and perhaps a year ; but the average
life during the summer time is not over
three months, and perhaps during the
height of the clover bloom not over six or
eight weeks. The matter is easily deter-
mined by introducing Italian queens to
hives of black bees at different periods of
the year. If done in May or June there
will be all Italians in the fall; and if a
record is kept when the last black bees hatch
out, and the time when no black bees are
to be found in the colony, a pretty accurate
idea of the age of the blacks may be se-
cured. The Italians will perhaps hold out
under the same circumstances a half longer.
If the Italian queen be introduced in Sep-
tember in the Northern States, black bees will
be found in the hive until the month of May
following — they may disappear a little ear-
lier, or may be found a little later, depend-
ing largely upon the time they commence
to rear brood. The bees will live consider-
ably longer if no brood is reared, as has
been several times demonstrated in the case
of strong queenless colonies. It has been

ALFALFA

19

said that black bees will live longer in the
spring than Italians— probably because the
latter are more inclined to push out into
the fields when the weather is too cool for
them to do so with safety; they seldom do
this, however, unless a large amount of
brood is on hand, and they are suffering for
pollen or water.

During the summer months, the life of
the worker bee is cut short by the wearing-
out of its wings, and, at the close of a
warm day, hundreds of these heavily laden,
ragged-winged veterans will be found mak-
ing their way into the hives slowly and
painfully, as compared with the nimble and
perfect-winged young bees. If the ground
around the apiary be examined at night-
fall, numbers of these old bees may be
seen hopping about, evidently recognizing
their own inability to be of any further use
to the community. The author has repeat-
edly picked them up and placed them in
the entrance, but they usually seem bent only
on crawling and hopping off out of the way
where they can die without hindering the
teeming rising generation. During the
height of a honey flow workers probably
do not live more than six weeks.

AGE OF DRO^TES.

It is somewhat difficult to decide upon
the age of drones, because the poor fellows
are so often hustled out of the way for the
simple reason that they are no longer want-
ed (See Drones) ; but it may be assumed to
be something less than the age of a work-
er. If kept constantly in a queenless hive,
they might live for three or four months.
Occasionally some live over winter, from
September to April.

AGE OF THE QUEEN.

As the queen seldom if ever leaves the hive
except at mating and at swarming time one
would naturally expect her to live to a
good, old age, and this she does, despite
her arduous egg-laying duties. Some queens
die, seemingly of old age, the second sea-
son, but generally they live thru the sec-
ond or third, and they have been known to
lay very well even during the fourth year.
They are seldom profitable after the sec-
ond or third year, and the Italians will
sometimes have a young queen " helping "
mother before the beekeeper recognizes the

old queen as a failing one. Some good
beekeepers think it profitable requeen
yearly.

ALFALFA. {Medicago sativa L.). — Al-
falfa belong to the pulse family, or Legu-
minosae, which includes more than 5,000
species. Many of the species are very
abundant, and valuable for fodder or edi-
ble seeds or dyes, as white and yellow sweet
clover, the true clovers, sainfoin, and the
vetches, peas, beans, and lentils, and indigo.
The cassias and acacias are also placed in
this family by Gray. Alfalfa is a peren-
nial, herbaceous plant with trifoliate
leaves; violet-purple, irregular flowers in
short racemes; and spirally twisted pods,
each containing several kidney-shaped
seeds. A most important character of al-
falfa is the taproot, which may extend
downward to a depth of 15 feet, enabling

Alfiilfa blossom.

the plant to obtain food materials and
water inaccessible to other field crops. The
genus Medicago contains more than 100 spe-
cies and varieties, natives of the Caucasus

20

ALFALFA

and western Siberia, the Mediterranean re-
gion and northern Africa. One species (M.
arborea) is a shrub growing in the vicinity
of the Mediterranean Sea 10 feet tall and
producing a hard dark wood resembling
ebony. The foliage furnishes excellent
forage for cattle and sheep. In California
it is cultivated as an ornamental shrub for
its bright yellow flowers.

HISTORY.

The common alfalfa is probably of
Asiatic origin, as it has been found grow-
ing wild in Afghanistan, Persia, and the
region south of the Caucasus. In China it
has been under cultivation from a very
early date. The plant was brought into
Greece at the time of the Persian war, 470
B. C, from Media whence the scientific
name Medicago. In Italy it has been culti-
vated from about the first century, and is
well described by Virgil and Pliny. Dur-
ing the Middle Ages it received the vernacu-
lar name of lucerne from the Valley of Lu-
zerne in Piedmont, northern Italy. It was
long populaily known under this name in
Europe outside of Spain, and in eastern
North America.

This species was also very early intro-
duced in northern Africa, where it was
called alfalfa, a word of Arabic origin
signifying " the best fodder." During the
Moorish invasion it was carried into Spain,
and later was brought by the Spaniards to
Mexico and South America; and finally, in
1854, was carried from Chile to California.
It is first heard of in England about 1650.
Under the name of lucerne the early colo-
nists introduced it into eastern North
i\m.erica, where it still grows spontaneously
in fields and waste places; but the first
attempts to cultivate it proved unsuccessful.
Other common names are Spanish trefoil,
Burgundy, Brazilian, and Chilian clover. It
is also khown as purple medic from the
color of the flowers and the Latin word
medica (Media) ; and snail clover from its
twisted pods.

Other and more hardy strains have been
discovered in Siberia and northern Europe,
and brought to this country by Hansen and
other agricultural explorers. They found
alfalfa gTOwing under cultivation and also
growing wild in the extreme northern parts
of Siberia. From these high latitudes we

get a type of plant called the Hardy or
Northern Alfalfa, as distinguished from
the Soathem or Non-hardy Alfalfa.

The culture of the plant has become
established in every State in the Union and
every pro\dnce in Canada. Its claim to the
attention of beekeepers lies in its extreme
importance as a honey plant in the West.
To discuss alfalfa fi-oui the standpoint of
the beekeeper, this article will first con-
sider the nature of alfalfa honey; second,
alfalfa as bee pasturage; and, finally, con-
ditions and methods of its culture.

ALFALFA HONEY.

Most alfalfa honey has a pleasant slight-
ly minty taste. The best alfalfa honey,
thick, rich, and delicious, has proved a
favorite with the public where the honey
can be eaten before granulation commences.
Altho difficult to handle on that account,
dealers hesitate to discard so well-flavored
an article. It runs 12 to 13 pounds to the
gallon while other honeys seldom exceed 12
pounds, its thickness making it difficult to
extract.

A marked characteristic of alfalfa honey
is its tendency to granulate, especially
that from certain localities. In examining
a given lot of alfalfa honey it is impossi-
ble to say when granulation will be likely to
set in. If kept in a warm room some alfal-
fa honey will continue liquid for an en-
tire season; but, on the other hand, it may
be solid in a very few weeks. When granu-
lated it is fine and creamy ; hence it is often
retailed in the solid form in cartons. See
Granulated Honey.

As with other honeys, low temperatures,
and especially variable temperature, have
the same effect in hastening granulation,
and higher and uniform temperatures in
retarding. In tests conducted by the Bu-
reau of Chemistry, Washington, D. C, al-
falfa samples shown to be purer than the
others (that is, freer from other honeys)
granulated solid. The statement has been
made that pure alfalfa honey will scarcely
granulate at all, and that when it solidifies
early it is mixed with honey from wild
flowers. In view, however, of the uniform
granulation of samples of known purity
tested by the government, this statement
is apparently not generally true. Moreover,
t ots made by the Bureau with other honeys

ALFALFA

21

show that impure samples, those with a
high percentage of dextrose and undeter-
mined matter, do not candy readily. A
hard white lard-like solid seems to be the
ultimate state of even the best of alfalfa
honey.

The color of alfalfa honey varies from
so-called " water-white " to light amber,
according to the humidity, the season, and
the character of the soil. In localities of
little rainfall or where the soil is sandy the
color is white. In alluvial soils where the
water is close to the surface the honey is
amber and even darker after extracting.
To the percentage of water in the honey
itself is largely due directly the shade of
color, as shown in the government tests
alluded to above. Parts of California and
Arizona produce a darker alfalfa honey.
Alfalfa honey from Inyo County, Calif.,
east of the Sierra Nevadas, and from coun-
tiy around Reno, Nev., both very dry re-
gions, is water-white. Imperial County,
Calif., and Yuma County, Ariz., yield a
darker honey. Usually honey from the
second and third crops of alfalfa is lighter
in color than that from the first crop, the
reason, of course, being the greater amount
of water present in the plants at the open-
ing of the season.

The content of nitrogen, protein, dex-
trine, and undetermined matter in alfalfa
honey is low. Conversely, the sucrose con-
tent is higher than in most other honeys.
Ste Honey.

BEE PASTXJEAGE.

The striking and beautiful appearance
displayed by the gTeat fields of alfalfa in
the West, when in bloom, can hardly be
realized by one who has not seen them.
The lilac-purple flowers present a mass of
color which is measured, not by the acre
but by the square mile. Such a landscape
of pui^ple coloring can be found nowhere
else in the world. One may ride for miles
and miles thru fields of alfalfa stretching
awaj' on either side as far as the eye can
reach. While alfalfa is culti^'ated in every
State in this country, the largest acreage
is found in California, Utah, Idaho, Colo-
rado, Kansas, and Nebraska. Large areas
are also devoted to its culture in Nevada,
Oregon, Montana, Arizona, and New Mex-
ico.

Alfalfa is the most important honey
plant west of the Mississippi River; but
it yields nectar freely only in certain sec-
tions. It is very reliable as a source of
honey in the San Joaquin, Imperial, and
Sacramento Valleys in California; in
northern and central Utah ; in Colorado, es-
pecially in the north-central portion, and
in the south-central part of Arizona, and
of less value in Idaho and Nevada. The
largest surplus of honey is obtained from
alfalfa in arid and semiarid districts
where irrigation is practiced. Conditions
which favor a large seed crop will also
produce a large yield of honey. But irri-
gation alone does not ensure a bountiful
flow of nectar; for in Nebraska, from
North Platte to Kearney, there are great
fields of alfalfa which are dependent on ir-
rigation, but which are the source of but
very little honey. Unless there are also
proper soil and climatic conditions it is
valueless as a honey plant. It is in the
valleys and on the slopes both east and
west of the gTeat continental divide that al-
falfa is most dependable. Usually at a
greater distance than 100 miles from the
mountains the crop is uncertain.

The largest surplus of alfalfa honey is
obtained dm^ing very warm seasons. With
ample moisture in the soil, a succession of
hot days with little wind will cause an as-
tonishing flow of nectar. Fields which are
allowed to go to seed will yield nectar
abundantly for weeks. In a given acreage
there is no plant, unless it is basswood,
tupelo, or log-wood, that will support so
many colonies. In several localities in
Colorado within a radius of five miles
there are from 2,000 to 7,000 colonies of
bees — a larger number, probably, than can
be found elsewhere in an equal area in the
world. So many beekeepers, indeed, have
rushed to the great alfalfa-gTOwing regions
that often the apiaries are located very
closely, or from half a mile to a mile apart,
so that frequently it is not profitable for
a yard to contain more than 100 or 150 colo-
nies. Other localities will support from
200 to 300 colonies in a single apiary. In
Colorado most of the honey is obtained
from the first and second crops. Honey
from the third crop is stored not once in
10 years, owing to the cold nights. But oc-
casionally there is warmer weather during

22

ALFALFA

the last of August, and much additional
honey is then brought in by the bees.

The supply of nectar is also affected by
altitude. In the San Luis Valley, Colo., at
an altitude of 7,000 to 8,000 feet alfalfa
grows well, but bee culture receives little
attention. In the upper Arkansas Valley
around Salida, Col., there are also large
fields of alfalfa, but the apiaries are
small; and the same is true of the lower
end of the valley from Pueblo to the Kan-
sas line. The high altitude affects the
temperature, which in turn checks the flow
of nectar. The nights are often cold and
frosty, and in the higher valleys the days
are never as warm as on the lower lands.

In parts of Colorado alfalfa does not
secrete nectar as abundantly as formerly.
In the Fort Morgan district the bees do
not store the surplus honey they did 15
years ago, and most of the colonies have
been sold or are for sale. The lower part
of the Arkansas Valley in Colorado has
also become less suitable for bee culture.
This lessened honey production is due to
the more general cultivation of other crops,
to the increase of insect pests, and to the
exhaustion of the soil preventing alfalfa
from making the luxuriant growth of for-
mer times.

In California, according to Richter, al-
falfa yields nectar in most of the valleys,
but is of no value along the coast. In dry
seasons, when drouth causes the sages to
wither on the Coast Range, alfalfa becomes
the chief dependence of the beekeeper. In
the San Joaquin Valley the second and
third crops of alfalfa are the source of
most of the honey, while the first and last
crops secrete little nectar. Honey from al-
falfa growing on well-drained sandy soils
is water-white, while that from heavier
soils is more or less amber-colored.

A few years ago many alfalfa ranges
were largely used for grazing, and made
valuable apiary sites; but these have dis-
appeared as general farming and fruit-
growing have developed. Where alfalfa is
cut for hay (the usual purpose of its
growth) the beekeeper can secure only a
part, and often only a very small part, of
the nectar. There has been much diversity
of opinion as to the best time for cutting
alfalfa; but the general practice is to cut
in early bloom, or when the new basal
shoots which produce the succeeding crop

are just starting, while a few advocate
waiting until the plants are in full bloom.
Where alfalfa is cut at the beginning of
bloom it is of but little value to the bee-
keeper; and it is, therefore, desirable to
locate in sections where seed is raised.
Such fields yield nectar in great abundance
for several weeks. Other causes injurious
to the honey flow from alfalfa are freezing
weather in late spring, too much water,
the alfalfa butterfly, a multitude of thrips
(more than 40 of these little insects are
sometimes found in a single flower), and
other insect pests.

Wliile alfalfa is extensively grown in
Oklahoma and Kansas, comparatively little
honey is obtained from this source in these
States. Heavy yields of alfalfa honey in
Kansas are obtained chiefly on lands in the
river bottoms and in the western part of
the State. On higher land nectar is gained
only after refreshing showers. In the
country immediately surrounding Topeka it
is only occasionally that bees work on the
bloom. An old resident of that State
says that a neighbor of his has fields of
alfalfa 18 years old, but that he has never
seen a bee on the bloom nor a pound of
alfalfa honey produced in the eastern part
of Kansas, altho he has lived there 35
years.

In Nebraska alfalfa is likewise of varia-
ble value as a honey plant. A beekeeper
eight miles north of the south State line
says that within one and a half miles of
his apiary there are over 350 acres of al-
falfa grown without irrigation, and that it
is the main source of honey in that section.
The surplus is obtained chiefly from the
second crop of bloom, which opens in July.
Suflicient rain in May will cause a vigorous
growth of the plant, and ensure a bounti-
ful supply of nectar; but excessive rain
during the period of bloom is injurious.
But there are large areas of irrigated alfal-
fa along the North Platte River which re-
ceive but little attention from bees; and in
general thruout the State it is of uncertain
value as a honey plant.

East of the Mississippi River alfalfa
rarely secretes nectar, altho the acreage is
very large and has rapidly increased dur-
ing the last dozen years. But in Pennsyl-
vania ; Camillus, N. Y., and Peru, Ind., bees
have been reported as gathering nectar
from alfalfa bloom. At Peru it was esti-

ALFALFA

23

i

THE CELEBRATED ALFALFA PLANT AND ROOT.

The plant represented in this plate grew in rich, loose soil, with a heavy clay subsoil and an abundant
supply of water, the water level ranging from 4 to 8 feet from the surface at different seasons of the year.
The diameter at the top was 18 inches, and the number of stems 360. The plate shows how these crowns
gather soil around them, for the length of the underground stems is seen to be several inches, and this represents
the accumulation of nearly this much material about it.

This is one of the largest plants that I have yet found. The specimen, as photographed, was dug April
30, 1896. — Dr. Ileadden, in Bulletin No. 35 "Alfalfa/'

mated that there were about 10 bees to a regions where the ground can be irrigated,
square rod. But, in general, alfalfa is a The secretion of nectar seems peculiarly
good honey plant only in arid and semiarid sensitive to atmospheric changes.

24

ALFALFA

THE CULTIVATION OF ALFALFA. .

When the conditions for its growth are
favorable, alfalfa is a sturdy plant, and,
unlike its near relative, sweet clover, v^^hicli
is a biennial, it is a perennial. Some fields
have been reported half a century old.
While it draws on 'the fertility of the soil
it keeps the ground well supplied with
nitrogen for the use of later crops. Its
ability to survive dry periods, which would
kill other plants except sweet clover, adapts
it to arid and semiarid regions. Nothing
is superior to it as a forage crop. Not only
is the food value high, but crop after crop
can be taken off in a single season.

While alfalfa is better adapted to all
parts of the United States than was gen-
erally imagined, the varieties thrive best
where there is plenty of hot sunshine and
deep, rich soils, and they make their richest
growth in the hottest weather. To the
entire range of elevation in this country, it
seems to be equally adapted. One can find
a Southern variety flourishing in the Im-
perial Valley, 100 feet below sea level, and
in the San Luis Valley, 7,500 feet above. In
Colorado, the Grimm, the Baltic, and the
Hardy Turkestan grow in altitudes higher
than 8,000 feet. While alfalfa has been
most extensively planted in the West, par-
ticularly in the regions opened to cultiva-
tion by irrigation projects, its culture has
been found highly profitable of late years
in the older soils of the East, in places
where its habits are understood. It does
almost equally well in the hilly and gravelly
land of New England, and the clay and
loam of the corn belt.

Most pronounced advantages of its culti-
vation have been observed in alkaline soils
in the West. Here the long taproot, pierc-
ing layers of subsoil to a depth of 10 to
20 feet, leaves millions of openings for air
and moisture and brings up stores of plant
food to enrich the soil; the roots them-
selves when they decay furnish a heavy
store of nitrogen. Naturally rich in pot-
ash, lime, and phosphate, the soils lack the
nitrogen and organic matter, both of which
are liberally supplied by the growth of al-
falfa. The same is also true of sweet
clover. See Sweet Clover.

WELL-DRAINED, WELL-LIMED, FERTILE SOIL.

On the other hand, wide as the i-ange of
alfalfa seems to be, there are some distinct

conditions which much be met before its
cultivation can be successful. It demands
well-drained land, a sweet fertile soil, the
right kind of bacteria in the soil, and
freedom from weeds. To get a successful
stand, a firm, fine, seed bed is necessary.
After this it demands little attention. In
general any soil that grows corn or red
clover successfully will grow alfalfa.

Wet and soggy land, land where the
ground water stands within three or four
feet of the surface, or where water stands
half a day at a time, are not suitable. In
springy, seepy soil in the northern parts of
the country, the alternate freezing and
thawing heaves out the plant and complete-
ly destroys the . stand. In this respect a
sandy loam is a little better than a clay
loam. Properly drained soil is again, neces-
sary on account of the great depth to which
the taproot plunges. The roots must get
nitrogen from the air, but they cannot do
this if surrounded by water. The plant
cannot take nitrogen in any other way than
thru the roots; in fact, alfalfa needs more
thoro drainage than any other crop. Not
only must the soil be well drained, but a
second and equally important essential is.
that it be free from acidity and even halve
an alkaline reaction. Alfalfa does not do
well on an acid soil. In the East especial-
ly, where very few soils are not acid, it is
necessary to sweeten very heavily with lime.
Alfalfa requires more lime than any other
forage crop. It demands not only a neutral
soil but one with an excess of lime for its
own use.

Before sowing alfalfa one should be sure
of the state of the soil in this respect. One
good way is to wrap a moist piece of earth
in blue litmus paper; if the paper shows a
tendency to redden, the soil is doubtless
badly in need of lime. This may be applied
in two ways: either the ground unburned
limestone (carbonate of lime), two to four
tons to the acre ; or burned lime, one or two
tons. See Clover. Since the lime stays
where it is put, thoroly harrow it in. Often
it is well to apply the lime the year before
putting in alfalfa, say with corn or pota-
toes.

Alfalfa will thrive only in soils which are
rich in lime. An acid soil is destructive to
the bacteria. Humus can not be formed
from decaying organic matter without lime.

ALFALFA

25

rt pi'events the loss of the nitrogen in the
soil thru the leaching of rains ; in fact, car-
bonate of lime seems to be the foundation
of fertility itself.

Except in the wonderfully rich land of
the West, one's treatment of the soil can
not stop here. While alfalfa has been much
pi-aised as a restorer of fertility, it is never-
theless true that it makes heavy drafts
upon the phosphate and potash in the soil.
As with lime, when these are not present
they must be supplied. Unlike sweet clover,
it requires a fertile soil to start with. On
worn-out fields, phosphorus should be sup-
plied; 400 to 600 pounds of steamed bone
meal to the acre or natural rock phosphate
mixed with manure has been recommended.
Plenty of well-rotted stable manure should
be given, or, lacking that, cow peas, crim-
son clover, and soy beans can be planted
for green manure. When potash may be
lacking in the soil, wood ashes or commer-
cial potash may be applied. Summing up,
it is more important, as the late J. E. Wing
pointed out in his book on alfalfa, to fill
the soil with plant food than to get the
seed bed right.

SOIL INOCULATION.

A third essential for successful alfalfa
cultivation is that the right kind of bacteria
be present in the soil. Only in compara-
tively recent years has this been understood.
Minute vegetable organisms inhabit' the
small pale nodules which can be seen with
the naked eye about the roots of the plant ;
their function is to gather nitrogen from
the air and convert it into a form in which
it can be assimilated by the plant. If the
soil is wet or acid, they will not thrive.
Where they are not present in the soil al-
ready, they have to be put there. This pi-o-
cess, known as inoculation, is universally
demanded where alfalfa and sweet clover
have not been grown before.

One of the two or three satisfactory
methods of inoculation is the soil-transfer.
Soil should be gathered from a field in
which alfalfa has been grown before or
from about the roots of sweet clover (the
sweet clover and alfalfa bacteria are iden-
tical), then pulverized and screened thoro-
ly, mixed with the alfalfa seed, and sown
300 to 400 pounds to the acre. Since the
sun's rays are fatal to these germs, the
mixing should be done in the shade and the

sowing in the evening or on a cloudy day.
If the earth is broadcasted it should be
harrowed in immediately. A smaller quan-
tity of earth is required by wetting the
seed with water in which enough glue has
been dissolved to make the water sticky ;
the seed should be mixed with fine earth
from another field.

The Department of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, D. C, sends out pure cultures of
the bacteria in tubes, making inoculation
convenient where soil is not readily obtain-
ed; Simply follow directions.

In the humid regions of the country,
weeds are very troublesome, in many local-
ities being the worst enemy of alfalfa. If
the soil is fertile, has been well limed, and

Method of stacking alfalfa hay.

has been placed in proper condition before
the alfalfa is sown, little need be feared
from weeds. After alfalfa once gets a
start it can kill out most of tlie weeds
naturally. A clean field can usually be se-
cured by preceding alfalfa with some clean
cultivation crop. By seeding in the late
summer the alfalfa plants by spring will
have the start of the weeds. If weeds
threaten to injure an old stand, their stalks

26

ALFALFA

An alfalfa haystack on a 5,000-acre farm assumes enormous proportions.

can sometimes be burned out in the spring
before the alfalfa starts.

Dodder is one of a few weeds to be
feared. Especial care should be taken to
get seed free from dodder. The stems come
up with the alfalfa, twine around it, and
finally wither away. From that time until
the death of both plants the dodder lives
parasitically on the juices of the alfalfa.
Therefore if dodder makes its appearance
in a field of alfalfa and becomes well es-
tablished, the alfalfa should be rooted out
using the field for some other crop
for several years. Wild barley often ruins
the first crop in irrigated regions of the
West. Quack or couch grass, Kentucky
blue grass, and foxtail grass are weeds
dangerous in other regions.

PUTTING IN THE SEED.

A great many facts have been collected
on seeding alfalfa, not all of which apply
to a particular locality by any means, nor
even agree with one another in some cases.
The time of sowing varies widely between
one part of the country and another. Mid-
summer sowing is probably most popular
in the North and East. If the seed is put
in between June and the first of September,
the young plants are usually strong enough
to resist winterkilling. Some advise spring
sowing — tlie last of May and early June,

but this is not best where weeds are likely
to disturb the young plants. In the hot
irrigated portions seed may be sown any
time between April and August. Fall seed-
ing is most common — September, October,
or November.

Early-maturing crops do well to precede
alfalfa. The clean culture of potatoes and
garden truck rids the land of weeds, aerates
the soil, and makes an introductory appli-
cation of nitrogen unnecessary. Corn in
the North and cotton in the South are both
suitable. A crop of crimson clover cut for
hay builds up the soil and gives plenty of
time to get the land ready for alfalfa.

Too much care can hardly be given to the
selection of seed. Not only thru careless-
ness in this respect do weeds get their
foothold, but failure often comes from
adulterated seed or seed of poor quality.
The average quality of alfalfa seed in the
market is low. A considerable quantity of
dead seed has been sold and it is sometimes
adulterated with trefoil. In every case be-
fore buying, samples should be tested for
germination, either by a home testing-plate
or sending to the seed laboratory of the
Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C, which does this testing free of
charge, A home test should show a ger-
mination of at least 95 per cent. If the ger-

ALFALFA

27

mination is low, a larger quantity should be
sown than if the germination is high.

Seed grown in the Northern States may
be planted with success in the Southern,
but the reverse is not true. It is always
well to get seed grown in the same latitude
in which it is to be sown. While ordinary
alfalfa is very satisfactory, certain kinds
have local advantages. Superior resistance
to the cold, as well as greater tonnage to
the acre, is claimed for the Grimm alfalfa
and the commercial sand lucerne. The Bal-
tic has also been found a superior strain.

It is necessary to plow deeply for alfalfa.
The roots need all the moisture they can
get, and the ground should be thoroly stir-
red up, so that air can penetrate to the
nodules. The seed bed should be fine on
top, but thoroly settled ; for this reason it is
well to let the land rest for six weeks after
plowing, and then to give it a light disking.
If plowing is done on hot days, it should be
followed immediately with a harrow to
break up clods before they harden. Then
the soil should be pulverized with a drag,
disk, and smoothing harrow. For spring
sowing it is not so necessary to have a per-
fect seed bed; the plants have a long start
by winter.

Seeding alfalfa in irrigated regions re-
quires an entirely different procedure. In-
oculation is unnecessary; so is fertilizer.
It is well to level the land, plow deeply,
follow with the disk and haiTOw imme-
diately, and let stand a month. It is advis-
able to irrigate before and after seeding,
and to irrigate again if the young plants
seem to be suffering for lack of water.
They should be watered after each cutting.
Upon the irrigation of alfalfa Mr. Kezer
of the Colorado Experiment Station writes
as follows:

Different soils, different climates, and dif-
ferent sources of water supply would all be
causes of different methods. In some sec-
tions it is necessary to irrigate two or three
times for each cutting; in other sections, one
irrigation to the cutting is suflS^cient, in
which case the best practice is to irrigate a
week or ten days prior to the cutting or the
expected time of cutting, and then cut as
soon as the ground is settled enough to bear
the weight of the haying machinery. This
water puts the soil in good condition for the
succeeding crop and causes it to start for-
ward more quickly and more vigorously. Ir-
rigation practice varies quite widely and
must vary quite widely because of the diver-
sity of conditions. A complete statement

covering the most of the known conditions
would require several pages. Suffice it to
say, that in some regions best results are
obtained by a flooding method, in others by
a furrow method, and in some regions the
basin methods give the best results. Climat-
ic and soil conditions chiefly govern.

The amount of seed to the acre likewise
varies with the locality. For honey produc-
tion in the West 10 pounds gives a good
stand; in the Atlantic and Southern States,
24 to 28 pounds ; between the Appalachian
Mountains and the Mississippi, slightly less
than this. Wing estimates 15 to 20 pounds
under ordinary circumstances and with or-
dinary soils. One plant to the square foot
is enough under the best of conditions, but
they must stand more thickly as a rule.
Since more come up than can exist, only
the strongest plants survive.

Alfalfa may be sown either broadcast or
with a wheelbarrow seeder or a drill. Broad-
casting requires more seed than drilling,
and must be followed with a harrow or
some other implement to cover the seed
almost an inch deep. In arid lands it is
covered about an inch and a half. In drill-
ing it is advisable to sow across field in one
direction and then at right angles. No
further treatment need be given the rest of
the year except for the appearance of dod-
der. Wagons and stock should be carefully
kept off the field.

After seeding in the late summer, the
stand will usually be eight or ten inches
high by fall. With the spring sowing a
clipping may need to be given in the late
summer, but no hay can be taken off until
the next season. Should the plants show a
lack of vitality or trace of disease, cutting
them will often prove salutary, and in the
East a top dressing of nitrate of soda is
effective. In a great portion of the West
this would not be beneficial. If weeds are
troublesome, the field may be disked with
the disks set upright. This hinders the
growth of weed and gTass and lets air and
water into the soil.

Alfalfa is seldom successful with a nurse
crop except in irrigated land, for the reason
that the nurse crop often chokes out the
young plants just as Aveeds do. Barley
gTOwn for hay, and hay only, can be made
a success with spring sowing of alfalfa, and
gives a larger return to the acre, but to let
it grow until it is ready to harvest as grain
seriously injures the forage stand. In irri-

28

ALFALFA

AVERAGE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF ALFALFA AND OTHER FORAGE CROPS.*

Kind of forage o

Number
f analj-

&es.

W

Iter

Ash

Protein

Crude
fiber

Nitrogen

free
extract

Ether
extract
(fat)

23

71

8%

2.7%

4.8%

7.4%

12.3%

1.0%

Fresh clover

43

70

8

2.1

4.4

8.1

13.5

1.1

21

8

4

7.4

14.3

25.0

42.7

2.2

Clover hay

38

15

3

6.2

12.3

24.8

38.1

3.3

68

13

2

4.4

5.9

29.0

45.0

2.5

8

10

7

7.5

16.6

20.1

42.2

2.2

gated sections with good water rights, alfal-
fa is usually successful with a nurse crop,
altho more vigorous growth can usually be
obtained without it. Mixtures of alfalfa
with certain of the grasses are successful,
the grasses being seemingly more vigorous
than when alone, and the alfalfa almost as
good.

ALFALFA AS HAY.

Alfalfa is one of the most palatable and
highly nutritious of all forage crops, either
green or as hay. One estimate gives alfalfa
hay slightly more than double the food
value of timothy. Ko other forage crop is
so rich in digestible protein. Wlieat bran
which runs $25 to $30 a ton is about as
rich, tho more easily fed. While protein is
hard to get and expensive, it is the one
thing absolutely necessary for the produc-
tion of stock or milk. While dairymen are
bankrupting themselves buying bran and
cottonseed meal to get this necessary pro-
tein, they could feed just as much and make
enormous saving by growing alfalfa on
their own farms. Alfalfa has three times
as much protein as corn, but in fat and
carbohydrates is decidedly inferior.

The Diarket price of alfalfa hay is gov-
erned simply by supply and demand. The
number of cuttings which may be made in
one season has been as high as eight and
even nine in the Southwest. In favorable
years in the North three are possible, but
two are most common in the eastern part
of the country. Thirty or forty days of
hot weather are usually all that are neces-
sary to mature a crop. A good yield
amounts to two tons to the acre.

CUTTING BEFORE IT BLOOMS.

Shall the farmer cut the alfalfa before
it comes to bloom, or while it is in bloom,
or wait until the blossoms are all gone?
This is a matter of decided concern to the
beekeeper, since his crop of honey depends

upon it. If the stand is mown before
bloom, tlie bees get no nectar at all, and
the beekeeper may find his colonies starving
in the midst of miles of alfalfa.

The old rule with alfalfa-growers was to
cut for hay when the stand was about one-
tenth in blosson. Arizona growers claimed
that the alfalfa is richer for milk produc-
tion at that time than at any other, but for
horses and mules it is more nourishing if
cut in full bloom. The Utah Experiment
Station after a series of investigations
reached this conclusion : " To insure a
large yield of dry matter and the largest
amount of albuminoids, lucerne should be
cut not earlier than the period of medium
bloom, and not much later than the first
full flower. . . . . It is a more serious
matter to cut too early than to cut too late."
On the same point the national bulletin
says : " The general rule is to cut alfalfa
just as it is coming into bloom. Feeding
experiments show that the feeding value is
highest when alfalfa is cut in early bloom."

Of late years a new rule has taken the
place of the old. Authorities now advise
alfalfa-growers to mow when the shoots of
the new growth at the base of the plant are
just showing. In Ohio tiiis comes about
June 1. When the shoots appear it is time
to cut immediately. If this is done too soon
the second growth is retarded ; if too late a
great many of the leaves are lost, and in
them lies much of the food value. Danger
of winterkilling is also increased. The net
result so far as tlie beekeeper is concerned
is often more favorable under the new plan.

Another fact to his advantage is the
habit of men, whatever the rule, of being-
just a little late. In some places the prac-
tice is to cut while the fields are well into
bloom. The growers fear that if cut too
early it will cause bloat in cattle, and is
likely to powder in curing. The state of

* In part from Henry's " Feeds and Feeding,"
appendix.

ALFALFA

29

growth at which to mow the alfalfa also
varies between one crop and another: the
third cutting is often made when the plants
are in full flower.

Immediately after cutting, fields look
brown and bare for the first few houi^s, but
the plants soon rally, and are flourishing
again in a surprisingly short time. The
field should not be disturbed until the time
for the second cutting.

Making hay with alfalfa in the West is
a struggle to get it stacked before the leaves
dry so much that they drop off. In the
East is a similar struggle to get it cured be-
tween showers. On the ranches the fann-
ers harvest a green hay which is practically
impossible to get in humid regions. It is
esteemed highly as horse feed, altho for
cows a brown hay is quite as good. Stacks
of this gTeen hay keep their color indefi-
nitely. To the Easterner it is surprising to
cut into a stack and find the interior as
green as the field itself.

Curing in windrows is better than in the
swath. The hay is raked the same day it
is cut, and as soon as cured is cocked and
stacked, or baled directly from the cocks.
The tedder is of little value since it shatters
the leaves too much. Most of the protein is
contained in the leaves, which are somewhat
richer than bran. Where showers are fre-
quent, the alfalfa should be raked into
windrows soon after being cut, in order to
avoid damage by rains. Special alfalfa
rakes are on the market. Of the ordinary
machinery the side-delivery rake is very
useful. If the hay is put into the barn too
green, it may ignite.

ALFALFA AS PASTURE AND SOILING ; SEED
PRODUCTION.

Alfalfa pastures, while not uncommon,
must be grazed sparingly if a good stand
of the plants is to be maintained. Fields
should never be used for this purpose the
first season or two. Horses and sheep gxaze
more closely than cattle do, and are there-
fore more destructive to the stand. Hogs
on alfalfa pasturage should be ringed. In
the autumn stock should be taken ofl in
order to give the plants a start for winter.
The tendency of cattle and sheep to bloat
when turned on an alfalfa field can be
overcome, it has been suggested, by feed-
ing before turning them in, and then keep-
ing them on the pasture all the time, altho

there are few places east of the Rocky
Mountains where either sheep or cattle can
be pastured on alfalfa with safety, except
when the plants are in a dormant state.
In the West are great alfalfa ranches for
horses, cattle, and even ostriches.

Alfalfa land will support three times as
many animals by soiling as by pastuiing.
Let the crop mature and then cany it to
them. A better way even is to combine
both pasturing and soiling — feed the ani-
mals with alfalfa, then give them access to
the pastiu'e. Alfalfa makes silage if prop-
erly handled, but the silage is inferior to
corn, kafir, f eterita, milo, or sorghum.

In the arid regions of the coimtiy where
seed can be grown, there are gi-eat opportu-
nities for profit. Seed now brings 10 to
$12 a bushel, but the culture would be
worth while with seed at half that price.
.The crop which matures in the driest season
is always the one saved. A thin stand is
necessary; for best results the plants are
set in long rows about 20 inches apart and
cultivated just as corn. East of the Mis-
sissippi very little seed has been produced.

POLLINATION.

The form of the flower is papilionaceous,
or butterfly-shaped, bearing a general re-
semblance to the flower of the garden pea.
The manner of pollination is of great inter-
est both to beekeepers and seed-gTOwers.
The flowers are known as explosive flowers.
The anthers and stigma are held in the keel
under elastic tension, which resides in the
staminal column formed by the imion of
the filaments of 9 of the 10 stamens. When
a bee presses down the wings and keel, says
Burkill, it pulls two triggers and fires off
the flower, that is, the two processes which
restrain the staminal column in the carina
separate, and permit the stamens and pistil
to fly forcibly upward, bringing the pollen
in contact with the under side of the bee's
body. A slight clicking soimd may some-
times be heard when the stigma strikes
against the standard, and a little cloud of
pollen is visible. The stigma stands a little
in advance of the anthers, and strikes the
pollen-brush of the bee first; if the latter is
covered with pollen from another fiower,
previously visited, cross-pollination is ef-
fected. Both of these organs then move
upward against the erect petal called the
standard, where they are out of the way.

30

ALFALFA

and do not again come in contact with in-
sects. A single normal visit is sufficient to
effect pollination, and all subsequent visits
are useless. After the flowers have been
exploded, or " tripped," they still continue,
however, to secrete nectar and receive in-
sect visits. This is clearly an imperfection,
since the attraction of visitors is no longer
an advantage.

In different seasons and different local-
ities there is a wide difference in the quan-
tity of seed produced by alfalfa. In the
Milk River Valley of Montana a yield of
from 10 to 12 bushels per acre has been
obtained in favorable years, while in others
it was almost a complete failure. Contra-
dictory assertions have been repeatedly
made by various observers that the flowers
are self -fertile or self-sterile in the ab-
sence of insects. For the purpose of set-
tling this question definitely, numerous ex-
periments were conducted by Piper and his
assistants, the results of which were pub-
lished by the Bureau of Plant Industry in
1914.

More than 24 species of wild bees, be-
sides many butterflies, flies, and beeth^s,
have been observed on the flowers; but
many of these are useless as pollinators.
In localities where alfalfa is nectarless it is
almost entirely ignored by honeybees, but
where it secretes nectar freely they are
attracted in great numbers. Usually they
obtain the nectar thru a hole in the side of
the flower without tripping it. Out of 500
visits observed by Westgate a flower was
tripped in only one instance. In California,
according to McKee, few flowers are trip-
ped by honeybees; but in England, Burkill
saw them tripping the flowers in great
numbers. Even if an individual honeybee
tripped a flower only occasionally, the ag-
gregate exploded in a day over a large area
of alfalfa would be large. In Colorado
and western Kansas, where bee culture has
been greatly developed in recent years, it
is claimed that the alfalfa seed crop in
fields near apiaries is much heavier and of
better quality than that of fields a few
miles away. In the former fields the amount
of seed was at least 50 per cent greater
than in those which were remote from colo-
nies of bees. Bumblebees are more im-
portant than honeybees, and trip the flow-
ers frequently — in Washington and Mon-
tana about 30 per cent of the flowers visit-

ed. But the leaf -cutting bees (MegacJiile)
are the most efficient pollinators. M. lati-
manus trips 9 out of every 10 flowers visit-
ed, and three of these bees were observed to
trip flowers at the rate of 552 per hour.
Butterflies are common visitors, especially
in California, where the alfalfa butterfly
{Eurymus eurytheme) is abundant; but
they obtain the nectar thru the oriflce in
the side of the flower without depressing
the carina. In South America small birds
called honey-suckers visit the flower for
nectar. Pollination by the wind does not
occur.

Untripped flowers seldom produce seed,
but in the absence of insects a large per-
centage may explode automatically. At
Chinook, Montana, 33 out of 57 marked
flowers on one plant became self -tripped,
and set 21 pods; and on a second plant 36
flowers out of 64 tripped automatically,
and produced 16 pods. In the first case
63 per cent of the self -pollinated flowers
produced pods, and in the second 44 per
cent. In rare instances flowers develop
pods without tripping. Variability in self-
tripping is strongly influenced by climatic
factors, as temperature, humidity, and
bright sunshine. A single alfalfa plant
was screened from insects for 10 days or
longer until it was in full bloom. The
screen was then removed for 15 minutes on
a very warm clear day. The flowers quick-
ly began exploding with a snapping sound,
at times three or four being heard simul-
taneously. It was estimated that more than
one-half of the flowers were self-tripped
before the screen was replaced. In the
West, automatic self -tripping probably re-
sults in the production of as many pods as
insect pollination. This observation is im-
portant since it explains the production of
a large crop of seed in the absence of in-
sects.

A series of experiments was conducted
to test the comparative effects of self-pol-
lination and cross-pollination of alfalfa
flowers. Nine thousand and seventy-four
flowers were artificially tripped, and con-
sequently self-pollinated, and set 2,784
pods. The different plants on which the
flowers were thus self-pollinated varied
greatly in the production of pods, 68 per
cent of the flowers in one instance setting
pods, while others yielded none. Pollina-
tion from a different flower on the same

ANATOMY OF THE BEE

31

plant is of little advantage over self-polli-
nation. Five hundred and thirteen self-
pollinated flowers set 165 pods, or 32 per
cent; while 437 flowers pollinated from
another flower on the same plant set 134
pods, or 30 per cent. When 446 flowers
were each cross-pollinated with pollen from
another plant 206 pods were produced, or
46 per cent. The average number of seeds
per pod of the self -pollinated flowers was
1.4; of the flowers pollinated from anucher
flower on the same plant, 2.02; and of the
cross-pollinated flowers 2.38. Cross-pol-
lination is, therefore, more potent than
self-pollination, and consequently pollina-
tion by insects is an advantage.

It is now well established that the pro-
duction of seed is greatly influenced by
climate; and practical experience has shown
that it can be raised in paying quantities
only in those States Avhich possess a hot,
dry season. Too much moisture is injuri-
ous, and consequently the eastern portion
of the country with its larger rainfall is
not well adapted for this purpose ; while in
the irrigated sections one irrigation is usu-
ally omitted. It is of interest to beekeepers
to know that most of the seed is raised in
Arizona, California, Utah, Colorado, Kan-
sas, and Idaho. The best results are obtained
with a thin stand of alfalfa, or where it is
cultivated in rows. The domestic supply is
far below the demand, and millions of
pounds are annually imported.

AUTHORITIES.

While certain general principles can be
laid down regarding alfalfa for all parts of
the United States, it has not been possible
in this article to go into those local details
with which the well-informed grower should
be familiar. Any one interested in the
plant should first find out what his state
experiment station has published on alfal-
fa-growing in his locality. The literature is
thoro and comprehensive.

The best work on the subject is J. E.
Wing's "Alfalfa in America" (1912). A
somewhat more extensive work is F. D.
Coburn's "The Book of Alfalfa" (1906).
The Department of Agriculture, Washing-
ton, publishes Farmers' Bulletin No. 339,
entitled " Alfalfa," by J. M. Westgate. Of
the various publications by state experi-
ment stations, those by the Colorado, Illi-

nois, Utah, and Kentucky stations are espe-
cially valuable. All of the works cited
were used in the preparation of this article.
Grateful acknowledgment is made to Mr.
Alvin Kezer, Chief Agronomist at the Col-
orado State Experiment Station, for read-
ing the manuscript and making suggestions.

ALFILERILLA {Er odium cicutarium
(L.) L'Her). — Alfilerilla is derived from
the Spanish word for pin, also known as
alfllaria, pin-clover, musk clover, storksbill,
heron's bill, and pin-grass. The fruit re-
sembles a heron's bill, whence the name of
the genus Er odium, the Greek for heron.
Naturalized from Europe, and widely dis-
tributed; one of the leading honey and
pollen yielders of California and Arizona.
It is regarded as an excellent forage plant
by stockmen, quite equal in feeding value
to alfalfa, and probably more palatable,
because much less woody in character. An
analysis by the chemist of the Arizona Ex-
periment Station shows it is quite equal to
any clover for feeding. It is being rapidly
spread by sheep and cattle in the extreme
Southwest, for it is easily disseminated,
and requires no particular cultivation. In
this respect it resembles sweet clover; but
animals do not have to be educated to eat-
ing it ; on the contrary they are fond of it
from the start. As a honey and pollen
plant it ranks very high, both as regards
quantity and qualitj''.

ALGARROBA.— See Mesquite.
ALSIKE CLOVER.— See Clover.

AMATEUR BEEKEEPING. — See

Backlot Beekeeping; also A B C of Bee-
keeping.

ANALYSIS OF HONEY.— See Honey
AND Honey Analysis.

ANATOMY OF THE BEE.— The three
parts of the body of the bees are well sepa-
rated by constrictions. The head carries
the eyes, antennae, and mouth parts; the
thorax, the wings and legs; and the abdo-
men, the wax-glands and sting.

The head is flattened and triangular, be-
ing widest crosswise thru the upper corners,
which are capped by the large compound
eyes. It carries the antennae, or feelers, on
the middle of the face (Fig. 2, A, Ant) ;
the large compound eyes (E) laterally;

ANATOMY OF THE BEE

33

three small simple eyes or ocelli {0), at the
top of the face, and the mouth parts [Md,
Mx, and Lh) ventrally. Each antenna con-
sists of a long basal joint and of a series of
small ones hanging downward from the end
of the first. The antennae are very sensitive
to touch, and contain the organs of smell.
At the lower edge of the face is a loose flap
(Fig. 2, A, Lm) forming an upper lip
called the labrum. On its under surface is
a small soft lobe called the epipliarynx on
which are located the organs of taste. At
the sides of the labrum are the two hea^^y
jaws, or mandibles (Md), which work side-
wise. They are spoon-shaped at their ends
in the Avorker, but sharp-pointed and tooth-
ed in the queen and drone. Those of the
queen are largest, those of the drone small-
est. Behind the labrum and the mandibles
is a bunch of long appendages, usually
folded back beneath the head, which to-
gether constitute the proboscis (Fig. 2, A,
Prb). These organs correspond with the
second pair of jaws, or maxillae, and the
lower lip, or labium, of other insects. In
Fig. 2 they are cut off a short distance from
their bases, but are shown detached from
the head and flattened out in Fig. 3, D. The
middle series of pieces {Smt-Lbl) consti-
tutes the labium, the two lateral series
{Cd-Mx) the maxillae. The labium consists
of a basal suhmentum (Smt) , and a meji-
tum {Mt), which supports distally the slen-
der, flexible, tongue-like glossa (Gls), the
two delicate paraglossae (Pgl), and the
two lateral, jointed labial palpi {Lb Pip).
Each maxilla is composed of a basal stalk,
the cardo {Cd) ; a main plate, the stipes
{St), and a wide terminal blade {Mx)
called the galea. At the base of the galea
is a rudimentary maxillary palpus {Mx-
Plp), representing a part which in most
insects consists of several slender joints.

As before stated, the part of the maxil-
lae and the labium together constitute the
proboscis, which, as shown in Fig. 2, is
suspended from a deep cavity {PrbFs) on
the lower part of the back of the head hav-
ing a membranous floor. The nasal stalks
{Cd) of the maxillae are hinged to knobs
on the sides of this cavity, while the labium
is attached to the maxillary stalks by means
of a flexible band called the lorum (Fig. 3,
D, Lr).

When the bee wishes to suck up any
liquid, especially a thick liquid like honey
or syrup, provided in considerable quantity,
the terminal lobes of the labium and max-
illae are pressed close together so as to
make a tube between them. The labium is
then moved back and forth between the
maxillae with a pump-like motion produced
by muscles within the head. This brings
the liquid up to the mouth, which is situat-
ed above the base of the proboscis, between
the mandibles and beneath the labrum. The
food is then taken into the mouth by a
sucking action of the pharynx, produced by
its muscles.

A more delicate apparatus is probably
iiecessarj', however, for sucking up minute
drops of nectar from the bottom of a
flower. Such a sti'ucture is provided within
the glossa. This organ (Fig. 3, D, Gls),
ordinarily called the " tongue," is tenninat-
ed by a delicate, sensitive, spoonlike lobe
know as the labella (Fig. 3, A. B. and D,
Lbl), and has a gTOOve {k) running along
its entire length on the ventral side. With-
in the glossa this gToove expands into a
double-barreled tube (Fig. 3, E, Lum). A
flexible chitinous rod (r) lies along the
dorsal wall of this channel, which is itself
provided with a still finer gTOOve {I) along
its ventral surface. Thus the very smallest
quantity of nectar may find a channel suit-
ed to its bulk thru which it may run up to
the base of the glossa by capillaiy atti^ac-
tion. But since the glossal channels are
ventral the nectar must be transfeiTed to
the dorsal side of the labium by means of
the paraglossse, the two soft lobes (Fig. 3.
D and F, Pgl) whose bases are on the up-
per side of the mentum, but whose distal
ends underlap the base of the glossa, and
thus afford conduits for the nectar around
the latter to the upper side of the labium.
The glossa is highly extensible and retrac-
tile by means of muscles attached to the
base of the rod, and its movements when a
bee is feeding are veiy conspicuous, and
interesting to watch.

The thorax of an insect carries the wings
and the legs. The two wings of the bees on
each side are united to each other by a
series of minute hooks so that they work
together, and the four wings are thus prac-
tically converted into two. Each wing is

2

34

ANATOMY OF THE BEE

PrbFs

Gls 1^ Pgl

From Bulletin No. 18, " The Anatomy of the Honeybee," by Snod'jrass, Dept. of Ay., Washington, D. C.

Fig. 2. — Head of worker with parts of proboscis cut off a short distance from their bases. A, anterior;
B, posterior; a, clypeal suture; Ant, antenna; b, pit in clypeal suture marking anterior end of internal bar
of head; c, pit on occipital surface of head, marking posterior end of internal bar; Cd, car do; Olp'„ clypeus ;
E, compound eye; For, foramen magnum; Ft, front; Ge, gena ; Gls, glossa, or "tongue;" 7c, ventral groove
of glossa; Lb labium; LbPlp, labial palpus; Lm, labrum; Md, mandible; Mt, mentum ; Mth, mouth; Mx,
terminal blade of maxilla; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; 0, ocelli; Oc, occiput; Pge, postgena; Pgl, paraglossa;
Prb, base of proboscis; PrbFs, fossa of proboscis; Smt, submentum ; St, stipes; ten, small bar of tentorium
arching over foramen magnum; Fa-, vertex.

hinged at its base to the back, and pivoted
from below upon a small knob of the side
wall of the thorax. The up-and-down mo-
tion of the wings is produced, not by mus-
cles attached to their bases, but by two sets
of enormous muscles, one vertical and the
other horizontal, attached to the walls of
the thorax, whose contractions elevate and
depress the back plates of the thorax.
Since the fulcrum of each wing is outside
of its attachment to the back, the depres-
sion of the latter elevates the wings, and an
elevation of the back lowers the wing. But
the bee flies by a propeller-like action, or
flgure-8 motion of the wings. This is pro-
duced by two other sets of much smaller
muscles acting directly upon the wing bases,
one before and the other behind the ful-
crum of each. The combined result of all
these muscles is that the down stroke of the
wing is accompanied by a forward move-
ment and a deflection of the anterior edge,
while the up stroke reverses this.

The legs of the bee are too familiar to
need any extensive description here. Their
special characters, such as the antennje-
cleaners on tlie first and pollen-baskets

and brushes on the last, are illustrated in
Fig. 4. The tarsi are each provided with
a pair of terminal claws {E, Cla) , by means
of which the bee clings to rough objects,
while between the claws is a sticky pad, the
empodium (Emp), which is brought into
play when the bee alights on or walks over
any smooth surface like glass.

The hind part of the thorax of bees,
wasps, and their allies is composed of a
segment, which, in other insects, is a part
of the abdomen. It is known as the propo-
deum. The middle division of the body of
a bee, wasp, or ant, therefore, is not exactly
the equivalent of the thorax of a grasshop-
per, fly, or butterfly.

The abdomen of the bee has no append-
ages corresponding with those of the head
or thorax; but it bears two important or-
gans, viz., the wax glands and the sting.
The wax glands are simply specially devel-
oped cells of the skin on the ventral sur-
faces of the last four visible abdominal
segments of the worker. There are only six
segments visible in the apparent abdomen;
but remembering that the propodeum of
the thorax is really the first, the wax glands

ANATOMY OF THE BEE

35

occur, therefore, on segments four to seven The sting is such a complicated organ
inclusive (Fig. 1, IV-VII). The wax se- that it is very difficult to describe it clearly
creted by the glands is discharged thru in a few words. Fundamentally it consists
minute pores in the ventral plate of each of three slender, closely appressed pieces
segment, and accumulates in the form of a forming the sharp piercing organ that pro-
little scale in the pocket above the under- jects from the tip of the abdomen (Fig. 1,
lapping ventral plate of the segment next Stn), and of two soft fingerlike lobes,
in front. sometimes also visible, all of which arise

From Bulletin No. IS, " The Anatomy of the Honeybee," by Snodgrass, Dept. of Ag., Washington, D. C.

Fig. 3. — Details of moiith parts of worker. A, tip of glossa, ventral; B, tip of glossa, dorsal- C piece
of glossal rod (r) showing ventral groove (J) with parts of wall (g) of glossal channel attached; D, parts of
proboscis (raaxillEe and labium) flattened out in ventral view; E, cross-section of glossa, showing it's channel
{hum) open below along the groove (/f), the internal rod (r) in roof of channel, and its groove (I) - F
distal end of mentum (Mt), dorsal, showing opening of salivary duct (SalDO) on base of lignla ; O laterai
view of left half of proboscis; H, glossa (Gls) with its rod (r) partly torn away, showing retractor 'muscles
(2RMcl) attached to its base; Cd, cardo ; llr, long stiff hairs near tip of glossa; k, ventral groove of glossa-
I, ventral groove of glossal rod; Lbl, labella ; LbPlp, labial palpus; Lg, ligula ; Lr, lorum ; Lum, channel in
glossa; Mt, mentum; Moc, terminal blade of maxilla; MxPlp, maxillary palpus; n, basal process of glossal
rod; 0, ventral plate of ligula, carrying base of glossal rod; p, dorsal plates of mentum; Pgl, paraglossa •
Pig. palpiger; q, inner wall of glossal channel; r, rod of glossa; bBMcI, retractor muscle of °-lossaI rod-
SaWO, opening of salivary duct; Smt, submentum; St, stipes. "

3G

ANATOMY OF THE BEE

from three pairs of plates belonging to the
eighth and ninth segments of the abdomen,
but which are concealed within the seventh
segment.

Fig. 5 shows, somewhat diagram matical-
ly, all the parts of the left side. The acute
stinging shaft swells basally into a large
bulb {ShB) which is connected by a basal
arm on each side with two lateral plates
[Ob and Tri). The fingerlike lobes, called
the polpi of the sting {StnPlp) are carried
also by the lower of these two plates {Ob)
while the upper {Tri) carries the third and
largest plate {Qd) which partially overlaps
the lower {Ob).

A close exanrination of the sting proper
shows that both the bulb and the tapering
shaft are formed of three pieces. One is
dorsal {ShB and ShS) while the other two
{Let) are ventral (of course only one of
the latter shows in side view). Further-
more, the basal arm on each side is formed
of two pieces, one of which {ShA) is con-
tinuous with the dorsal piece of the sting,
while the other {Let) is continuous with the
ventral rod of the same side. Since these
ventral rods are partially enclosed within a
hollow on the under side of the dorsal piece,
the latter is called the sheath of the sting.
It consists of the terminal shaft of the
sheath {ShS), the bulb {ShB), and of a
basal arm {ShA) on each side. The ven-
tral pieces {Let) are slender sharp-pointed
I'ods having barbed extremities, and are
known as the laneets. The shaft of the
sheath is grooved along the entire length of
its ventral surface, the groove enlarging
into a spacious cavity in the bulb. The
lancets lie close together against the ventral
edges of the sheath, but slide freely upon
minute tracks on the latter. The three
parts, therefore, inclose between them a
cavity which is tubular in the shaft, but
enlarged into a wide chamber in the bulb.
The great poison-sac (Fig. 8, PsnSc) of
the acid glands of the sting opens into the
base of the bulb along with the smallei-
tubular alkaline gland {BGl). By move-
ments of the triangular plates (Fig. 5, Tri)
the lancets slide back and forth against the
sheath while the poison exudes in tiny
drops from an opening between them near
the tips. The poison-sac has no muscles in
its walls, and, hence, cannot force the poi-
son thru the sting. The poison, in fact,

is driven out of the latter by a force pump
inside of the bulb. This consists of two
pouchlike lobes situated on the upper
edges of the lancets, having their cavities
open posteriorly. When the lancets move
forward the walls of these pouches col-
lapse; but when the motion is reversed they
flare apart and drive the poison contained
in the bulb back thru the shaft and out at
the end.

The poison is an acid liquid formed by
the glands (Fig. 8, AGl, AGl, and BGl).
Two of these {AGl and AGl) are simply
small enlargements at the ends of two long
coiled tubes {AGW), which latter unite
into a short single tube that opens into the
anterior end of the great poison-sac {Psn
Sc). The secretion of these glands is acid.
The third gland {BGl) is a short, somewhat
twisted tube opening into the bulb of the
sting along with the poison-sac. Its secre-
tion is alkaline. Carlet has shown that it
is only the mixture of these tw^o seeietions
that has the full sti-ength in stinging prop-
erties.

The alimentary canal (Fig. 6) consists of
a tube extending thru the entire body, and
coiled somewhat in the abdomen. The first
part above the mouth in the head is widen-
ed to form the pharynx {Phy) . Then
follows the long slender oesophagus {(E),
running clear thru th6 thorax and into the
front of the abdomen, where it enlarges
into a thin-walled bag, called, in general,
the crop, but which is known as the honey-
stomach {HS) in the bee. Back of the
honey-stomach is a short narrow proven-
triculus {Pvent), which is followed by the
large U-shaped stomach, or ventriculus
{Vent). Then comes the slender small in-
testine {SInt) with the circle of Malpigh-
ian tubules {Mai) arising from its anterior
end. Finally, forming the terminal part of
the alimentary canal, is the large intestine,
or rectum {Beet), consisting of an enor-
mous sac, varying in size according to its
contents, but often occupying a large part
of the abdominal cavity. Six opaque lon-
gitudinal bands on its anterior end are
known as the rectal gland {BGl).

The honey-stomach is of special interest
in the worker because the nectar gathered
from the flowers is held in it, instead of
being swallowed on down into the stomach,
and is regurgitated into the cells of the

ANATOMY OF THE BEE

37

comb, or g-iven up first to another bee in the stomach as a small cone with an X-shaped
hive. The upper end of the pro\'entrieulus opening- in its summit. This opening is
sticks up into the lower end of the honey- called the stomach mouth. Its four lips

From Bulletin No. 18, " The Anatomy of the Honeybee," by Snodgra.<is, Dept. of Ag., Washington, D. C.

Fig. 4. — Details of legs. A, front leg of worker, showing position of antenna-cleaner (dd and ee) ; B,
end of tibia of front leg showing spine (ee) of antenna-cleaner; C, antenna-cleaner, more enlarged; D,
middle leg of worker; E, hind leg of queen; F, hind leg of worker, showing pollen-basket (Cb) on outer
surface of tibia; G, inner view of basal joint of hind tarsus of worker, showing the brush of pollen-gathering
hairs: /7, hind leg of drone; Cb, corbiculum. or pollen-basket; Cla, claws; Cx, coxa; dd, notch of antenna-
cleaner on basal joint of first tarsus; ce, spine of anienua-cleaner on distal end of tibia; Emp, einpodium,
sticky pad between the claws for walking on smooth surfaces; F, femur, ff, "wax shears;" Tar, tarsus;
iTar, first joint of tarsus; Tb, tibia.

38

ANATOMY OF THE BEE

are very active, and take whatever food the
ventriculus requires from the honey-stom-
ach, for it must all go into the latter first,
while at the same time it affords the bees a
means of retaining nectar or honey in the
honey-stomach.

The natural food of bees consists of
pollen, nectar, and honey. The first con-
tains the nitrogen of their diet, and the
other two the hydrogen, carbon, and oxy-
gen. Observations made by the writer indi-
cate that the pollen is not digested until it
gets into the intestine, for masses of fresh-
looking grains nearly always appear in the
rear part of the ventriculus, which is other-
wise filled with a brownish slime. On the
other hand, the nectar and honey are very

tents of the stomachs of the workers have
no resemblance to the brood food.

The circulatory system is very simple,
consisting of a delicate, tubular, pulsating
lieart (Fig. 1, Ht) , in the upper part of the
abdomen, of a single long blood vessel, the
aorta {Ao) , extending forward from the
heart thru the thorax into the head, and of
two pulsating membranes, the diaphragms
{DDph and VDph), stretching across the
dorsal and ventral walls of the abdomen,
but leaving wide openings along their sides
between the points of attachment. The
heart consists of four consecutive chambers
{llit-dht), which are merely swellings of
the tube, each having a vertical slit or
ostium (Ost) opening into each side. The

From Bulletin No. 18, " The Anatomy of the Honei/bee," hy Snodgrass, Dept. of Ag., Washington, D. C.

Fig. 5. — Left side of sting and its accessory plates, with alkaline gland (BGl) and base of poison-sac
(PsnSc) attached. BGl, alkaline-poison gland; Let lancet; Ob, oblong plate; Ps-niiC, base of poison-sac
holding secretion from acid-gland (see Fig. 8); Qd. quadrate plate; IXS, median part of ninth abdominal
sternum; ShA, arm of sheath; ShB, bulb of sheath; ShS, shaft of sheath; StrtFlp, palp«s of sting; Tri
triangular plate.

probably digested into the ventriculus, and
in large part absorbed from it.

The salivary glands, located in the back
part of the head (Fig. 6, 2G\) and in the
front part of the thorax {3GI) open upon
the upper part of the labium (Fig. 3, F,
SaWo). The saliva can thus affect the liq-
uid food before the latter enters the mouth,
or it can be allowed to run down the pro-
boscis upon hard sugar in order to dissolve
it, for the latter is eaten with the proboscis,
not with the mandibles.

The large glands (Fig. 6, IGl) situated
in the front part of the head are supposed,
by some students of the bee, to form the
white pasty brood food and the royal jelly.
Others think that these substances come
from the stomach. More investigation of
the subject must be made, however, before
the question can be decided; but the con-

hlood is the colorless liquid that fills the
spaces about the viscera of the body cavity.
The dorsal diaphragm and the heart pulsate
forward. The blood in the cavity above
the former enters the ostia of the heart, and
is pumped forward thru the aorta and out
into the cavity of the head. From here it
percolates back thru the thorax and enters
the space beneath the ventral diaphragm
(VDph) of the abdomen. This membrane
pulsates backward, and the blood is driven
posteriorly and upward, thru the lateral
openings, around the abdominal viscera,
and again into the dorsal or pericardial
cavity of the abdomen, where it begins its
circulation anew. In insects the principal
function of the blood is to distribute the
food which dissolves into it from the ali-
mentary canal.

The respiratory system is very highly

ANATOMY OF THE BEE

39

From Bulletin No. IS, •' The Anatomy of the Honeybee," by Snod{/rass. Dept. of Ag., Washington, D. C.

Fig. 6. — Alimentary canal and salivary glands of worker, dorsal. Dot, salivary duct; IGI, pharyngeal
glands of head ( supracerehral glands); 2GI, salivary glands of head (postcerebral glands); 3GI, salivary
glands of the thorax; HS, honey-stomach; U. reservoir of thoracic salivary gland; Mai, Malpighian tubules';
CE, (Bsopiiagus; Phy, pharynx; Pvent, proventriculus ; Red, rectum; Rgl, rectal glands; SInt, small intes-
tine; Vent, veiilriciilus.

40

ANATOMY OF THE BEE

Frn))i Bh'llctin No. IS. " The Anatomy of the Honeybee," by Snodgrass, Dept. of Ag.. Waahingion, D. C-

F:g. 7. — A, reproductive organs of drone, dorsal; B, inner view of dorsal wall of penis: C, group of
spermatozoa; D, terminal segments of drone, lateral, showing penis {Fe7i) partly protruded; E, lateral
view of penis and ejaculatory duct (EjD) ; AcGl, accessory mucous gland; B. bull) of penis; iClsp. 2Clf<p,
clasping organs of ninth abdominal sternum; P'-n, penis; PenB. bulb of penis; T 1 1 S-1 XS . .seventh to ninib
abdominal sterna; -s'.s', gelatinous ma.ss of inner wall of bulb of peJiis; VilTVlIIT, seventh and eighth
abdominal terga ; tt dorsal plate>s of bulb of penis; Tes, testis; uu, fimbriated lobe at base of bulb of penis;
rr. ladder-like plates of penis; YDef, vas deferens: Voft. seminal vesicle: wu\ x.r. dorsal and ventral plates
in wall of penis; yy, termnal chamber of penis thru which the rest is everted; zz. copulatory pouche^> of
penis.

ANATOMY OF THE BEE

41

developed in the bee, consisting (Fig. 1) o£
large air-sacs {TraSc, 1-10) in the head,
thorax, and abdomen, and of tubes called
trachese given off from them {Tra, LTra).
Fig. 1 shows principally the parts in only
the right side of the body. In the abdomen
a large sac {10) lies on each side connected
with the exterior by short tubes opening
on the sides of the first seven seg-ments.
Three other pairs of such openings occur
in the thorax; but the last of these, being in
the propodeum, really belongs to the abdo-
men. Thus there are in all ten paii's of
breathing apertures, and they are called the
spiracles. Xone occur on the head. The
tracheal tubes given off from the air-sacs
branch minutely to all parts of the body
and penetrate into most of the tissues.
Hence oxygen is carried directly to the cells
that use it, and the blood of insects is thus
relieved of the work of distributing it —
one of its principal functions in vertebrate
nnimals. The respiratory movements are
produced by muscles of the abdomen.

The life processes of the cells of the body
result in the formation of products excreted
by the cells into the surrounding blood.
These products are poisonous to the system
unless immediately changed into simpler
substances. This change is effected partly
by the inhaled oxygen combining with the
waste products, resulting in the formation
of compounds of nitrogen which dissolve in
the blood, and of carbonic acid gas which
diffuses into the tracheal tubes and is ex-
haled. The nitrogen compounds are sup-
posed to be removed by the Malpighian
tubules {Fig. 6, 2Ial), which are regarded
as the kidneys of insects.

The nervous system consists of a series
of small masses oi nerve tissue called gan-
glia, lying along the median ventral line of
the body cavity (Fig. 1, lGng-7Gng), the
two of the thorax being much larger than
those of the abdomen. Each two are con-
nected by a pai-^ of cords called commis-
sures. Ner^^es are given off from these
ganglia to the various organs and parts of
the body, and to the legs and wings. In
the head there are two ganglionic masses.
One is called the hrain {OpL), and is sit-
uated above the oesophagus, where it gives
off nerves to the eyes, the antennae, the
front, and the labrum. The other, called
the suhoesophageal ganglion, lies in the
lower part of the head, and innervates the

mouth parts, while it is connected by com-
missures with both brain and the first
thoracic ganglion.

The reproductive system consists of those
organs that produce the spermatozoa in the
male and the eggs in the female and theii'
accessoiy parts.

The spermatozoa are formed in the testes
of the male (Fig. 7, A, Tes), a pair of small
bodies in the front part of the abdomen,
said to be developed at their highest in the
pupal stage. Each is connected by a coiled
tube, the vas deferens {VDef), with a long
sac, the seminal vesicle {Ves) in which the
spermatozoa are stored dui'ing the adult
stage of the drone's life. The two vesicles
open into the bases of two enormous mu-
cous glands {AcGl) which come together in
a narrow muscular tube, the ejaculatory
duct {EjD). This opens into the anterior
end of the penis {Pen). This is a compli-
cated organ, shown at E, Fig. 7. It is or-
dinarily contained within the cavity of the
abdomen; but dui'ing copulation it is en-
tirely everted, and its basal pouches {zz)
lock into corresponding pouches of the ovi-
duct of the queen.

The eggs are formed by the ovaries of
the female (Fig. 8, Ov), each of which
consists of a thick mass of tubules called
the ovarioles {ov), within which the eggs
grow from simple cells at their upper ends
into the matirre eggs found at their lower
ends. The ovarioles of each ovary open
into an oviduct {OvD), which two unite
into a wide median tube called the vagina
{Vag) that sweUs posteriorly into a large
pouch known as the bursa copulatrix
{BCpx), opening to the exterior in the
eighth segment beneath the base of the
sting.

During copulation the drone ejects the
spermatozoa into the upper end of the
vagina of the queen. The spemiatozoa
consists of minute vibratory threads (Fig.
7, C.) which, probably, by their own mo-
tion, make theii- way up thru a small tube
opening into the dorsal wall of the va-
gina, and so reach a globular sac (Fig. 8,
Spm) called the spermatheca. Here they
are held during the rest of the lifetime of
the queen, to be extruded in small bundles,
of about a himdred each, according to
Breslaw, upon the eggs passing out of the
vagina. Thus are the female eggs ferti-

42

ANGER OF BEES

lized, the drone eggs developing without the ahnost makes us angry when we hear people

addition of the male element. speak of their being " mad," as if tlicy

ANGER OF BEES. — We do not like the are always in a towering rage, and delight

term " anger," when applied to bees, and it to inflict severe pain on everything and

AGID

From Bulletin No. 18, " The Anatomy of the Honeybee," by Snodgrass, Dept. of Ag., Washington, D. C.
Fig. 8. — Reproductive organs of queens, dorsal, tosethev with sting, its muscles, alnnds, nnd poison-sac,
AGl, acid-glands of sting; AGID, duct of acid-glands; BCpx, bursa copulatrix; BGl, alkaline gland of sting;
Ov. ovaries; ov, ovarioles; OvD, oviduct; PsnSc, poison-sac; IXS, median part of ninth abdominal sterum ;
Spm, sac of speirraatheca ; SpmGl, spermathecal gland; SUi, sting; SinPlp, palpus of sting; Vag, vagina.

ANGER OF BEES

43

everybody coming near them. Bees are,
on the contrary, the pleasantest, most so-
ciable, genial, and good-natured little be-
ings we meet in all animated creation, when
we understand them. We can tear their
beautiful comb all to bits right before their
very eyes, without their showing a particle
of resentment; and with all the patience
in the world they will at once set to work
to repair it, and that, too, ^^■ithout a word
of remonstrance. If they are pinched they
will sting; and anybody who has energy
enough to take care of himself would do
as much had he the weapon.

How to open hives in such a way as to
avoid stings, see Manipulation of Colo-
nies^ and Stings.

In order that the reader may better un-
derstand that which follows, it may be well
to set forth two or three fundamental con-
ditions under which bees become cross or
nervous and unpleasant to handle. First, a
slackening or a shutting-off of the supply
of food obtained either from the fields in a
natural way, or from exposed sweets, al-
ways has a tendency to make bees ill-na-
tured. If the honey flow is unusually
strong, and then slackens up very rapidly,
the bees in the whole yard become cross.
This is particularly noticeable at the clos-
ing of basswood or after the drying up of
certain honeydews deposited on the leaves
of trees. When the bees are robbing, and
combs or syrup are carelessly exposed, and
these combs or syrup are suddenly put un-
der cover, so that not another drop can be
secured, bees will usually sting furiously,
when, if their supply were allowed to stand
and gradually diminish, they will be much
better natured.

If some one carelessly exposes sweets in
quantities during a dearth of honey when
bees are disposed to rob, this will have a
tendency to stir up the whole apaaryi
The roar of the excitement may be heard
some distance from the apiary. Thousands
and thousands of bees will be found flying
around everywhere to discover where this
new supply is located; but, as a general
thing, bees are not cross when trying to
find the source of the sweet. The real
trouble begins about the time the supply
gives out.

During the middle hours of the day when
the air is warm and balmy and the bees
are going into the fields, they are generally

very gentle. But if a sudden rainstorm
comes up, shutting off the supply of nectar,
they will usually be quite cross, and this
bad temper will last until the normal sup-
ply begins to come in again.

Bees are apt to be cross on cool or chilly
days. When all are at home, and the hives
are opened unceremoniously, they may re-
sent the intrusion. It is then that beginners
discover, much to their sorrow, that bees
should not be handled during cool or chilly
weather, right after a rain, nor at night.

By keeping these facts carefully in mind,
when the following incidents are related,
one will more readily discover why bees are
cross :

A few years ago a very intelligent man
procured some Italians, an extractor, etc.,
and commenced bee culture. He soon learn-
ed to handle them, and succeeded finely;
when it came time to extract, the whole
business went on so easily that he was sur-
prised at what had been said about expe-
rienced hands being needed to do the work.
He had been in the habit of doing his work
as directed, toward the middle of the day,
while the great mass of bees were in the
fields; but in the midst of a heavy yield of
clover honey, when the hives were full to
overflowing, they were one day stopped by
a heavy thundershower. This, of course,
drove the bees home, and at the same time
washed the honey out of the blossoms so
completely that they had nothing to do but
remain in the hives until more was secreted.
Not so with their energetic and enthusiastic
owner. As soon as the rain had ceased, the
hives were again opened, and an attempt
made to take out the frames, as but a few
hours before; but the bees that were all
gentleness then, seemed now possessed of the
very spirit of mischief; and when all the
operators had been severely stung, they
concluded that prudence was the better part
of valor and stopped operations for the
day. While loads of honey were coming in
all the while, and every bee rejoicing, none
was disposed to be cross; but after the
shower, the bees were standing around idle ;
and when a hive was opened, each was
ready to take a grab from its neighbor,
and the result was a free fight in a very
short time.

There is nothing in the world that will
induce bees to sting with such wicked reck-
lessness as to have them get to quarreling

44

ANGER OF BEES

over fombs or honey left exposed when they
have nothing to do. When the supply is
exhausted their frenzy reaches its height.
From a little carelessness in this respect,
and nothing else, whole apiaries have been
so demoralized that people were stung when
passing along the street several rods dis-
tant. During the middle of the day, when
bees were busily engaged on the flowers
during a good yield, we have frequently Jpf t
filled combs standing on the top of a hive
from noon until supper time without a bee
touching them; but to do this after a hard
rain, or at a time when little or no honey
is to be gathered in the fields, might result
in the ruin of several colonies, and the bees
being voted a nuisance by the whole neigii-
borhood.

Almost every season we get more or less
letters complaining that bees have sud-
denly become so cross as to be almost un-
manageable, and those letters come along in
July, after the clover and linden have be-
gun to slacken. As already pointed out,
at the beginning of this article, it is the
slackening or stoppage of the flow that
makes the bees irritable.

Bees are not so very unlike mankind
after all, and all one has to do is to avoid
opening a hive for a few days, until the
bees get used to the sudden disappointments
of having avenues thru which they were get-
ting wealth so rapidly, cut off. After a
week or 10 days they will be almost as gen-
tle as in times when they gathered half a
gallon of honey daily, if care is taken not
to let hives be open too long nor to leave
any bits of honey or comb about.

It is not easy to explain why bees sting
so remorselessly and vindictively after hav-
ing had a taste of stolen sweets, yet nearly
all the instances where there is trouble with
stinging have been from this very cause,
then buzz about in an infuriated way, as
if frantic because unable to sting one a
dozen times more after their stings are
lost. The colonies that furnish this class of
bees are generally hybrid, or perhaps black
bees having just a trace of Italian blood.
These bees seem to have a perfect passion
for following one about and buzzing be-
fore the nose from one side to the other
Bees from colonies that have a habit of
robbing will buzz about one's ears and eyes
for hours, seeming to delight in making one
nervous and fidgety if they succeed in so

doing, and they not only threaten, but often-
times inflict, the most painful stings, and
(until one gets cross-eyed in trying to fol-
low their erratic oscillations), in a way that
is most decidedly provoking. One such
colony annoyed us so much while extracting
that we killed the queen, altho she was very
prolific, and substituted a pure Italian. It
is seldom an Italian follows one about in
the manner mentioned, yet an occasional
colony may contain bees that do it; at least
we liave found such, where the workers
were all three-banded. That it is possible
to have an apiary without any such dis-
agreeable bees, we have several times dem-
onstrated; but oftentimes it will be neces-
sary to discard some of the very best hon-
ey-gatherers, to be entirely rid of them. On
occasions like this it is advisable to use
robber-traps. See Robbers.

With a little practice the apiarist will tell
as soon as he comes very near the apiary
whether any angry bees are about, by the
high keynote they utter when on the wing.
It is well known that with the feeding of
meal (see Pollen) there may be perfect
tranquillity, altho bees from every hive in the
apiary are working on a square yard of meal.
Now, should honey be substituted for the
meal, there would be a perfect uproar, for
a taste of honey found in the open air dur-
ing a dearth of pasturage, or at a time
when the bees have learned to get it by
stealing instead of honest industry, seems
to have the effect of setting every bee
crazy. In some experiments to determine
how and why this result came about, we
had considerable experience with angry
bees. After they had been robbing and had
become tranquil, we tried them with dry
sugar; the quarrelsome bees fought about
it for a short time, but soon resumed then-
regular business of hanging about the well-
filled hives, trying to creep into every
crack and crevice, and making themselves
generally disagreeable all around. If a
hive was to be opened, they were into it
almost before the cover was raised, and
then resulted a pitched battle between them
and the inmates; the operator was sure to
be stung by one or both parties, and, pretty
soon, some of the good people indoors
would be asking what in the world made
the bees so awfully cross, saying that they
even came indoors and tried to sting. Now,
why could they not work peaceably on the

ANTS

45

sugar as tliey do on the meal, or the clover
blossoms in June? We dampened the sugar
with a sprinkler, and the bees that were at
work on it soon started for home with a
load; then began the high keynote of rob-
bing, faint at first, then louder and louder,
until we began to be almost frightened at
the mischief that might ensue. When the
dampness was all licked up they soon sub-
sided into theii' usual condition. The effect
of feeding honey in the open air is very
much worse than that of feeding any kind
of syrup.

HOW THE SOURCE FROM WHICH BEES ARE
GATHERING AFFECTS THEIR TEMPER.

It has been found that bees are crosser
when working on some blossoms than on
others. For example, they seem to be more
inclined to sting Avhen working on buck-
wheat than on clover. This is probably due
to the fact that the latter yields nectar all
day, while the former will in most localities
yield an hour or two in the morning and
again toward night. The stoppage of the
flow seems to affect the bees adversely.

In the same way they are cross when
working on hone^'dew from hickory and
oaks. This yields heavily in the morning,
and lets up and stops during the middle
hours of the day. The morning dews soften
the saccharine matter secreted on the lea^•es
of these trees, and when it dries up again
the nectar supply is cut off and the bees are
cross. During 1909, when there was so
much honeydew from oaks and hickories
from all over the country, bees that year
were reported to be exceptionally cross.

To make bees good-natured, a honey
plant must be a continuous yielder all day.
So long as it keep up its supply, there is
quiet.

HOW THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF SHRUB-
BERY OR TREES AFFECTS THE TEMPER
OF THE BEES IN THE YARD.

It has been shown time and time again
that the same bees that are docile as kittens
in the home yard, with plenty of shrubbery
to shut off the view of individual colonies,
will often be as cross as hornets when
placed in an out-apiary on a level piece of
ground where their hive is in view of every
other hive, without any obstructing shrub-
bery or trees, The reason of it is plain.

If there are any cross bees in the air, and
they see a moving object like a beekeeper,
for example, going thru the yard, they will
immediately come buzzing about him with
the peculiar angxy scream that a mad bee
always has. Those same bees when located
in a yard where there is plenty of shrub-
bery, and where they cannot see moving
objects as readily, will forget all about the
source of their irritability, and either go to
the fields or into their own hives.

Several times we have been tempted to
kill all the queens in a certain yard because
their bees Avere so very cross, only to dis-
cover later on that when we moved them to
the home yard, where there were gxapevines
shutting off the view of their colony or
hive, that there was nothing the matter
with the bees but only with their previous
environment. For that reason alone, some
of the Grossest bees we have ever known
have become vei-y tractable when placed in
a small orchard or piece of woods. The
crossest bees will also become very docile
when put into a house-apiary. When the
owner is inside he cannot be seen, of course,
and he can work inside of the building with-
out hindrance.

How to make bees good-natured by feed
ing, see Feeding Outdoors; also see Rob-
bing^ Stings, and Manipulation of Colo-
nies.

ANTS.— Altho w^e liave given the matter
considerable attention, we cannot find that
ants are gTiilty of anything in the North
that should warrant the apiarist in waging
any great warfare against them. Some
3'ears ago a visitor frightened us by say-
ing that the ants about our apiary would
steal every drop of honey as fast as the
bees could gather it. Accordingly we pre-
pared ourselves with a teakettle of boiling
water, and not only killed the ants but
some grapevines growing near. Afterward
there came a spring when the bees, all but
about eleven colonies, dwindled away and
died, and the hives filled with honey, scat-
tered about the apiary unprotected, seemed
to be as fair a chance for the ants, that had
not " dwindled " a particle, as they could
well ask for. We watched to see how fast
they would carry away the honey, but, to
our astonishment, they seemed to care more
for the hives that contained bees than for
those containing only honey, ^\'e suun de-

46

ANTS

termined that it was the warmth from the
cluster that especially attracted them; and
as the hives were directly . on the ground,
the ants soon moved into several that con-
tained a small cluster only, and for a while
both used one common entrance. As the
bees increased, they began to show a decid-
ed aversion to having two families in the
same house, altho the ants were evidently
inclined to be peaceable enough until the
bees tried to " push " matters, when they
turned about and showed themselves fully
able to hold possession. The bees seemed
to be studying over the matter for awhile,
and finally we found them one day taking
the ants, one by one, and carrying them
high up in the air, and letting them drop at
such a distance from their home that they
would surely never be able to walk back
again. The bees, as fast as they became
strong colonies, drove the ants out ; and our
experience ever since has been, that a good
colony of bees in the North is never in any
danger of being troubled in the least by
ants. One weak colony, after battling a
while with a strong nest of the ants, swarm-
ed out; but they might have done this any
way, so we do not lay much blame to the
ants.

But ants do prove to be very annoying in
those apiaries where there is any attempt
to keep the grass down with a lawnmower.
The little hillocks that they make all over
the yard disfigure it to some extent, as well
as forming more or less obstruction to the
scythe and lawnmower. While, as we have
already said, ants do little if any damage to
hives in the North, jet as it is so easy to
eradicate them it may be well to consider
methods for their extermination.

HOW TO DESTROY ANTS^ NESTS.

With a crowbar or a short stick and a
mallet make a hole an inch or so in diame-
ter, and about a foot deep, down thru the
center of the nest. Around this hole make
two or three other similar ones, or more if
the nest is a large one. Go to the drugstore
and get about a dime's worth of bisulphide
of carbon. Be careful with the stuff, for it
is very explosive, and the fumes of it should
not be allowed to collect in the room where
there is a gasoline flame or any stove or
lamp burning. From this bottle pour about
a tables35oonful of the liquid in each hole;

then immediately stop each up with a plug
of earth, for it is desired to have the fumes
of the bisulphide penetrate all the galleries
of the nest, thus destroying ants, larvae, and
eggs. In a day or so it will be found that
everything formerly animate in and about
the nest is dead.

But if the nests are not very large, one
can secure almost as good results by using
coal oil or gasoline in place of the bisul-
phide. But in using these, about twice or
three times the quantity should be poured
in each hole. We have tried both gasoline
and kerosene, and have found each effective
in destroying the nest. Of the two, the
kerosene (or coal oil, as some call it) seems
to be preferable. In using bisulphide of
carbon, gasoline, or kerosene, be careful
about spilling or pouring any of it on the
top of the nest, as that will kill the.gTass,
leaving a brown spot right where it should
be green. The bisulphide is more apt to
kill the grass than the gasoline or coal oil,
as it is much more jDOwerful.

The best time to destroy ants' nests is in
the spring, before the ants have had an
opportunity to make much of a hillock;
then there will be less liability of killing
the gTass; or, rather, a better opportunity
for the grass to recover from its " dose "
during the early spring rains.

ANTS IN THE SOUTH.

These insects are much more troublesome
in the Southern States, and all warm cli-
mates, in fact, than in the North. Some-
times they are so large and powerful that
they even set about to destroy the colony.
We would first find the nest, and proceed to
destroy by the use of kerosene or gasoline.
If these do not prove to be powerful
enough, use bisulphide of carbon, making
three or four holes to the square foot of
nest; but in the case of bisulphide, one
must be careful to have each hole stopped
up tight with plugs of earth, otherwise the
gas will escape, and the effect of the liquid
will be largely lost.

But there is a species of ants in warm
climates that have nests in trees that are
inaccessible. Other ants are so small, and
come such long distances, that it is almost
impossible to find their nest. In such cases
it has been recommended to place within
their reach some syrup or honey mixed with

ANTS

47

arsenic, Paris green, London purple, or
strychnine. It is unnecessary to say that
all vessels containing such j)oisonous mix-
tures should be placed in a box covered with
screen just fine enough to keep out the bees,
and coarse enouph to admit the ants. They
will work on these poisonous mixtures, and
carry them home to their young, with the
result that both mature insects as well as
larvae will be destroyed, no matter where
the nest may be.

The box containing the poisonous sweet
should be put in the trail of the ants. It is
usually necessary to get the ants started on
some tiling that they like that is not poison-
ous— a iDiece of fat chicken meat, for in-
stance, then add the poison when they are
•veil started.

When it does not seem practicable to de-
stroy the pests they may be kept away from
the hive temporarily by pouring a little
naiTOw trail of kerosene clear around the
hive or hives. The ants will come up to the
oily line, and there stop.

Mr. Poppleton of Florida has graphi-
cally described in Gleanings the carnivorous
ants.

With one exception these ants are the
worst enemies bees have here in Florida, and
only constant vigilance from September to
December inclusive will prevent the loss of
many colonies every season. These ants are
usually found in our hummock lands, and
only occasionally in clean pine woods; are
red in color; of a very large size; frequently
measuring nearly or quite half an inch in
length; are strictly nocturnal in their habits,
being seldom seen in daytime except when
disturbed or waging battle with a colony of
bees; are usually found in decayed wood,
thru which they eat out galleries for use as
living-apartments. A favorite place is in a
saw-pahnetto root in the ground. Nearly
every cabbage-palmetto tree contains a colo-
ny of them among the roots near their top,
and for this reason a thick palmetto grove
is one of the worst places where an apiary
can be located. They are also found in piles
of old boards, and on the ground under
boards or logs. They also like to enter our
houses and locate in trunks, boxes, drawers,
and in almost any place where they can find
a few inches of space to occupy. They are
frequently found in the tops of our hives, if
there is sufficient space above the bees under
the cover.

At sundown they start on their nightly
quest of food; and if near an apiary a few
of them will usually be seen running on some
of the hives. As long as only two or three
can be seen on any one hive, no special at-
tention need be given them; but if a dozen

or more are seen, it means that they have
probably selected that hive for their own
use, and it needs close watching. They will
continue their regular attentions to that
one hive, gradually increasing in numbers
until they decide they are strong enough,
when nearly the entire colony of ants will
boldly attack the bees by biting off their
wings and legs, and crippling them so they
are of no more use. Bees fight back courage-
ously, the battle continuing for nours, and
sometimes a day or two, according to the
relative strength of the two belligerents.
The inside of the hive and the ground near
by will be strewn with dead ants and dead
and crippled bees; but it always ends with
the destruction of all the bees, and the
moving in and occupation of the hive by the
ant colony. AVhen ants have once chosen a
certain colony of bees to work on, the bee-
master has to destroy the ants, root and
branch, or they will in time destroy the bees.
If a part only, of the ants are destroyed, they
will simply bide their time until they have
built up strong enough, and then do the
work. I know of few or no living creatures
more persistent in evil works than are these
bee-killing ants. They also, in certain lo-
calities, do great damage to queen-rearing
nuclei.

During the fall months I make it a prac-
tice almost every evening after dark in my
home apiary, and as often as possible in the
out-apiaries, to see by the light of a lantern
the front of every hive; and any one on
which I see three or four or more ants run-
ning over has a mark placed on it. If the
number of ants on any one of these marked
hives increases each night, I give that hive
special attention until the ants get numer-
ous enough to begin to worry the bees. When
this occurs, bees commence to whine, as I
call it — that is, utter a fine, sharp note with
their wings. As the ants get bolder the cry
of the bees becomes louder and more fre-
quent— so much so that I have frequently
heard it 50 feet away. The ants usually
worry the bees continually for several nights,
when suddenly the whole colony of ants
starts in on a battle royal, which continues
for hours or even a day or two, until every
bee is disabled or driven out. A great many
of the ants will also be killed: but how the
bees do this is a mystery to me.

When the battle has once been joined, the
beekeeper has a difficult task to save the
bees; but this condition is preventable.
When the ants become plentiful enough at
the hive to begin worrying the bees, there
is usually a trail of going and returning ants
from their nest to the hive, and this can
usually be located and traced to their nest,
which, when found, should be left undis-
turbed until the following day, when all the
ants will be at home. If the"^nest cannot be
found the first time trying, I search again
until it is found. As soon as the nest is
found, or search for it is given up for that
night, I sprinkle some insect powder on their

48

APIARY

trail near the hive: also whereA^er on or
around the hive I can do so to worry the
ants and not injure the bees. This will
usually keep the ants from doing any more
harm that night.

The next day when all the ants are at
home, I take a kettle of boiling water, tear
open the nest, and, if possible, kill every ant
and egg. If a few of them are left they are
likely to gather together, increase in time to
their former strength, and again attack that
same colony of bees. Whenever the nest is
found in a box or piece of wood that can be
easily moved with all the ants, the easiest
and best plan is to carry them into the
chicken-yard, break open the nest, and the
hens will gladly do the rest of the business.
They are very fond of both ants and eggs;
and they not only find them good to eat, but
give their owner lots of fun watching the
old rooster especially, kick and scold every
time an ant bites one of his feet. I have
had many a hearty laugh watching this per-
formance.

The ants are a great pest here in Florida.
They destroy in the aggregate a great many
colonies every fall. I know of one apiary
which was entirely lost, largely, I judge,
from what I hear, by these ants. At the
best they are a great nuisance because they
compel the beekeeper to remain at home
watching them at a season of the year when
nothing is doing in the apiary, and the
apiarist could, but for them, be away on a
holiday, or have some outside business.

Stuart, Fla. 0. O. Poppleton.

Ants are a serious pest to bees in many
tropical countries, notably in South Ameri-
ica, where they are omnipresent and almost
omnipotent. A species similar to that de-
scribed by Mr. Poppleton in Florida exists
all over tropical America, particularly
in the Southern continent. He has so
graphically described it, there is no neces-
sity to enlarge on it further. The worst
feature of these ants is their readiness- to
travel, so that, when one does destroy their

Morrison's ant-proof beeMve shed.

nests, there is no assiu-ance that the apiary
is safe from their attacks. Another bad

feature is their habit of traveling by night;
in fact, nearly aJi their depredations are
made in the dark.

To circumvent tliem it is necessary to
destroy all their nests within a radius of
100 yards of the apiary by the application
of bisulphide of carbon to their nests. But
this precaution alone will not suffice, and it
will be necessary to adopt further mea-
sures. Luckily it is not difficult to do this,
as tropical beekeepers are obliged to keep
their hives under a shed, for excellent rea-
sons.

In erecting a shed, therefore, we can
take measures to prevent effectually tlie
ants having' access to the hives at all. All
we have to do is to add cups to all the posts
used to support the structure. The illus-
tration preceding shows very clearly how
this is accomplished with but little expense
or trouble. The cups are filled with coal
tar, creosote, or crude petroleum, all of
which the ants positively dislike for two
reasons — they stick to their feet and tho
smell is vile. No ant will attempt to cross
such a mess as this, hence the bees are
secure. The warm climate keeps the tar,
etc., always soft; and if some rain falls
into the cups it does no harm, as the water
also tastes of the tar.

In working- with the bees care should be
taken to see nothing is left which will form
a ^'bridge" whereby the ants Avill manage
to reach the beehives while the apiarist v.i
absent. One of the worst things that cm
happen is to allow the ants to get a taste of
the bees; for once they do tliey nre s ire to
linger around waiting for an oppoi'tunity
to get into the hive.

APIAEIST. — An apiarist is one who
mannee? one oi' more yards of bees for
profit.

APIARY. — A place wliere a number of
colonies of bees is kept is called an apiary
or bee-yai'd.

LOCATlOiT.

There is scarcely a spot on the surface of
the earth where mankind finds sustenance
that will not, to some extent, support bees,
altho they may do much better in some
localities than in others. A few years ago
it was thought that only localities especial-
ly favored would give big honey crops ; but

APIARY OF M. H. ^rENDLESOX.

This apiary occupies a very unique posiiiou down in the Lotiort: of the canyon, wliere it is veil prntected-
Tlie ground has been leveled off and terraced, and tlie rows of hivts are stvaighi and paral'.et. Tliis is one
of t'.;e most picturesque spots for an apiary iu the world. From it some of the hest sage honey of California
is obtained, and no wonder: for the mountain sage is alwa\s in siglu and in reach of the bees. The patches
of white, black, and button sasc on the mountain sides ran be plainly seen.

When the author visited this yard in 1901, he considered it one of the best-located yards in all CalLfornia
— weil protected and the bee pasturase at close range. But for the fact that tliere is only about one good
yield of honey in five years, thivS would be a Teritable bee paradise indeed.

THE PUBLISHERS' APIARY AT JENKINTOWX. PA.
This was an exhibition apiary iu the suburbs of Philadelphia, used to demonstrate the various processes
and methods of handling bees. Here is also shown lo the visitors the various races, their characteristics,
and raarkiuics.

Tliis yard ut the time was a model one in t'Vtty respect, and was so pronounced. The ground w.-ia
nicely terraced and here and there were flower icardens so arranged as to give a pleasing effect.

In June. 1905. and again in 1906. a general field day of beekeepers was held at this apiary. Experts
were present to describe and illustrate their various methods of handling bees, to the crowds that assembled
from all over the country. At the field meet of 1906 there were somewhat over 1,000 beekeepers present,
making by far the largest gathering of beekeepers the country has ever seen. The location was only leased,
and hus since been sold, and is now used for other purposes.

50

APIARY

PUBLISHERS' APIARY IN NEW YORK CITY AS IT WAS SOME YEARS AGO.

In several cities bees are kept on the roofs of buildings in the heart of cities and towns. If the building
is high enough there will usually be enough breezes to keep the bees from getting too hot and combs from
melting down. If the roofs are not high, shade-boards will have to be. provided.

THE PUBLISHERS' APIARY IN CUBA.

_ Some eight or ten years ago the publishers owned and operated in Cuba an apiary
which was run for honey as well as bees and queens ; but the poor seasons finally
compelled them to abandon it. . . . The hives here shown are in straight rows and
close together. Experience showed that this was a mistake., for there were no dis-
tinguishing objects by which the bees could mark their homes, and more or less
confusion and robbing resulted.

since the introduetion of modern races, and each year astonished to hear of big yields
the new methods of management, we are heie and there, and from ahiiost every

APIARY

51

CULVER APIARY AT CALEXICO, CALIFORNIA.

This method of shading an apiary in New Mexico, Arizona, and the Imperial Valley, southern California,
where the temperature during the hottest weather often goes above 100 degrees, is almost universal. The
roof consists of dried grass or leaves laid on top, and secured by -wires laid over the whole.

quarter of the globe. It will certainly pay
to try a colony or two of bees, no matter
where one may be located.

Beekeeping- is practiced even in the heart
of some of our large cities. In the sub-
urban districts bees can be kept on a small

plot of ground in the back yard. In the
heart of business sections bees are very
often kept on the roofs of buildings, some-
times on the very top of skyscrapers. On
accoimt of the intense sunlight and lack of
natural shade in the form of bushes, shade-

SIDE AND END VIEAV OF THE SA^IE APIARY.
The climate in this valley is very hot in summer, the same as it is in Arizona. Shade is very necessary.

52 APIARY

APIARY OF CHAS. Y. HAKE, YORK, PA.

This is a backlot apiary that is well screened from prevailing winds, as most yards of this kind are. It
therefore follows that such yards winter better than the large apiaries out in the open. Mr. Hake has his
colonies elevated on hive-stands for convenience in handling. The objection is that during bad, chilly weather
some bees drop short of the entrance. If they were on or near the ground, the bees could crawl in and be
saved. The arrangement used by Robert Peschko, shown at the close of this article, is much bettor.

01- 100 feet from the road or highway.
Usually the rear end of a village lot just
back of the house will answer very nicely.
If the apiary must be located close to the
highway, then a high board fence should
be placed between the bees and the street.
A hedge of osage orange or evergreens; a
trellis of some sort of vine; trees, shrub-
bery, or anything that will cause the bees
to raise their flight to a height of 10 or 12
feet above the traffic of the street should
be used. In any case, the bees should never
be allowed to go directly from their hives
on a line that would encounter vehicles or
pedestrians; otherwise their owner may
)iave a lawsuit on his hands for alleged
damages from bee-stings. See Bees as a
Nuisance.

boards should be provided as described
further on in this article. Such an apiary
should be established like those on the
ground in all essential points.

It is not always possible to select just
the location for an apiary that one might
like, and he is therefore compelled to take
what he can get; but where conditions per-
mit it is advisable to select the rear of a
village lot; or, if located on a farm, back
of the house in an orchard. The ground
should be rolled and smoothed down so that
a lawnmower can be run over every portion
of it, as the gxass should be kept down
arotmd the hives. Moreover, a smooth plot
of ground renders the use of a wheelbarrow
or handcar for handling loads much more
pleasant and convenient. An ideal spot
would be an orchard of young trees 75

APIARY

53

APIARY OF HARRY DUBOIS ON THE LOXAHATCHIE RIVER, FLORIDA.

The idea of a screen of slats overhead is not to shut off the sun's rays entirely, but to break them up.
Too much shade does as much harm as too little in this country. The same general scheme of semi-shading
could le carried out elsewhere to advantage in many localities. It would not answer in Arizona, New
Mexico, and the Imperial Valley, California, because the sun is too hot and the climate too dry.

THE IMPORTANCE OF SHRUBBERY OR SMALL
TREES IN THE BEE YARD,

Under the head of Anger of Bees^ at the
close of the article attention is called to the
value of small shrubbery or trees to shut off
the views of individual colonies from each
other. The matter is so important that it
is mentioned again in order that the reader
may wisely locate his bees.

The same bees that are gentle at the home
yard where they are well screened or locat-
ed, sometimes become very cross when
placed out in the open field without shrub-
bery or trees. A little shade on hot days
is of great value in protecting the hive from
the direct rays of the sun. Aside from the
value of the shade, if the shrubbery is tall
enough it adds a great deal to the comfort
of the apiarist himself. In an open yard
it usually becomes necessary to wear a veil
to prevent the bees from stinging the face
without warning. In a yard that has shrub-
bery, one can often work all day without
a veil, and sometimes with but very little
smoke. It is not always possible to locate

a yard in the midst of shrubbery or small
trees; and one, therefore, has to take what
he can find, which very often is an open
space in one corner of a lot.

Shrubbery consisting of small bushes or
trees has an additional value in that it en-
ables the bees to locate their entrances a
little more easily. When the hives are
placed together without any space between,
there is more or less drifting — that is to
say, the bees make mistakes and go into
the wrong hives. (See Drifting.) The
unfortunate part of it is that the strong
colonies will draw from the weaker, be-
cause the young bees, in their initial flight,
are quite inclined to join the place where
there are the most bees flying. At the home
yard, a xiew of which is shown several
pages ahead, it will be noted that the indi-
vidual colonies are placed on the north side
of the individual gTapevine trellises. These
trellises are between six and seven feet
high. The vines are all very carefully
trimmed; and we usually estimate that the
amount of fruit pays for the labor of
keeping them in order. Strangers at any

54

APIARY

PART OF THE OLD APIARY OF E. A. DUAX, CHIPPEWA FALLS, WIS.

This yard is sheltered on the west and north by a cedar hedge,; but the shade is a little too dense.
Too much shade does as much harm as too little.

time are permitted to go thru this yard,
and it is very seldom that any one is stung,
because an occasional cross bee or dozens
of them, on account of the obstructions to
the general view by the vines, are unable to
see any moving object, and therefore they
do not follow one about nor offer to at-
tack.

TOO MUCH SHADE DETRIMENTAL.

If the orchard where the bees are to be
located is made up of old trees, then there
can be from four to five hives grouped
under each tree. If, on the other hand, it
consists of young ones, then not more than
one or two hives should be placed at a tree,
and in that case always on the north side,
so as to be in the shade. The hives should
be so located that they will get the morning
sun up to eight or nine o'clock, and the
afternoon sun from three or four o'clock
on. Too much shade is detrimental, and too
much hot sun pouring directly on the hives
is equally bad. Experience has shown con-
clusively that a very dense shade over bees

in the morning hours is detrimental. Colo-
nies located on the west side of a building
or barn, or under densely foliaged trees,
so that they do not get the morning sun.

Marchant's shade-board. This provides better venti-
lation than the ordinary flat shade-board.

will not, as a rule, be as far along by the
time the honey flow comes on as those that

APIARY

55

n

J

ft

\

APIARY OF THE A. I. ROOT CO., ON THE APALACHICOLA RIVER, FLORIDA, IN 1914.

This shows a general view of 300 colonies placed on raised platforms or scaffolding five or six feet
high, or above high-water mark. "While these platforms are somewhat expensive, they are verj' convenient
in affording easy access to all colonies. There is no uneven ground, no shrubbery nor weeds to interfere
with the flight of bees, and a wheelbarrow has good wheeling to every hive. It would have been better
if the hives had been arranged in groups of twos, threes, and fours, as explained under the engraving and
apiary of L. F. Howden.

have only moderate shade. On the other
hand, an afternoon shade does not do as
much harm as one in the forenoon.

If one does not have trees of any sort in
his yard — what shall he do? One of four
courses lies open: First, to use double-
walled hives; second, singie-walled hives
with shade-boards; third, singie-walled
hives having on the south side of them some
sort of vine that can be reared up within
a year or two. A grapevine trellis, say 8

feet high and 10 or 12 feet long, rimning
from east to west,* well covered with a
vine, can be made to protect anywhere from

Robertson method of shading the hives and the
entrances in the morning.

Shading tops and fronts of hives during the hottest
part of the day.

five to ten hives. On this trellis, grapevines
or any other quick-growing vine may be

* In Cuba or other humid countries the sheds
should run north and south, for the hives need the
sun in the morning and late afternoon to dry them.
Protection is required only during the heat' of the
day when the sun is overhead.

56

APIARY

J. L. BYER'S APIARY, MARKHAM, ONTARIO, CANADA.

This has windhveaks on all fonr sides: elevation to the north, and ^voods on the other three sides. Tlie
hives are completely covered with snow. No harm results from this provided the climate is cold and pro-
vided the snow does not become wet and soggy, and freeze.

reared to provide shade during the heat of
the day. The fourth and last plan is to use
overhead trellis, making use of straw, dried
grass, or brush for covering such as is
used in Arizona and Cuba. These trellises
are about seven feet high, and run from
east to west, so that the sun, nearly over-
head as it is in Arizona and southern Cali-
fornia, never strikes the hives from morn-
ing till night. These trellised shades, if
there are no trees, are indispensable in hot,
dry climates. They thoroly protect the
bees, prevent combs from melting down,
and render the work of the apiarist pleas-
ant.

Some beekeepers prefer to use shade-
boards. These may be made of large cov-
ers cleated at the ends, and composed of
two or three boards of the cheapest lumber
that can be had, or they may be made of
common shingles in the manner sliowu in

the illustrations. Some will, perhaps, pre-
fer them nailed up as Mr. Marchant uses
them. Others would prefer to put them to-
gether as Mr. Robertson makes them. In
some cases it may be advisable to lean them
up against the hives rather than to place
them on top. When used on top they
should be large enough to project a foot
over the front and rear, and an equal dis-
tance on each side. They are then held
securely in place by a stone weighing 15
or 20 pounds.

But whenever one manipulates these
hives he is i-equired to lift a heavy stone
and remove an awkward shade-board before
he can do any work with the bees.

When hives are placed in long rows close
together, as under a shed or on a roof,
it is very essential that they differ from
each other in appearance so that the bees
may distinguish their own hive from all the

58

APIARY

APIARY OF 190 COLONIES OWNED BY L. F. HOWDEN IN THE TOWN OF FILLMORE N. Y.

This apiary, while located in town, is apparently on one side of it, and remote from any highway or
driveway and off in the corner of the lot. The first criticism is that the hives are in long straight rows, one
hive to a spot. There would be considerable confusion in the flight of the bees and more or less drifting.
It would be better to put the hives in irregular groups of twos, threes, and fours, so that the bees can better
recognize their entrances. Every hive should have an identity of its own. Otherwise there will be danger
of robbing and drifting. The second criticism is that it has no windbreaks.

rest. The differentiation may be accom-
plished in various ways: first, by painting
the hives different colors; second, by using
a different entrance or alighting-board;
third, by placing a stone or other distin-
guishing object near the entrance. The idea
is to place some distinctive mark by which
each hive may be quickly recognized by its
tenants. The best way to make such mark
is at the entrance so that all the bees can
see it, both on leaving and returning. See
Arrangement of Hives.

windbreaks.

The most perfect windbreak is an inclos-
ure of woods on three sides, with an open-
ing to the south. This, however, is not
available to all. An apiary so situated that
there is a clump of woods on one side and
buildings on the other two sides, leaving
only a southern aspect, is well sheltered
from the prevailing winds. But, as already
stated, if there are woods or buildings
around the east side of the beeyard, enough
so as to shade the hives until about noon,
the bees will not build up as fast in the
spring as those that can get the morning
sun up to 10 or 11 o'clock. In the ab-

sense of any natural or accidental protec-
tion whatever, it is highly important that
some sort of windbreak be provided. If it
is desirable to put up something permanent,
and something that will not rot out or
require repairs, the apiary should be out-
skirted with rows of hardy-growing ever-
greens, such as are seen in the publishers'
apiary shown further on. These, for the
first few years, would afford but a scanty
protection; but in 10 years' time they
answer their purpose admirably. In 1879
we enclosed our apiary with evergreens.
They have proved to be very hardy and
thrifty, and are now large trees.

A good windbreak is now regarded, for
winter protection, as about as important
(and some think more important) for out-
door-wintered bees, as packing and double-
walled hives. Of course, it is better still
to have hives packed as well as protected
from the prevailing winds. Experience has
shown that colonies, even tho well packed,
but placed where there are sharp wind ex-
posures on an elevation, will often die
before spring, or become so weakened as to
be practically worthless, when colonies of
the same strength in single-walled hives

60

APIARY

Marchant's home yard of 400 colonies. Along the Apalachicola River as many as 500 colonies can some-
times be supported in one yard. He has had as many as 600.

screened against the wind will winter com-
paratively well.

In a location on a prairie, especially if
it is permanent thruout the year, care
should be taken to see that it is protected
on the north and west especially. Some-
times an apiary can be placed at the bottom
of a hill lying at the north ; but it would be
far better if shrubbery were placed at
the brow of the hill to prevent the wind
from diving down and striking the colonies
with full force.

The best windbreak we have found con-
sists of trees or shrubbery of some sort. A
solid fence is not as effective, because the
wind will strike it squarely and glance up-
ward, when the on-rushing blast will cause
it to roll and dive downward.

At one of our outyards we had a high
board fence on the north, and it was dis-
tinctly noticeable that the third row of colo-
nies from the fence would come out in
much weaker condition than the rows either
to the north or south. Many colonies in
the third row died outright. This happen-
ed several winters. Finally an investigation
showed that, during a blow with fine parti-
cles of snow, the wind would strike the
fence, glance upward, and this upward
blast striking the wind from the north
would roll like a sort of horizontal whirl-
wind. This would gradually sag until it
struck the entrances full force facing south
in the third row. This horizontal whirl-
wind apparently seemed to spend all its
fury on this row of hives, while the other
rows were left comparatively free. Had it
not been for the fine snow we should never
have known the exact course of the wind.

An ideal location is the center of a large
orchard. The outside rows of trees will
break the force of the wind so that the blast
of air will not strike any particular hive;
or, in other words, the wind as it attempts
to pass thru among the trees encounters so
much friction that its force is expended. If
the hives are placed near the outside trees,
the wind will sometimes dive under the
tops.

A common fence made of rails, pickets,
or boards, will help break the force of
the wind; but in these latter days barbed
wire is used almost exclusively. It is best,
therefore, to locate the hives either in the
center of the orchard, or, if the orchard is
small, in an enclosure of low shrubbery or
bushes under trees. Berry vines, grape-
vines, or trimmings from the trees in the
form of brush, sometimes answer as a very
good substitute.

The apiary may often be located advan-
tageously behind barns and other outbuild-
ings on the farm; but as a general thing an
enclosure of this kind is used for wintering
and feeding stock.

Where the bees are located out on a
prairie in the North with a wind-sweep for
miles, it is quite essential that there be a
barrier of some sort to cut off the wind.
Quick-growing shrubbery should be placed
around the yard. In the mean time a screen
of brush may be used. If a fence is erect-
ed, one made of pickets, so that the wind
can filter thru and not glance upward and
downward, as explained, will be better. A
vertical trellis may be made for quick-gTOw-
ing vines; but the vines should be of such
a nature that the intertwining: branches will

APIARY

Gl

uiake a filtering screen even when the sum-
mer leaves are off. Evergreens make the
best windbreaks of all, but it takes years to
get them.

HIVE-STANDS.

It will be next in order to consider
whether we shall put the hives directly on

boards or pieces of scantling, cut off in
lengths equal to the width of the hive, and
leveled in the same manner as the bricks.
But the bricks and old boards should not
allow the hives to come too near the ground
so as to cause dampness, and, when the
bricks settle, the rotting of the under side
of the bottom-board.

BACKLOT APIARY OF ROBERT PESCHKO, DANBURY, CT.

This yard, like other backlot apiaries where there is a small number of colonies, has given a large
yield per colony. One can judge by the height of the hives. As explained in the text, a small apiary will
give larger yields in proportion than a large yard, providing, of course, there are no other bees in the
immediate locality. "While Mr. Peschko puts his hives up on stands, he realizes the importance of having
easy runways from the grm:nd up to the entrance. In cool or chilly weather this saves^ the lives of a good
many bees.

the ground or on some sort of stand. Many
beekeepers use four half-bricks, so arrang-
ing them that they come directly under the
four corners of the bottom-board. To

Ilive-stand made of four stakes.

secure a proper level, it will be necessary to
use a spade or pickax to cut down the soil
in spots sufficiently to let one or more
bricks come down to the grade of the oth-
ers. It is desirable, however, to have the
forward bricks a little lower than the rear
in order that the water may run out of the
entrances. Some use short strips of old

R. S. Holliiis of Sladenville, Ky., drives
four notched stakes into the ground, made
of stuff three inches wide, one inch thick,
and one or two feet long. The part driven

Double hive-stand.

into the ground is dipped in creosote, lin-
seed oil, or, better still, carbolineum, a kind
of wood preservative used by railway com-
panies to preserve ties. The illustration

CA

APIARY

Buckeye double-walled hive with a slanting-front hive-stand.

on page 61 will show the idea. The stakes
project up above the ground from one to
six inches. Four inches will ordinarily be
high enough. In that case the stakes need
not be more than 18 inches long. The length
of them, however, will depend a good deal
on the character of the soil and the pref-
erence of operator — whether the hive shall
be high or low.

The stakes should be driven by line, and
accurately measured off, and afterward lev-

Heddon liive-stand.

eled with a bottom-board and spirit level.
In cool spring weather there sliould be some
sort of board reaching from the ground up

to the alighting-board, so that the bees com-
ing in somewhat chilled may crawl from the
ground up into the hive.

Another arrangement that is favored by
a good many is a double hive-stand made as
shown in the illustration on this page.
The legs should not be less than two inches
square, and the ends to come in contact
with the ground should be dipped in tar, or

Hive-stand with slanting front.

some sort of wood preservative. The side-
boards, if the legs are a foot long, may be
anywhere from thiee to six inches wide.
The whole should be securely nailed and
made to conform to a level floor. When a
sufficient number have been made they can
be spaced off and leveled up in the yard
ready to receive pairs of hives, or even three
if thought necessary.

APIARY

65

This arrangement has much to recom-
mend it. It permits keeping the hives
in groups of two or three, so they may be
operated at convenient distance from the
ground. It also allows carrying out the
general plan of shaking swarms, as explain-
ed further under the head of Artificial
Swarming; of forming nuclei, or doubling
up in the fall. If there are two hives on
the same stand, and both of them are weak,
and neither of them strong enough to go
thru the winter, place all the combs and
bees in one hive, and put it in the space ex-
actly between where the two stood. Move
the other hive away entirely. The flying
bees of both hives will go back to the one
now at a point midway between where the
other two stood.

Another important feature of this hive-
stand is that it permits of being moved
from one out-apiary to another without
" pulling up stakes;" and a stand that will
hold two or three hives is cheaper than two
or three separate stands.

If the entrances of the hives are less than
a foot above ground it is desirable to have
some sort of board leading from the ground
up to the entrance, unless the alighting-
board itself is of good size, as shown on
page 61, in w^hich case the incoming bees
will be able to land without difficulty.

Another arrangement that has been used
to a considerable extent is what is known as
the Heddon hive-stand. It is made of four
rough boards of cheap lumber from four to
six inches wide, and one inch thick. The
dimensions should, of course, be of the size
of the, bottom-board. The manner of put-
ting together will be plain from the cut on
the left. This stand is preferred by a large
number of beekeepers.

A modified form, and a much better one,
is shown in the above two cuts. It has the
ODvious advantage of a slanting front from
the ground to the bottom-board.

A few use slabs of concrete. The objec-
tions to these are the expense and difficulty
of moving.

ARRANGEMENT OF HIVES.

Having decided upon the location, kind
of shade, windbreaks, and hive-stands, how
shall we arrange the hives in the apiary?
This question can best be answered by
3

studying the plans adopted by some of the
prominent apiarists. The lay of the land
and exposure to high winds will, of course,
have to be taken into consideration.

The usual plan is to arrange the hives in
long straight rows, each hive so many feet
distant from its neighbor, and on an exact
line drawn by a string. While such an
arrangement is pretty, it has one serious
objection. When hives all face in the
same direction, and in straight rows, each
hive by itself, the bees are apt to become
mixed up at the entrances, especially if the
hives are only two or three feet apart.
When the young bees are out at their play-
spells, they are liable to join the group
where the bees are flying the thickest. The
result is, their own colony is depleted while
the one that makes the biggest demonstra-
tion for the time being is getting more bees
than it can easily take care of. This causes
some colonies to be too strong, and swarm
too early, while the others are too weak, and
do nothing all summer. See Drifting.

It very often happens, also, that when
bees are taken out of the cellar and put
into regular rows they will drift in the
same way ; and this drifting makes trouble.

This whole drifting difficulty can be cor-
rected by giving each hive or group of
hives an individuality of its own. We
would, therefore, advise putting hives in
groups of two, three, or five; two here,
three there, five there, and so on. They
may be in regular groups of two or groups
of three, but in either case there should be
a bush or tree at or near each group to
enable the bees to distinguish one group
from another.

The following plans have been suggested
where great economy of space is desired;
but instead of following any one of the
plans, it is desirable to adopt a combination
so that the gTOups will be irregular in size
and number of hives, especially if there is
no distinguishing shrubbery or trees.

C. A. Hatch of Ithaca, Wis., a promi-
nent and extensive beekeeper, arranges his
hives on the plan shown below, which, as
will be seen, will work nicely in connection
with the double hive-stand shown on a
previous page.

66

APIARY

A PART OF AN APIARY ARRANGED ON THE
STRAIGHT-ROW PLAN.

The stars indicate the entrances. There
are two lanes, or alleyways; one six feet
wide for the bees, and one ten feet wide for
the apiarist and his horse and wagon. It
will be noticed that the hives are arranoed

6 leet.

*□

in pairs, in such a way that they face each
other with entrances six feet apart. In the
next alley their hacks are toward each oth-
er, with plenty of room for a roadway.

DR. C. C. MILLER^S SCHEME FOR PLACING
HIVES.

o o o _o_ _o_ o o o

□

a

Dr. C. C. Miller prefers this arrange-
ment. It certainly works well for him.

If the bees are to be wintered in quad-
ruple winter cases, as described under
Wintering at the close of this work, the
hives should be arranged in gTOups of four.
During the summer time the hives are plac-
ed from 10 to 15 inches apart; but during
the winter they are placed inside of the
winter cases close together, back to back
and side to side, without any intervening
space. They are then packed as described
under the head of Wintering.

In some localities, especially where the
bees are moved very much, it has been
found advantageous to place the hives in
groups of four by placing the entrances at
fche four corners, as the accompanying dia-
^am will explain, and there is then a little

less trouble from drifting than where the
hives are placed. in pairs with entrances side
by side. When the bees drift, especially in
spring, one colony in the pair may be very
strong and the other weak. One will be
inclined to swarm and the other die during
fruit bloom. It is suggested, therefore,
that when the hives are placed in gToups of
four for the purpose of packing for the
winter they face the four points of the
compass, or, more strictly speaking, the
four corners of the packing case. For sum-

□ □□

o o o

o o o

ALLEY FOR APIARIST.

"□a
□ □□

o o o

HIGHWAY FOR BEES.

o o o

o o o

□□□ □□□ □□□

o\zjoC3

ALLEY FOR APIARIST.

-ud^ud

□□□ ■ □□□ DDD

oo o ooo ooo

HIGHWAY FOR BEES.

mer the hives are shoved 10 or 15 inches
apart. In the fall they should be placed
closer together, and finally in immediate
contact. They are then packed as explain-
ed under Wintering Outdoors.

S. E. MILLER^S PLAN OF AN APIARY.

This plan is similar to the one used by
Mr. Hatch, but is arranged with a view of
still greater economy of space, not losing
sight of the scheme of a highway for bees
and an alleyway for the apiarist. Instead
of being in pairs they are arranged in
groups of five each. Little circles in front
of the hives indicate the entrances. The
groups can be from 10 to 20 feet apart;
but if put exactly 16 feet apart, and the
hives in the group 18 inches apart, an
apiary of 80 colonies can be accommodated
on a plot 75 feet square, or in the back
yard of an ordinary town lot. One advan-
tage of this grouping plan is, that the api-
arist can sit on one hive while he is work-
ing on another; and his tools, such as

APIARY

67

smoker, honey-knives, bee-brushes, etc., are
right at hand for the whole five hives.
Where there is only one hive on a stand, the
tools have to be carried to each hive.

The objection to this and the Hatch ar-
rangement is that one row of hives may
have to face prevailing winds, or a north or
vvest exposure. In the northern climates
this should be avoided. It is best, therefore,
to put hives in pairs and threes, and facing
either the south or east.

One can crowd more colonies on a given
area on the S. E. Miller plan (and yet
leave room to run wagons or carts among
the hives) than with any other. It is spe-
cially well adapted to a location in a gTOve ;
but as trees vary in size and the foliage
is sometimes lopsided or scant on some of
the trees, hence it is neither practicable
uor advisable to put five hives at each
tree. It is our practice to place beside
the smallest trees only one hive; beside
those a trifle larger, two hives; those still
larger, three hives; and, when they are of
fair size, five, as in the Miller plan. Ar-
ranging the hives thus gives each gTOup of
one, two, three, or five, as the case may be,
an individuality of its own, thus affording
the bees a better chance to distinguish their
own group. In every case the precaution
must be observed of placing the hives on
the north side of the tree. Where there
are two or three in a group, the beekeeper
can have the entrances facing toward the
south; or, if there are only two in a group,
he can have one hive with its entrance
facing toward the south, and the other
hive toward the east. In any case he should
avoid having hives face the north and west.
This is very important from the standpoint
of wintering.

KEEPING GRASS DOWN AEOUND THE HIVES.

Having decided on the location and plan
of the apiary, the next question that would
naturally arise is : Shall gTass be allowed to
grow and be kept down to an even height
with a lawnmower or shall the sod be cut
off entirely, and the hives be placed on a
smooth plot of clay leveled off like a brick-
yard? In favor of this latter arrangement
it may be said that queens can be easily
found, and that, when the sod is once re-
moved, all that is necessary is to go around
the hives with a hoe or scraping-knife to
shave off the weeds as fast as they come.

If they are kept down thus, and the plot is
sprinkled with a thin layer of sawdust
raked over evenly, we have an almost ideal
spot for bees. While gTOund floors of this
kind are nice and pretty to look at, it
means a gTeat deal of labor and expense,
because there is almost constant warfare
against weeds. They will crowd their heads
up thi'u the sawdust; and, at the present
low prices at which honey seUs, it may be
doubted whether it pays. The gTeat major-
it}' of beekeepers, however, after having
leveled the plot, leaving the sod, consider it
sufficient to keep the gTass down with a
lawnmower. If it is mown once or twice
a week, the yard not only looks pretty but
practically there is no inconvenience re-
sulting from the short gTass. A lawn apiary
is much prettier, and about as convenient
in every way as one with a brickyard bot-
tom.

KEEPING DOWN THE GRASS AT ENTRANCES
OF THE HIVES.

It is not practicable to run a lawnmower
any closer than about two inches to a hive;
and some sprinkle salt in front of the en-
trances and around the hives. This kills
all vegetation up to a point where the lawn-
mower can reach it.

But a good many apiarists do not even
have the time to use a lawnmower. As it
would be a gTeat task to keep the grass
down in front of the hives where it would
obstruct bees returning heavily laden from
the fields, it is a very common practice to
use a board little longer than the entrance,
and a foot or 18 inches wide. This board
should be eleated on the back, and attached
to the hive so that the bees may have an
easy runway clear up to the entrance.
These boards may be planed and painted;
but ordinarily we would recommend rough,
unplaned stuff — the cheaper the better.
This gives the bees a good foothold, and at
the same time saves some expense. See
Entrances.

sheep for keeping down grass in the

APIARY.

One of oui' neighbors occasionally lets
loose a few sheep in his apiary. It is well
known that our woolly friends can gnaw the
grass closer than any other stock. If a few
of them be turned into an apiaiy for a day

or two, they will cut down all the vegeta-
tion close to the hives, not leaving a sprig
of any sort. One would naturally suppose
that the bees would sting the animals, with
the possible result that a hive or two would
be overturned; but in actual practice no
trouble results. Once in a great while a
sheep is stung ; but instead of running and
bellowing like a calf, or kicking and rearing
like a horse, he quietly walks off to a
bush and plunges his head into it. A bee
cannot possibly hurt a sheep except around
the eyes and nose. We have been in a yard
where two or three sheep were allowed to
graze the season thru, and in all that time
they were not stung more than once or
twice, and yet the grass was kept down
automatically over every square foot of the
apiary.

One would suppose the droppings might
be somewhat offensive; but our neighbor
assures us that this is not the case, as the
manure very soon sun-dries, and it is of
such a nature that it makes no trouble in
the first place.

THE HOUSE-APIARY.

This is a term that is used to designate a
building to enclose a whole apiary. The
hives are usually arranged on shelves next
to the outside walls and having direct com-
munication with the outside.

As a general thing, an outdoor apiary is
cheaper and more satisfactory than one in

a building. For the house-apiary, the cap-
ital to put up the building must be fur-
nished in addition to that necessary to get
the hives. But there are conditions under
which the house-apiary may be and is used
to advantage — in fact, affords the only
method of keeping bees. Where land is
valuable, such as in or near the city, or in
localities occasionally visited by thieves or
mischievous boys, where bees, honey, and
everything, so far as possible, must be kept
under lock and key, it is a necessity. A
small building, also, to accommodate 35 or
40 colonies, even when these conditions do
not exist, may often be used very advan-
tageously in connection with the regular
apiary outdoors. When robbers are bad,
or when the day is rainy, the work can
continue right on inside the building be-
cause the apiarist can leave the outdoor
bees and resume operations inside, free
from robbers in the one case, or protected
from inclement weather in the other.

Until very recently house-apiaries have
not been regarded with very much favor
among practical beekeepers, principally on
account of faulty construction, and because
bee-escapes, when house-apiaries began to
come into use in certain quarters, were not
known ; but since the advent of these labor-
saving devices, the troubles arising from
bees leaving the hives and crawling over
the floor to die, or to be trampled on if not
already dead, at the first visit of the api-

W. C. Sorter's house-apiary. The rags of different colors are used to enable the bees to mark their own

entrances more easily.

arist, are eliminated. These and other in-
conveniences have been almost wholly re-
moved; and perhaps the only reason why
the house-apiary is not more generally used
is the expense or first cost.

HOW TO CONSTRUCT A HOUSE-APIARY.

The building may be oblong, square, oc-
tagonal, or round. The round or octag-
onal form will, perhaps, save steps during
the operation of extracting; because, if the
building is only 12 or 14 feet in diameter,
the extractor may be put in the center of
the room, and every hive will be equally
distant or practically so, and the combs
may be transferred from hive to extractor,
and vice versa, without taking more than
one step ; whereas, if the building is oblong
some hives will be further from the seat of
operations. The house-apiary building we
formerly used was octagonal ; but we found
it a very expensive thing to make, and we
were greatly annoyed by a leaky roof; and
the only way to make it tight, with its many
angles, was to cover it with tin. We would,
therefore, construct a plain building 10
feet wide and 20 or 30 feet long. Where
the winters are cold the building should hy
all means he douhle-walled. Walls should
not be less than four inches thick and six
would be much better. Sawdust or some

sort of packing-material should be poured
in between the two walls. Unless it is
very warmly packed there will be bad win-
tering. Our own building is lined on the
inside with tarred paper, and re-covered
with manilla paper; but we would not rec-
ommend it for any one else, because holes
are constantly being punched thru it. A bet-
ter way is to line it with wood — some cheap
matched ceiling. Thru the roof, and ex-
tending thru the center of the ceiling, we
would have a ventilator-shaft, made of
wood, about a foot square, and so arranged
that it can be closed at will. During sum-
mer weather the smoker can be set di-
rectly beneath the shaft, and the ventilator
opened for the escape of smoke.

As to doors and windows there should be
only one window, and that opposite the
door, so as to allow a draft to pass directly
thru, because the building at best becomes
very sultry in hot summer weather. An
ordinary tight-fitting door should be used,
hinged in the usual way. To the outside of
the door frame there should be a wire-cloth
screen door. At the top of the door the wire
cloth should extend up as seen in the cut
below ; that is to say, it should be nailed on
the outside, and should extend four or five
inches beyond the bottom inside edge of the
frame, leaving a bee-space between the

70

APIARY

Interior of Sorter's house-apiary. The colonies are arranged along the south wall on the left side. The rest
of the building is used for empty supers, supplies, etc.

frame and cloth. This is to allow the bees
that colleet in the room during the time of
working, as, for instance, during extracting
time, to escape in accordance with the
natural instinct that prompts them to crawl
upward. The window should have wire
cloth nailed on the outside in like manner,
the same extending above the window cas-
ing as in the figure.

the engraving in the next page. This
will be more reliable, as the robbers cannot
by any possibility return thru the Porter,
while they may learn the way back thru the
projecting screen.

At several points, close on a line with the

A better method is that shown in the
larger cut, where the edges of the wire
cloth are formed into bee-escapes.

A better arrangement still, and the ex-
pense is but slight, is ordinary screen win-
dows. At two of the upper corners attach
Porter honey-house bee-escapes as shown in

floor, should be one-inch holes, on the out-
side of which should be more Porter honey-
house bee-escapes. The purpose of the

APIARY

71

Addition built on the south side of E. C. Barber's shop, 20 feet long and 5 feet wide. It is covered
with two-ply paper, granite finish. Cost for material and labor, $22.50. Ten colonies are wintered inside
this building, temperature 45 to 50 Fahr. In hot weather the side can be opened to give plenty of ventila-
tion. There is also a door in each end.

opening in these escapes is to let the bees
that happen to be inside after Avorking
crawl out toward the light; and, once out-
side, they will enter their own hives, with
the possible exception of a few young ones,
and they will be accepted at any of the
entrances.

A few years ago it was not deemed
necessary to have anything but end boards
to hold up the frames. These boards resting
on the floor or shelf were secured against
the side of the building. It remained then
to close up the open side with a tight-fitting
division-board, and the top with a quilt.
But this practice was found to be very
objectionable ; and those who manage house-
apiaries now prefer to use ordinary out-
door hives instead, primarily because the
bees can be more easily confined to the
hives; and, secondly, because the indoor
and outdoor hives are one and the same,
and interchangeable.

The hive entrances should be so arranged
that they communicate with openings thru
the side of the building; and then ordinary
covers should be used to confine the bees
strictly within the hives. In lieu of a cover
a thin % board, or inside super cover, may
answer just as well ; but, so far as possible,

the house-apiary should be so constructed
that everything outdoors may be moved in-
side, and vice versa, whenever requirements
make it necessary. The dimensions of the

Porter honey-house bee-escape.

house-apiary inside should be just large
enough to take a row of hives without wast-
ing space.

When the building of a house-apiary is

72

ARTIFICIAL FERTILIZATION

double-walled, it is necessary to provide
some sort of bridgework or housing to cover
the runway between the entrances of the
hives inside and the openings outside. In
our original building we used a two-inch
round hole, because it was easier to insert
a tube than to make a narrow rectangular
box or housing. But a round hole as large
as this is not desirable, and we therefore
recommend a covered runway thru the
building to the regular entrance of the hive
of about the usual dimensions.

On account of convenience in handling
frames, many prefer to have the hive sides
against the building. In that case there will
have to be a slot in the side of the bottom-
board instead of the end. Others prefer,
on account of economy of space, to place
the front end of the hive against the build
ing. When this is done it involves no
change in the structure of the bottom-
board; but it makes the handling of the
frames a little awkward as will readily be
seen by the illustrations of the Sorter
house-apiary.

To economize still further the space of
the building, there should be another tier of
hives about four feet above the floor; and
these should be supported by shelving that
reaches entirely around the room. The same
arrangement with regard to entrances may
be employed as described for the bottom
tier.

Now let us urge again. Do not get the
idea that you can build hives cheaper, and
have them a part of the building. The
ordinary outdoor hives are in every way
much more handy. And another thing, do
not be satisfied to put just a mere quilt on
top of the frames. It is essential that the
bees be confined strictly to their own hives,
otherwise they will be crawling from one
hive to another, killing queens occasionally,
getting on the floor, and getting mashed, to
say nothing of the inconvenience to the
apiarist when he desires to work inside.

PUTTING CROSS COLONIES IN HOUSE-APIARIES.

The crossest bees are but little inclined
to sting inside of a building. When they
fly from the combs that one is handling,
they find themselves inclosed; and this so
disconcerts them that they immediately fly
to the screen windows and escape. James
ITeddon said, " If you have a cross colony,
put it in the house-apiary and see how
tame it will become."

HOUSE-APIARIES FOR WINTERING.

As the building is double-walled, and is
(or ought to be) packed, colonies will re-
quire less protection than outdoors. In-
deed, about all that is necessary to put
them into winter quarters is to put on
an extra comb-honey super, tuck in a chafl
cushion, replace the cover, when the bees
will be prepared. In very severe cold
weather, a small fire, or heat from a large
lamp in the room, may, perhaps, be used to
advantage; but artificial heat in wintering-
should be used sparingly and with care, for
oftentimes it does more harm than good.

E. C. Barber of Framingham, Mass.,
whose house-apiary is shown, thus summa-
rizes the advantages of keeping bees inside
of a building :

I prefer the house-apiary instead of the
outside yard for several reasons. Fii-st, you
can work at your bees and not be among
those flying in the air, especially if the win-
dows in the house are closed. What few
bees fly away from any hive you are working
on inside of the house, instead of trying to
frighten or sting you, will fly to the window
to get out. Second, you do not have to carry
the hives in and out of the cellar in the
spring and fall, or move them to their win-
ter quarters. Third, your bees are always
protected from the snow, rain, and winds'.
Fourth, they are at leisure for a flight in the
winter any time when it is warm enough,
such as the past few days have been, when
the thermometer was around 70. Fifth, in
this house-apiary I can see a big difference
in spring brood-rearing; also protection dur-
ing cold nights, when bees are working in
sections during the summer.

Mr. Barber is entirely correct. The only
serious objection to a house-apiary is its
non-portability and its expense. In these
days of out-apiaries, colonies may occupy a
location for only one season. Of course a
house-apiary can be made comparatively
small and light; but the expense of moving
it even then would be considerable.

APIARY, OUT.— See Out-Apiaries.
APIS DORSATA.— See Races of Bees.

ARTIFICIAL FERTILIZATION.— Af-
ter the reader has read the subjects of
Drones, Queens^ and Queen-rearing, he
will fully understand that the mating of
the drone and the queen in a state of nature
takes place on the wing in the air, and never
occurs inside the hive. Nature has seemed
to design, for the purpose of avoiding in-
breeding, that the queen shall find her mate

ARTIFICIAL HEAT

73

in the open air, where, according to the law
of chance, she will in all probability meet
some drone not dii'ectly related to her, and
at the same time, one the most vigorous,
because it is only the strongest flyers that
are successful. Attempts have been made
at various times to bring about fertilization
within the hive or within some small tent
connected with the hive entrance. But all
such attempts have resulted in failure, be-
cause the drones and the queens, as soon
as they find they are confined in a small
enclosure, will bump against the sides of
the mosquito netting or wire cloth, vainly
seeking to escape.

A good many years ago J. S. Davitt
of Aragon, Gra., put up a tent of mosquito
netting, 30 feet tall and 30 feet in diameter.
Hives of bees containing select drones were
placed aroimd the bottom edge of the tent,
each hive having two entrances — one open-
ing into the in closure and the other into
the outer air. The latter was covered with
perforated zinc in order to compel the
queen and drones,- when seeking flight, to
pass out of the other entrance into the en-
closure. This inside entrance was kept
closed for about a week; then on some fa-
vorable day, from 11 a. m. to 1:30 p. m., it
was opened and the drones and the queens
were allowed to go into the tent. Mr.
Davitt reported that a very pretty school of
drones would be found flying at the top.
and that he was successful in mating many
queens. It will be noticed that the worker
bejs, accustomed as they are to the outside
entrance, which is always open, do not go
into the inside of the tent during the mating
hours, so that the drones and the queens
are largely by themselves.

Unfortunately, this general plan has been
tried by onlj'' one or two others, but with-
out success. So far no one else has had the
nerve to try it. One man reported having
tried taking a drone of mating age and
pressing him until the drone organs were
distended. The spermatozoa were then in-
jected into the body of a queen of mating
age. He stated that, altho the wings of the
queen had been clipped when she was one
day old, she began to lay and the eggs de-
veloped into worker brood. The experiment
is worth trying, and the author suggests
that some of the ABC scholars try it out
and report results.

So far the only feasible plan for mating
queens with select drones is to put perfo-
rated zinc over the entrances of all colonies
not having choice drones, leaving only se-
lect drones to have the freedom of the air.
If there are no other bees in the locality
except from hives having screened en-
trances, the chances will be largely in fa-
vor of having the queens mated to the
drones of the colonies selected. A still
better plan is to take the queen-mating nu-
clei to an island where there is a colony of
select drones or several of them. This island
should be located at least five miles from
the mainland. See Queexs, Queex-rear-
ING_, and Droxes.

AETIFICIAL HEAT.— As strong colo-
nies early in the season are the ones that
get the honey and furnish the early swarms
as well, and are in fact the real source of
profit to the beekeeper, it is not to be won-
dered at that much time and money have
been spent in devising ways and means
wherebj^ all might be brought up to the
desired strength in time for the first yield
of honey. As market gardeners and oth-
ers hasten early vegetables by artificial heat,
or by taking advantage of the sun's rays
by greenhouses, it would seem that some-
thing of the kind might be done with bees ;
in fact, the author, by the aid of glass
and the heat of a stove, has succeeded in
rearing young bees every month in ti.e
year, even while the weather outside was
at zero or lower; but, as nearly as we can
learn, all work of this kind has resulted in
failui^e, so far as profit is concerned. The
bees, it is true, learned to fly under the
glass and come back to their hives ; but for
every bee that was raised in confinement,
two or three were sure to die, from one
cause or another, and we at length decided
that it was best to wait until summer weath-
er, and then take full advantage of it. See
Pollen.

Later we made experiments with artificial
heat while the bees were allowed to fiy out
at pleasure; and, altho it seemed at first to
have the desired effect, so far as hastening
brood-rearing was concerned, the result
was, in the end, just about as before; more
bees were hatched, but the unseasonable ac-
tivity killed off twice as many as were
reai'ed, and the stocks that were let alone
in the good old way came out ahead. Since

74

ARTIFICIAL PASTURAGE

then we have rather endeavored to check
very early brood-rearing, and with better
results.

A few experiments with artificial heat
have apparently succeeded, and it may be
that it will eventually be made a success;
but our impression is, that we had much
better turn our energies to something else,
until we have warm settled weather. Pack-
ing the hives with chaff, sawdust, or any
other warm, dry, porous material, so as to
economize the natural heat of the cluster,
seems to answer the purpose much better,
and such treatment seems to have none of
the objectionable features of working with
artificial heat. The packing needs to be as
close to the bees as possible; and to this
end all the combs should be removed except
such as are needed to hold their stores.
Bees thus prepared seem to escape the ill
effects of frosty nights in the early part of
the season, and exactly what was hoped for
by the use of artificial heat is accomplished
for brood-rearing.

For the benefit of those who may be
inclined to experiment, the author would
state that he covered almost his entire api-
ary one spring with manure on the plan of
a hotbed, and had the mortification of see-
ing nearly all the bees die of spring dwin-
dling. Another time he kept the house-
apiary wanned up to a summer temperature
with a large oil lamp, for several weeks,
just to have them beat those out of doors.
The investment resulted in losing nearly all
the house-apiary with spring dwindling,
while those outside stayed in their hives, as
honest bees should, until settled warm
weather, and then did finely, just because
he was " too busy to take care of them "(1)
as he used to express it.

WINTERING BEES IN A WARM ROOM.

But a number have wintered single colo-
nies of bees in the living-room of a house
where the temperature was kept between
65 and 72, night and day. In the cases
mentioned, the colonies were placed on a
shelf next to a window, with the entrance
communicating with the outside. All old
and superannuated bees can thus escape at
any time; and when the weather is suitable
the bees can fly. A colony of bees was plac-
ed in one of the offices of the A. I. Root
Co. and was there for at least three years.

Some years it seemed to winter veiy nicely ;
but taking one year with another, these
indoor colonies do not seem to get ahead
like those outdoors. The warmer atmos-
phere in which the hive is placed has a
tendency to start brood-rearing. This
forces the bees out on unfavorable days,
with the result that they never return. The
slight amount of brood hatched does not
compensate for the number lost in this way ;
and the result is, the colony gradually goes
down. By the time spring comes on, the
queen is not ready for the active duties of
the hive, for the simple reason that she has
been laying more or less all winter; and,
probably, if she were a human being, she
would say she was " all petered out." At
all events, such colonies do not build up like
those that have been well packed outdoors
or put in the cellar.

For a further consideration of this sub-
ject see Temperature.

ARTIFICIAL PASTURAGE. — Altho
there was formerly quite a trade in seeds
and plants to be cultivated for merely their
honey alone, little encouragement can be
given to those who expect to realize money
by such investments. There is certainly a
much greater need of taking care of the
honey that is almost constantly wasting just
for lack of bees to gather it.* A field of
buckwheat will perhaps occasionally yield
enough honey to pay the expense of sowing,
as it comes in at a time when the bees in
many places would get little else; and if it
does not pay in honey, it certainly will in
grain.

Alfalfa at the present time affords the
best example of artificial pasturage of any-
thing we have. But alfalfa will not gTOw
everywhere, or, at least, not until the soil
has been put in the right condition with
proper inoculation. See Alfalfa. In the
West, where it grows under irrigation, it
yields as much or more honey than any of
the natural or wild sources of the country.

Sweet clover furnishes an artificial as
well as wild pasturage, and is now being
grown as a regular farm crop. In many
portions of the West where the land is too
dry to grow alfalfa, sweet clover will thrive.
In many parts of Kentucky sweet clover is
coming to be a very profitable crop. It
often does well on land that will not gTOW

* See Foreword.

ARTIFICIAL SWARMING

75

anything else, especially on rocky hillsides.
There thousands of cattle are fed on the
legume, and there thousands of colonies of
bees yield handsome returns in the way of
fine honey. See Sweet Clover.

Alsike clover also furnishes artificial pas-
turage in the Eastern States. It often
takes the place of ordinary red clover that
fails to do well. Alsike can stand wet feet,
but red clover will not. This discovery has
caused many farmers to gTOw it either with
timothy or exclusively, and the result is
that wherever it is extensively gTOwn the
keeping of bees is profitable.

In general, it may be said: Plant and
sow all that will be sure to pay aside from
the honey crop, and then, if the latter is
secured, you will be so much ahead; but
beware of investing much in seeds that are
for plants producing nothing of value ex-
cept honey. Alsike, white Dutch clover,
buckwheat, rape, alfalfa, and the like, it
will do to invest in ; but catnip, mignonette.
Rocky Mountain bee-plant, etc., should be
handled rather sparingly.

The question, " How many acres of a
good honey-bearing plant would be needed
to keep 100 colonies busyf has often been
asked. If 10 acres of buckwheat would an-
swer in full bloom, perhaps there would be
needed 10 other similar fields sown with
rape, mustard, catnip, etc., blossoming at
as many different periods, to keep them
going the entire warm season. It would
seem 500 acres would do nicely, even if
nothing were obtained from other soui'ces,
but at present it can only be conjectui-ed.
A colony of bees will frequently pay for it-
self in 10 days during a good yield from
natural pasturage; and if this state of af-
fairs could be kept up during the whole of
the summer months, it would be quite an
item. Alfalfa, sainfoin, sweet clover, buck-
wheat, rape, alsike clover, crimson and red
clover, cow peas of the South, and some
others, are the only cultivated plants that
unquestionably have given paying crops of
honev. See Honey Plants.

ARTIFICIAL SWARMING. — Before
the reader takes up this subject he should
read carefully the article on Swarming in
order that he may understand the condi-
tions that bring about swarming in a natu-
ral way. He will then be in better position
to understand the principles involved in
artificial swarming.

The natural swarm, when it starts forth,
is fully prepared to abandon its old home;
and, no matter where it may be placed, its
individual members have no tliought of go-
ing back to the old stand. If, therefore,
the beekeeper would succeed with artificial
swarming, he must practice some scheme
that will remove the home-loving instincts
to such an extent that the swarm made up
artificially will stay in the new location;
and, not only ihal, will be in such a condi-
tion that it 'S, to all intents and purposes,
a natural swarm. As it is somewhat diffi-
cult, however, to remove artificially the
home-loving instinct, the beekeeper is ob-
liged to cater somewhat to it, and he
therefore, so far as possible, hives his ar-
tificial swarm in the old location, so that, if
the home-loving instinct has not been re-
moved, or only in part, he will still hold
bees that would otherwise have been
" homesick," and have gone back.

The swarm that goes out naturally, for a
few days prior to its issuance, begins to
become logy. The bees show a disposition
to hang out in front of the entrance, and
there seems to be a general letting-up in
their activities. Swarming cells are started.
Whenever this condition begins to manifest
itself, it is time to act. Instead of letting
the colony go on and finally swarm unex-
pectedly at its convenience when the owner
may be away, he anticipates its action and
forces it to swarm at his convenience. The
plan in brief is as follows:

After the honey flow has begun, and
perhaps three or four days (not earlier)*
before the colony is expected to cast a
swarm, the hive is moved to one side of the
stand, and an empty one, just like it, is put
in its place. In this hive are placed frames
having foundation starters or frames with
full sheets — preferably the latter. But if
neither is available, combs may be used.
The bees of the parent colony, including the
old queen, are then shaken or brushed in
front of the entrance of the new hive on
the old stand. Some go so far as to brush
all the bees out of the old hive; and this
can be done if the weather is hot and nights
warm; for j^oung hatching brood will soon

* Reports show that, if the colony is shaken or
brushed from one week to ten days before a swarm
would otherwise issue, no good will be accomplished
and that the hees will be likely to swarm. The
shaking should not take place before the bees feel
and show the desire to swarm.

76

ARTIFICIAL SWARMING

be out to take care of the young brood.
The practice of shaking all the bees is not
to be recommended as it is too risky. The
supers from the parent hive are next put
on the new one. The parent colony is then
moved to a new location or left by the side
of the new hive with its entrance facing in
the same direction. In either case the en-
trance of the old hive should be contracted.

If work is already partly begun in the
super, the bees will continue work and
rush the honey above. In some cases it may
be advisable to use perforated zinc between
the super and brood-nest to keep the queen
below.

Swarm shfiken on the alighting-board of the new
hive.

The plan will meet favor, especially with
those in localities where the season is short
and the honey flow rapid ; and it will doubt-
less enable many who usually get no comb
lioney at all to secure a good crop.

The question may be asked, " What is
done with the parent hive and all its
brood?" If left beside the new colony,
the brood, when hatched out, is shaken in
front of the new hive, so that at the last
diive all the bees that would have been
hatched in the original colony are now
given to the brushed swarm, after which the
hive is moved away. In this respect a
brushed or " shook " swarm, as some call it,
will secure more comb honey than a natural
swarm, because it has the additional
strength of the young bees. The queen

from the old hive (if one has been raised
or introduced) should, of course, be remov-
ed before the last drive and given to some
other colony.

While this plan of forcing the swarm
ahead of time at the convenience of the
apiarist generally gives satisfaction among
beekeepers, some do not make it work; but
so many have reported favorably thru the
bee journals that it is quite certain, if de-
tails are carefully followed, it will prove
successful with most people.

Another plan has been suggested some-
what similar to that already described; but
instead of shaking all the bees at once
the operation is performed at two different
times. For example, a colony has four
combs of brood taken out of the center of
the brood-nest and in their place is put an
equal number of frames of full sheets of
foundation. The combs removed are now
shaken one by one in front of the entrance
of the new hive containing foundation on
the old stand. Two or three days after-
ward, when work gets nicely started on
the first frames of foundation, the remain-
ing old combs with their brood and honey
are removed and shaken in front of the en-
trance, as before. The beeless brood should,
of course, be given to other colonies that
can use it to advantage.

This involves the principle of the brushed
or shaken-swarm idea, and has the further
advantage that the bees are not liable to
swarm out as when they are shaken all at
one drive on nothing but foundation.

DOOLITTLE MODIFIED SHAKEN-SWARM
METHOD.

This plan involves some of the principles
of the shaken-swarm method; and in cer-
tain localities it can be employed to very
good advantage. The method in brief is as
follows. Sets of partly filled extracting-
frames from weak colonies the year before,
as will be explained later, are kept over
winter in the honey-house, until the spring
or early summer, when upper stories are
filled with them and placed on all strong
colonies. The idea of this procedure is to
make the colony below feel rich in stores so
there will be no curtailment of brood-rear-
ing. If any honey should come in from
fruit bloom or other sources before the
main flow, it is promptly carried upstairs
without crowding the queen below.

ASTER

77

A week or two prior to the expected
honey flow or swarming- season, this upper
storj^ is lifted off and the old colony moved
to one side. On the old stand is placed
another empty hive. The set of combs, all
save one, that were originally in the upper
story, containing more or less honey, are
now put down in the empty hive on the old
stand. One comb is left out in the center,
and replaced by a frame partly filled with
brood from another hive. On this hive, at
the parent stand thus prepared, is placed a
comb-honey super containing sections filled
with full sheets of foundation, and having
at the center 10 or 12 other sections with
partly drawn combs. On this super is
placed another of sections with only full
sheets of foundation. Last of all the cover
is put on. The frames of brood put in the
old hive removed to one side are now taken
out and shaken in front of the entrance of
this newly prepared hive at the old stand.
The brood is then stacked up on the few
weak colonies not run for comb honey. As
the bees hatch, the combs are more or less
filled with honey during the season, thus
furnishing the sets of extracting-frames to
be used for the comb-honey colonies the
next year. The queen in the comb-honey
hive will have the one frame of brood part-
ly filled where she can begin laying. The
large amount of honey in the brood-nest
the bees will begin carrying upstairs to the
supers in order to give the queen more
room in which to lay. Thus work is started
in filling the sections before the honey flow
actually begins; and when honey does come
in, the bees continue to store it above with-
out any swarming. In the meantime the
queen occupies ever\^ available cell in the
lower part of the hive.

G. M. Doolittle, the author of this sys-
tem, has tested it most thoroly several sea-
sons; and one j^ear in particular, when the
season was only fair, he secured an average
of 1141/2 pounds of comb honey per colo-
ny, icith no siuarms at any out^^ard-

While the first sections will contain a
little old honey, yet, if it be buckwheat or
other good honey, it does not impair- the
fiiivor, for there are many who like a little
buckwheat flavor in comb honey; and such
sections, Mr. Doolittle says, sell at the
highest market price, but on account of the
danger of gTanulating should be sold at

once and around home. For further par-
ticulars see Doolittle's book, " A Year's
Work in an Out-apiary," put out by the
publishers of this work.

The author tried what was known as the
Sibbald method of swarm conti'ol at one of
his outyards. It involved the idea of hav-
ing the colonies arranged in pairs, one very
much stronger than the other. When the
stronger colony began to show evidence of
its intention to swarm, it was shifted over
to the place oc^cupied by the weaker one,
and the weaker one placed on its stand.
The supers on the strong colony were given
to the weak one. Theoretically, all of the
flying bees would go to their old stand ; the
cells that were built in the colony preparing
to swarm would be destroj^ed because it
would be robbed of all its flying bees. But
the scheme worked only partially. Some
strains of bees would go back to their old
stand in spite of the change of position.

So far the various methods of artificial
swarming have been discussed. Under the
head of Increase^ the question of vari-
ous methods for increasing the number of
our colonies by di\uding or otherwise is
taken up. The reader should understand
that " artificial swarming " is one thing,
and " increase by dividing " is entirely an-
other. The former is used to prevent natu-
ral swarming, or, rather, to put it at a time
to suit the convenience of the beekeeper and
yet get a crop of honey. The latter does
not contemplate the idea of securing honey,
but rather an increase in the number of
colonies.

ASTEE— {Aster, the Greek word for
star.) Asters are also called starworts, and
in England Christmas daisies from their
late period of blooming. This is a genus of
the Compositae, the largest and most impor-
tant plant family, to which also belong the
goldenrods, sunflowers, thistles, and daisies.
There are about 142 species of asters in
North America, and about half that number
in northeastern America. The species are
^'ery difficult to distinguish, as there are
numerous varieties and hybrids. Asa Gray
declares in one of his letters that the asters
threatened to reduce him to blank despaii'.
The so-called flower of an aster is in reality
a compact cluster, or composite, of many
small sessile flowers subtended by scale-like
bracts, termed a head or capitulum. The

78

ASTER

marginal or ray-flowers have strap-shaped
corollas, and are blue, purple, or white, but
never yellow. The central or disc flowers
are tubular, and range in color from dark
to golden yellow, changing in some species
in the later stages of the flower to crimson
purple, brown purple, or purple. The ge-

r -

I

Aster.

nus is represented by a larger number of
species in North America than in any other
continent.

The asters are visited by many insects
besides honeybees, such as bumblebees,
wasps, butterflies, and flies. On the New
England aster there have been collected 46
different kinds of insects, and on the com-
mon A. Puniceus, or purple-stemmed aster,
77 different visitors. Thus the honeybee has
many competitors for the nectar which is
secreted at the bottom of the tubular flow-
ers.

Aster honey is gathered chiefly from the
very common species A. multiflorus , A.
' vimineus, A. laterifiorus, A. Tradescanti,
and A. paniculatus, all of which produce
dense clusters of small white-rayed heads,
except A. multifloriis, which has the rays
white or purplish. Over large areas in
Kentucky, Indiana, and other States the

bloom is so abundant that the fields look as
if covered with snow. The plants are often
very bushy, growirig from six inches to
three feet tall. When the weather is favor-
able colonies will pack their combs with
aster honey, or if combs have already
been filled from an earlier source a surplus
if often stored. One season at Underwood,
Ind., there were hundreds of acres of white
aster in bloom, and 100 pounds of comb
honey per hive is reported to have been ob-
tained. At Langnau, Ky., the scales show-
ed a gain of 25 pounds in four days from
Oct. 2 to 5. Forty-eight colonies harvested
3,000 pounds, of which one-half was sur-
plus. There were ninety-five acres of white
aster within reach of the bees. During 12
days of hot weather in September, 1914, J.
L. Byer reports that 250 colonies 100 miles
north of Toronto, Can., simply jammed the
brood-nests solid with aster honey.

Pure aster honey is white — as white, ac-
cording to beekeepers familiar with it, as
white-clover honey ; but it is seldom obtain-
ed pure. Usually it is colored amber or
yellow by honey from goldenrod or other
late-blooming autumnal flowers. The asters,
however, remain in bloom longer than the
goldenrods. When newly gathered it has a
rank odor, but this disappears when it has
ripened. It has a pleasant aromatic taste,
and is so thick that at times it is extracted
with difficulty. It crystallizes quickly witb
a finer gTain than goldenrod. It has been
stated to be unsuitable for table use, but 0.
H. Townsend writes that in Michigan he
sells aster honey for the same price as red
raspberry, and that it has a fine flavor and
good body. Other beekeepers also describe
the flavor as agreeable.

Many beekeepers have complained that
their colonies suffered more or less loss
when wintering on aster honey. So strong
has been the opposition to it for this pur-
pose that its removal and the replacing of
the stores by feeding sugar syrup has been
repeatedly advised. It is not improbable
that aster honey gathered so late that it
only partially ripens and remains unsealed
is liable to deteriorate and become deleteri-
ous before spring; but any other honey or
even sugar syrup under similar conditions
would be objectionable. Its tendency to
candy quickly and solidly, making it only
partially available to the bees, has also

Aster Tradescanti.

Aster puniceus.

80

BACKLOT BEEKEEPING

added to its poor reputation as a winter
food. Mismanagement on the part of the
apiarist seems likewise in some instances
to have been laid to the fault of aster hon-
ev. But if this honey possessed properties
that were actually injurious to bees,
they would appear uniformly everywhere,
but this is not the case. The experience
of scores of beekeepers, continued thru
many years, proves that aster honey well
ripened and sealed is an excellent winter
food for bees. And why should it not be?
The asters are bland innocuous herbs,
which are readily eaten by domestic animals,
either dried as hay or green in the pastures.
The 250 colonies of J. L. Byer, which pack-
ed their hives with aster honey, survived
the winter in fine condition. In a symposi-
um, published in Gleanings in Bee Culture,
Aug. 15, 1915, many beekeepers testified
that they had wintered bees successfully
year after year on aster honey with very
little loss. It has been suggested that per-
haps different species of aster yield differ-
ent kinds of honey ; but there is no ground
for such a supposition. On the contrary,

the nectar of the various species, as in the
case of the goldenrods, is very similar.

In Georgia several species of aster (the
most common are A. adnatus and A. squar-
rosus) grow all over the State, and in many
places are the main reliance for winter
stores. In a few localities a surplus is
obtained. The honey is medium in quality,
of fair color, but candies quickly in tlie
comb if not sealed. The blooming time is
from September to November.

Several widely distributed and abundant
species of aster are well worthy of cultiva-
tion for their handsome flowers. A very
couunon form is A. patens, or purple daisy
which has bright blue-purple flowers. The
New England aster {A. novae-angliae) has
stout hairy stems, eight feet tall, with vio-
let-purple rays, rarely white, or in one va-
riety pink. Very common along the Atlan-
tic Coast, especially in swampy marshes, is
A. novi-belgii. The purple-stemmed aster,
co-cash, or meadow scabish (A. puniceus),
which is common in swamps, is a tall hairr
species with purple stems and flowers.

B

BACKLOT BEEKEEPING. — A very
large number of those who keep bees are
those who might properly be called back-
1 otters — those who live in cities and towns
and who keep a few bees in connection
with a few chickens or a little garden. The
backlotters comprise professional men,
and business men, as well as women and
children of their families. We might in-
clude in this class also the farmers' wives
who have a few colonies to pollinate fruit
trees, and who likewise desire recreation,
amusement, and a little money on the side
for the family. Bees will earn as much
money as chickens and often do much bet-
ter.

Backlot beekeeping does not differ great-
ly from the keeping of bees on a large
scale except that there will be no outyards.

no expensive moving-truck and elaborate
extracting-outfits, and no hired help. The
backlotter, primarily, whether man, woman,
or child, is one who desires to take up some
form of amusement or recreation — some-
thing that will keep one outdoors and some-
thing that will take up his time while he
is out of the store, ofiSee, or shop. If the
backlotter happens to be an overworked
business or professional man, he will surely
need some line of diversion — something
that will rest his mind, and take it off from
his business or profession, and allow it to
rest and recuperate in new lines of thought.
Why not beekeeping? See Beekeeping
FOR Women.

While there are those who take up the
hobby of kodaking or taking pictures, of
running a little garden, or keeping a few

BACKLOT BEEKEEPING

81

chickens, the number of those who are tak-
ing- up bees is increasing very rapidly. The
average back lot in the city will not permit
of a very extensive garden — in fact, in
most cases no garden at all. The chicken
business is liable to cause trouble with the
neighbors, especially if the chickens fly
over the fence and scratch up Mrs. Xeigh-
bor's posy bed. While bees will not scratch
up gardens they may soil Mrs. Neighbor's
wash on the line ; but a box or two of honey
in advance will so sweeten lier up that she
will tolerate any inconvenience of this kind,
which fortunately occurs only about once a
year. After bees have been confined for
the winter, on their first flight they dis-
charge their liquid feces on the white lin-
en if it happens to be on the line at the
time; but a rinsing of the clothes will make
them as clean as before, and the pail or box
of honey will do wonders in advance by
sweetening up feelings that would other-
wise be sour. The neighbor should be ad-
vised not to hang out her clothes just after
the bees are set out of the cellar in the
spring. Or better, the beekeeper should
not put the bees out till after wash-day.

But the objection may be made that bees
may sting the neighbor's children. While
this may happen, such occurrences are not
common. If one will follow the plain and
simple directions with regard to handling
bees, there will be no trouble. Indeed,
there are backlot apiaries in all of our
large cities (and even on the roofs of some
large office buildings) — himdreds and hun-
dreds of them; and when we consider the
backlot apiaries in the smaller towns, their
number can be measured by the thousands :
and yet out of all these thousands of little
apiaries it is only about once in four or five
years that we hear of a single case of trou-
ble, and only once in about 10 or 15 years
that resort is had to the courts. (See Laws
Relating to Bees and Bees as a Nui-
sance.)

The danger from stings may be averted
by reading carefully the articles on Api-
AEiES^ Robbing^ Stixgs^ BEE-s^roKERS, and
Manipulation of Colonies — particularly
the last named. There is no good reason
why any baeklotter should stir up his colo-
nies to a furious stinging. If he will care-
fully inform himself by reading the arti-
cles mentioned, his next-door neighbors will
never know he has any bees except as they

may see the hives and the bees flying oat to
the fields. If he will take the further pre-
caution to give those neighbors a box of
honey now and then, they will be willing to
overlook any occasional annoyance result-
ing from a lack of experience and misman-
agement.

Every baeklotter should, if possible, visit
some practical beekeeper. He can get more
information of a practical sort in an horn-
by seeing some good beekeeper open up a
hive than he can get from a book in several
days. In fact, it would pay Mr. Baeklotter
well to take a trolley trip off into the coun-
try, hunt up some person who is keeping
bees, and, if he approaches his man with
the idea of purchasing a colony or two, he
will be able to get all the information he
desii'es; and in this connection it may be
said that it is usually cheaper for one to
make a start by buying a few colonies than
to send away to some dealer, unless he buys
them in pound-package foiTu. (See Be-
ginning with Bees.)

Besides the allurements of a restful hob-
by, of diversion from the cares of the oflice.
shop, factory, and of the home for the
wife, backlot beekeeping affords in addi-
tion a profit, provided, of coui'se, that one
follows directions, and provided further
that there is something in the locality on
which bees can work. In most of our cities
white clover thrives on lawns. No matter
how dry the season, the constant sprinkling
and mowing keep white clover in bloom
for a much longer period than the average
pasture lot. Besides white clover, sweet
clover is being grown extensively along
railroad embankments, in waste fields, and
lots imoccupied. and which are being held
until a suitable price can be secured.

The gTOwing of small-fruit trees in the
back yards of our cities affords abundant
pastiu'age in the spring when they are in
bloom. The ever present dandelions, that
are an irrepressible nuisance on almost aU
lawns, also afford pollen and honey. See
Dandelion.

The conditions for keeping a few bees in
a city or town are usually veiy favorable.
As stated under the head of Apiaey and
under the head of Oveestocking, a few
colonies of bees — five, ten, or twenty-five,
will give much larger yields per colony than
a larger numbei' — say fifty or a hundred.
Of coui-se, if there are any considerable

82

BACKLOT BEEKEEPING

View of D. J. Blocher's backlot apiary, Pearl City, 111. The grass is kept mowed all summer with a lawn-mower.

number of persons in the city who adopt
the beekeeping hobby, the yield per colony
will be less in proportion ; but as a general
rule these backlot yards will not be closer
than one or two miles, and the yield should
be fairly good even then.

By referring to Profits in Bees one can
get some idea of the returns; but it can be
safely stated that our backlot beekeeper
will do even better than there stated, for
the reason he will have the field all his own.

We have known some backlotters to se-
cure two to three hundred pounds of honey
per colony. (See some of the legends under
the cuts in Apiary.) As the market is right

at hand much of the honey can be sold at
retail without sharing the profits with mid-
dlemen. Backlot beekeeping, therefore, of-
fers exceptional opportunities for making
a little money on the side as well as secur-
ing an unlimited amount of pleasure and a
new field for thought in the realm of na-
ture.

It is safe to say that any man or woman
who takes up the pleasurable pastime of
beekeeping will be bigger and broader, and
will live longer. The great trouble with the
American people today, especially with the
residents of our cities, is the awful rush af-
ter the "almighty dollar," and in this scram-

APIARY OF E. S. BRINTON, WEST CHESTER, PA.

The apiarv is well protected in the back lot by apple trees and shrubbery. It appears to be an ideal
place for wintering bees; but the colonies should, of course, be packed in winter cases in order to ge the best
results.

BARRELS

83

ble to get ahead the mind and bodj^ wear
out. If more of our city folks would have
side lines of diversion and ride hobbies — if
you please, the hobby of keeping bees —
they would live longer, live happier, and in
the end make a little money.

BAIT SECTIONS.— See Comb Honey-
how TO Produce.

BALLING OF QUEENS.— See Queens,
Queen-rearing^ and Introducing.

BANAT BEES.— See Races of Bees.

BARRELS.— The regular size used for
the storage and shipping of extracted hon-
ey is about 31 or 32 gallons. Barrels of 45
to 50 gallons capacity are a little too heavy,
and being very unwieldy are liable to be
broken or jammed by freight-handlers in
shipping. As to the kind of baiTel, second-
hand alcohol or whisky barrels that can be
obtained at the drugstores may be used,
provided they are not charred on the in-
side. The ordinary alcohol barrel is gTim-
med or glazed on the inside with a prepara-
tion of glue that does not dissolve. As a
general rule, whisky barrels are charred,
and therefore unsuitable. Before taking
barrels of any kind it is very necessary to
determine what the character of the lining
is on the inside. Molasses or syrup barrels
may be used, if they be thoroly cleansed;
but barrels that have a sour or musty smell
should not be considered; for, even if
cleaned, they may taint and ruin the honey.

After the barrel has been cleansed it
should be put in a dry place, so that it will
dry thoroly inside and out. One should
never use barrels, tl'e wood of which has
become soaked with water: for honey has
the quality of absorbing moisture from
the wood ; that is to say, a wet barrel filled
with honey will actually become dry. The
staves shrink, and then, of course, the hon-
ey leaks out. If one does a large business in
shipping honey in barrels, he should buy
new ones. The staves should be made of
sound kiln-dried lumber: and iron hoops,
not wooden ones, should be used. The bar-
rels should be kept in a dry place, and then,
before using, they should be well coopered
and tested, as will be explained.

kegs.

Wooden packages holding from 100 to
150 pounds are used quite extensively in

some parts of the East. They are usually
constructed of cypress, and, when well
made, make a very good package. The
general directions that apply to barrels
apply also to kegs.

BARRELS FREQUENT CAUSE OF COMPLAINT.

It may be said that no slovenly, careless,
or slipshod beekeeper should use barrels.
He will be too careless to see that they are
tight. He will put his honey into them,
ship them, and in all probability the barrels
will begin to leak en route; and he will
receive a complaint from the consignee that
" the honey arrived in bad condition,'"
" half of it gone." There has beeu
more ill feeling and hard words because of
inexcusable carelessness or lack of proper
knowledge concerning this matter of ship-
ping honey in barrels than, perhaps, any
other thing connected with the marketing
of extracted honey. If the directions we
have given are carefully followed, and
good barrels are selected, there will be little
or no trouble outside of the arid regions.

Another -frequent cause of complaint
arises from the fact that the barrels are
filled too full. Honey, dui'ing the process
of gTanulating, will expand. If it is put
into the barrel long before it is candied, the
barrel should not be filled quite full. Just
before shipping put in a little more and
then ship. We have received several con-
signments of honey that had candied in
baiTels. The barrels had been filled full;
the honey candied, and burst the barrel.

HOW^ TO TEST BARRELS FOR LEAKS.

Barrels that are intended for the storage
of honey should not be kept in a cellar but
in a dry place. Before filling, the hoops
should be driven down tight all around. To
test for leakage, A. C. Miller suggests the
following plan:

With a tii-e pump fitted over a specially
prepared bung, force in air imtil there is
quite a pressui-e in the barrel. Now listen
for air leaks. If there are any, there will
be a hissing in one or more places. Hold-
ing the palm of one hand over the bung
thru which the air was forced, dip the free
hand into some water, and push it along to
where the air seems to be hissing out. This
will prove whether there is a leak at that
point. If there is one, there will be a sput-

84 BARRELS

tering or bubbling. Wherever the air is
found leaking thru, drive the hoops down
until the openings are closed. Then, again,
force air into the barrel and try for leaks
as before.

Do not, under any circumstances, test a
barrel for leakage with water, as it soaks
up the wood, and the latter would swell up
and close the leak. After the honey is put
into the barrel it would absorb the water,
and the barrel would leak just at the time
it could be least afforded — when it would
be halfway on its journey.

THE NEED OP PARAFFINING OR V^AXING BAR-
RELS.

The author is well aware that some of
the best honey-producers say it is not nec-
essary to wax or paraffin barrels inside ; but
our experience shows that it is very impor-
tant, not so much for the purpose of clos-
ing up any possible leaks as to prevent the
honey from soaking into the wood of the
barrel or the wood itself from giving a
taint to the honey. The average person has
little idea of the amount of honey that can
be soaked up inside of an unwaxed barrel,
and be charged up to the shipper. After
having tested the barrels for leaks by the
air-pressure plan recommended, and made
them tight, wax or paraffin the inside of
the barrels; don't depend on the waxing to
close up the leaks — the barrel should he
tight before.

Paraffin, being a good deal cheaper than
beeswax, and melting at a lower tempera-
ture, is, therefore, to be recommended. Melt
up about 10 or 12 pounds, and when hot
pour it thru a large funnel into one bung-
hole of the barrel. Quickly drive in the
bung, roll it around, twirl it on each end;
then give it another spin so as to cover
perfectly all around the chime. This opera-
tion will warm the air inside to such an ex-
tent that the liquid will be forced into every
crevice. As soon as the inside is covered,
loosen the bung with a hammer; and if the
work is well done the bung will be thrown
into the air with a loud report. Pour out
the remaining liquid, warm it up again,
and treat the other barrels in a like man-
ner.

The operation as a whole takes but very
little time; and if one has taken pains to
prove the barrel tight by the air-pressure

plan, the coating of paraffin on the inside
will make it doubly secure. Second-hand
barrels especially should be paraffined; and
even new barrels should be so treated to
prevent a great loss of honey that would
necessarily soak into the wood. Steel bar-
rels are not recommended.

SLIPPING HOOPS.

It is very important that the barrels be
made tight before honey is put into them.
If they once begin to leak e7^ route, driving
the hoops down will not do much good, for
the simple reason that the leaking honey
makes a sort of lubricant, causing the
hoops to slide up immediately after receiv-
ing a blow from a hammer.

We have had some very unsatisfactory
experience with shipping honey in barrels;
and on arriving at Medina the honey was
leaking over the sides of the barrels. This
honey came with a carload of bees, and the
man in charge who saw the leaks attempted
to drive the hoops downward ; but the more
he drove, he said the more they slipped
back again. If it were possible to exert
pressure enough on all sides of the barrels
at once, and then drive nails above the
hoops, something might be done to stop
the leaks.

The barrels in the first place should be
bone-dry before they are paraffined; and
just before the waxing the hoops should be
driven down as far as they will go. If
there is any danger of the baiTels leaking,
tacks should be driven above the hoops to
prevent their slipping. But it is penny
wise and pound foolish to use any barrel
that is not perfect. The difference between
the cost of a good barrel and a poor one is
only a few cents; while a barrel of honey
costs many times the price of the barrel.

BARREL OR SQUARE CANS.

In California, Colorado, and other hot or
dry States, barrels and kegs should never
be used. The ordinary 60-pound tin cans,
described under Extracted Honey, are the
only suitable shipping packages. Indeed,
they are the only package that nine-tenths
of the beekeepers of this land can use safe-
ly. While they cost considerably more per
pound, yet the honey is nearly always re-
ported as going thru in good order. Even
if one has a hole punched in it, only 60

BASSWOOD

85

pounds of lioney is lost; while in the ease
of a leak or break in a barrel, anywhere
from five to eight times that amount is
wasted. Thru the entire West — and that is
where the great bulk of the extracted honey
in the United States is produced — the
square tin can is used exclusively. These
are packed two in a case, and for safe ship-
ment there should be a wooden partition be-
tween the cans. We would strongly urge
the average beekeeper to use these cans in
preference to barrels. While the tin pack-
age costs a little more per pound, it also
brings in a little more on the market; for
the buyer can take as large or small a quan-
tity as he needs. Where the purchaser
hesitates to buy a whole barrel of honey
for his own local trade, he will readily take
one or more cans of 60 pounds each.

re:movixg caxdted hoxey feom barrels.

Good thick honey will usually become
solid at the approach of frosty weather,
and perhaps the readiest means of getting
it out of the barrel in such cases is to re-
move one of the heads and take it out with
a scoop. When it is quite hard, you may at
first think it is difficult to force a seoo'p
down into it; but if you jDress steadily and
keep moving the scoop slightly, you will
soon get down its whole depth. If the bar-
rel is kept for some time near the stove, or
in a veiy warm room, the honey will be-
come lic[uid enough to be drawn out thru a
large-sized honej'-gate.

A more wholesale way of removing can-
died honey is to set the barrel or keg in a
tub or wooden tank of water, the latter
being kept hot by a small steam pipe. In
24 or 36 hours the honey in the barrel will
be melted, and can then be drawn out in
the usual way.

BASSWOOD.— Of the twelve described
species three are indigenous to the United
States. The most common species is Tilia
Americana L., a tall tree growing in forests
from New Brunswick to Nebraska and Tex-
as, and especially abundant in the Alle-
ghanies. T. Micliauxii Nutt. (T. puhescens
is a synonym) extends from Connecticut to
Florida and Texas; and T. lieterophylla
Vent, from Pennsylvania to southern Illi-
nois and Alabama, but is most common in
limestone regions. The three species may
be separated by the following leaf charac-

ters : T. Americana ha*s the leaves smooth
on both sides; in T. Micliauxii the leaves
are smooth above, but pubescent beneath;
and in T. heteropliylla smooth above and
silvery white below. The European linden
(T. Europaea L.) is widely cultivated in
this country as an ornamental tree. Other
vernacular names are linden, lime tree, bee-
tree, whitewood, and whistlewood.

Excepting, perhaps, alfalfa, sage, and
white clover, basswood furnishes more hon-
ey than any other plant or tree known in
this coimtry. It is a variable source of
honey, but it is seldom that it fails entirely
to yield nectar. In eastern New York, late
in the spring, a drop in temperature suf-
ficient to freeze ice has been known to kill
all the flower buds in low ground, and
greatly injure those on the hills. Even
when the trees are laden with flowers if the
weather is cold, cloudy, and windy, no sur-
plus will be obtained. Hot clear weather
and a humid atmosphere .are the conditions
most favorable for the active secretion of
nectar. Small drops may then be seen
sparkling in the bloom, and a bee may at
times obtain a load from a single blossom.
During a favorable season, when the at-
mosphere and temperature were both pro-
pitious, nine tons of basswood hone}' ha^"e
been obtained as surplus at Delanson, N.
Y. The best yield of honey at Medina.
Ohio, ever secured from a single hive was
from basswood bloom, the quantity beinu
-13 pounds in three days. The best e\ ev
recorded from clover was 10 poimds in
one day. At Orchard, Iowa, a yield of 600
poimds from a single colony in 30 days
was once secured, an average of 20 pounds
per day. A colony at Borodino, N. Y.,
stored 302 pounds in ten days, and an aver-
age of about 55 pounds per colony has
been obtained for 30 years. The length of
the honey flow from basswood may vary
from five to twenty-five days: while the
date of blooming is influenced by locality,
altitude, and temperature. From 10 to 15
days may intervene between the opening
of the flowers in a cold season and a hot
one. In localities where basswood grows
both in the valleys and on high hills the
bees will have a much longer time to gather
the nectar, since the trees in the lowlands
will bloom earlier than those at a greater
height. It has been suggested that a bee-

86

BASSWOOD

keeper might with advantage follow the
blooming of basswood, beginning at some
southern point, and moving his hives north-
ward to meet the requirements of the har-
vest.

Basswood honey is white and has a
strong aromatic or mint-like flavor, and it
is easy to tell when the blossoms are out by
the odor about the hives. The taste of the
honey also indicates to the beekeeper the
very day the bees begin to work on the
flowers. The honey, if extracted before it
is sealed over, has so strong and distinctive
a flavor as to be disagreeable to some per-
sons. The smell and taste have been likened
to that of turpentine or camphor — ^very
disagreeable when just gathered ; but when
sealed over and fully ripened in the hive
almost every one considers it delicious. A
pure basswood extracted honey, on account
of its strong flavor, should be blended with
some honey of milder flavor, as for exam-
ple, that of mountain sage.

The illustration shows the appearance of
basswood flowers and leaves. The clusters
of from six to fifteen flowers are drooping,
thus protecting the nectar from the rain.
The stem of the cluster is adnate to an ob-
long membranous bract. The nectar is se-
creted and held in the fleshy sepals; and it
is often so abundant that it appears like
dewdrops in the sunlight. The blossoms
are small, light yellow, and exhale a honey-
like fragrance. The stamens are numerous,
and the anthers contain a small amount of
pollen, but honeybees seldom gather it
when the nectar is abundant; if, however,
the nectar supply is scanty, then both
honeybees and bumblebees may be seen
with little balls of pollen on their thighs.
In England basswood seldom sets seed.
The inner bark is tough and fibrous, and
is largely used by agriculturists and florists
for binding purposes.

CULTIVATION".

If a beekeeper is content to wait, say 10
or 15 years for the realization of his
hopes, or if he has an interest in providing
for the beekeepers of a future generation,
it will pay him to plant basswood. A tree
that was set out about 10 years ago on a
street in Medina, 0., now furnishes a pro-
fusion of blossoms abnost every year; and,
judging from the way the bees work on
them it would seem that the}' furnish con-

siderable nectar. A hundred such trees in
the vicinity of an apiary would be, without
doubt, of great value. In the spring of
1872 A. I. Root of Medina set out 4,000
trees, and in 1877 many of them were bear-
ing fair loads of blossoms. While seedlings
may be obtained by planting the seeds,
by far the better and cheaper way is to get
small trees from the forest. They can be
bought for a very low price. These can
be obtained in almost any quantity in the
Eastern States from any piece of wood-
land from which all stock has been ex-
cluded. Cattle feed upon the young bass-
woods with great avidity, and pasturing
the woodlands will eventually cut short the
growth of basswoods as well as many other
valuable trees from our forests. Trees all
the way from one to ten feet tall have been
planted here at Medina, but the largest
ones, as a general rule, have done the best.

The growth of basswood is strongly in-
fluenced by climatic conditions. Among the
hills of New York the leaves assume mam-
moth proportions. The author measured
one that was 14 inches long from a small
tree. While this leaf was among the larg-
est, yet the leaves were, on the average,
about twice the size of those in the locali-
ty of Medina. In Illinois the basswoods
seem to be less thrifty than in Ohio.

The European basswood, which is fully
as good a honey-producer as the American
species, is famous as an avenue tree. The
famous street in Berlin, Unter-den-Linden,
is shaded by this species. It is known in
England as " the lime tree," and is there a
great favorite for street planting. The
famous " Lime-tree Walk " of Cambridge
is well known. It is also an excellent tree
for street planting in the northern part
of the United States. It is to be regretted
that basswood is not more abundant, since
where it gTOws it is one of the mainstays of
the honey-producer, and is also a most
valuable wood for manufacturing pur-
poses. It will hardly do for outside ex-
posure to the weather, but is admirably
adapted for packing-boxes and for furni-
ture, forming the bottom, and sides of
drawers, the backs of bureaus and dress-
ing-cases. It is also employed extensively
in the manufacture of paper.

As large quantities of the timber are us-
ed in making section honey-boxes, the ques-

BEE BEHAVIOR

87

Basswood in full bloom.

tion has been raised, " Why do the manu-
facturers of supplies use the tree that pro-
duces so much honey and of such fine qual-
ity?" Is it a case of "killing the goose
that lays the golden egg ? " The answer is,
that the amount used by the makers of
sections is only a drop in the bucket com-
pared with that used in the other arts.
Even if all the bee-supply manufacturers
should discontinue the use of basswood, the
difference in the amount of honey produced
from that valuable tree would never be no-
ticed. For the making of section honey-
boxes there is no timble available that has
the same degree of toughness to stand the
fold at the V edge in the ordinary one-
piece section. The four-piece section has
now practically dropped out of the market
on account of the expense and time taken
in preparing them for the hive.

After all, there is one redeeming feature ;
the basswood is a very rapid grower. If
basswood will replace ; itself in 10 or even
20 years, so that it is again large enough
for lumber, there is yet hope that it will
continue to bless the beekeeper. Over
against this is the stubborn fact that the
basswoods are disappearing rapidly over
the whole country. During late years,
when there has been such a great advance
in pine lumber, basswood has been used
very largely for house-building, with the
consequence that millions of feet have been
consumed.

Basswood, and perhaps most other forest
trees, requii^e shade, especially when j'oung.
Much to the author's surprise young trees
that were set directly under large white-
oak trees did better than any of the rest.
The trees should be planted not closer than
12 feet apart.

BEE BEHAVIOR.— Behavior is a term
used to describe the activities of animal life
whether induced by external or internal
causes. Under this head will be described
some of the various life activities of the
bees, particularly those which have more
or less to do with the practices of bee cul-
ture.

THE LARVAL BEE.

On the hatching of the egg the tiny larva
wriggles and twitches much as does a cater-
piller when poked with a straw. Almost
at once it is supplied with food by a
"nurse" bee. This part of the life of a
lai-va has not received sufficient stud}^ to
warrant any definite statement as to the
frequency of the feeding, the amount sup-
plied, its possible vaiying quality, etc. It
must suffice now to say that the periods of
feeding seem to be irregular and the
amount of food received by different lar-
vae varies largely.

When the larva has completed its feed-
ing period and has stretched out to its full
length in the cell, the bees proceed to seal

88

BEE BEHAVIOR

the cell. There are some exceptions to this
when the larvae are left unsealed, tho usu-
ally the cell walls are slightly extended and
the opening contracted. Beekeepers speak
of this as " bareheaded brood," and it often
causes the novice much concern. (See
Brood and Brood-rearing.) The condi-
tion has been ascribed to excessive heat;
but as it occurs at other times than during
the hot weather, and as some colonies sel-
dom or never have brood in such condition
while others almost always do, it is reason-
able to look upon it as a congenital trait.
In some cases uncovered brood is due to
the work of the wax worm; but such brood
looks very different and is always in the
path of the worm's work.

After a brief rest the bee larva begins
spinning its cocoon. Slowly the head turns
from side to side and back and forth, grad-
ually reaching the middle of the cell; and
slowly doubling on itself, the larva extends
its work to the base and lies at full length
reversed in the cell. Before its labors cease,
however, it resumes the former position of
its head toward the outer end.

In the case of the queen larva, the spin-
ning begins and proceeds in the same way,
but when she is reversed in the cell she
reaches as far up as she can, but that is not
to the base; and, as she cannot climb, there
is no silken web on that part of the cell.

When spinning has ceased, the larva
turns on its back and lies still. The changes
which follow take place so slowly that only
after considerable intervals are the results
noticeable. When the metamorphosis is
virtually complete (see Development of
Bees), there is seen in place of the larva a
bluish-white bee lying motionless on its
back.

The only appendages seemingly missing
are the wings. Careful examination will
reveal each pair folded up in a little case
(pellicle), which lies against the side of the
thorax between the first and the second
pairs of legs.

The first sign of coloring is seen on the
ends of the antennae, then on the eyes and
feet, and gradually it extends over the
whole body. As the time approaches for
the bee to emerge from the cell slight tre-
mors are to be seen in the feet and legs, or
an antenna moves. About the beginning of
the last day the encased wings begin to

quiver and move. Slowly they turn until
they lie under the bee and at once they un-
fold. As soon as this occurs, the bee turns
over and begins to cut its way out.

the young bee.

Almost as soon as out, it begins to move
over the surface of the combs ; and when it
comes to a cell of honey it enters and eats.
Just when it begins to eat pollen is unde-
termined. After eating, the young bee com-
mences to comb itself and this procedure
continues more or less steadily for a day or
more. At this tender age the insects's vision
seems to be very imperfect. Also, it is un-
able to fly; and, if tossed into the air, it
makes no attempt to use its wings. This
function appears only at a later age.
Drones, queens, and workers all spend the
early hours of their life in much the same
way, except that queens seem to be able to
fly sooner than workers. Probably, queens
most precocious in this way have been held
in the cells longer than normally and have
matured in there.

The color of the young bee deepens with
age. When they first emerge they are much
lighter in color than a day or two later.
This difference is more noticeable with
queens than with workers or drones.

HOME LABOR OF BEES.

The first duty of the worker is the feed-
ing of the larvae, and then a little at a time
it extends to pollen-packing, propolizing,
comb-cleaning and repairing, honey-ripen-
ing, and comb-building.

THE FIRST POLLEN OF THE SEASON.

When a bee comes in from the field with
a load of pollen, she is often surrounded by
other bees, all trying to get a bite of the
coveted food. This is especially noticeable
in the spring when fresh pollen first ap-
pears. It is amusing to watch a pollen-
laden bee sidestep, whirl, shake, and go
thru all sorts of actions.

THE UNLOADING OF THE POLLEN.

On their return to the hive with their
loads of pollen the bees differ widely in
their behavior. A part walk slowly over
the combs, while a part, presumably the
younger bees, appear greatly excited, shak-
ing their bodies and moving their wings.
A cell may be selected with little hesitation

BEE BEHAVIOR

89

or many may be examined before one is
found satisfactory to the bee. The pollen
may be stored in an empty cell, or in one
already partly filled with jDollen, either of
the same kind or of different kinds; but
drone comb is seldom used, altho this occa-
sionally happens.

The way in which the bee unloads the
masses of pollen has been fully desciibed
by Casteel. Grasping- one edge of the cell
with its fore legs, it arches its abdomen so
that its apex rests on the opposite side of
the cell. The hind legs hang down fieely
in the cell with the pollen masses about
level with its edge. The plaata (metatar-
sus) of the middle leg on each side is then
raised and thrust downward between the
pollen mass and the tibia so that the mass
is shoved outward and falls into the cell.
The middle legs are now rested on the edge
of the cell. Casteel was unable to deter-
mine definitely whether the spurs were of
any aid in dislodging the pollen, as asserted
by Cheshire, or not.

The bee usually departs without any fur-
ther attention to the pollen masses, and
another worker shortly afterward attends
to the packing. Entering the cell headfirst,
the bee breaks up the pellets of pollen,
mashes them down on the bottom of the
cell, and adds sugar and perhaps other se-
cretions which change the chemical consti-
tution of the pollen. (See Pollex.)

PROPOLIS HOVr GATHERED AXD USED.

Propolis is brought in on the pollen-bas-
kets. When it is gathered fresh from the
buds, it looks like a glistening bead in the
pollen-baskets; but when it is gathered
from old frames, hives, etc., the pellets are
more irregular. Propolis is always packed
while the bee is standing, while pollen
vrhich is packed and carried in the same
baskets is adjusted while the bee is flying.
Tliis difference in the way of using the
same limbs for different materials is very
interesting.

Propolis is taken from the legs of the
field bees and stuck into all sorts of
places and is moved and reworked as suits
the vagaries of the bees. Much of the
propolis is spread with the tongue. Wheth-
er or not the bee varnishes the inside of
brood-cells with propolis is unknown. Cer-
tainly they spend much time polishing the

inside of such cells, going over and over
the surface with their tongues; and when
they have finished, the cell walls sliine as if
varnished. This is not done to new combs
used for honey only; but let such be once
used for brood, then it gets its polishing
before being used for anything else.

Comb-repairing and building seems to be
a haphazard job, and the work of one bee
is often at once undone by another. Pro-
polis is used in the construction of new
comb, sometimes as much as one-half to
three-quarters of an ounce being added to
a pound of wax. It adds to the strength of
the comb and makes its fastening to the
wood more secure.

HOW BEES DEPOSIT THEIR LOADS OF XECTAR.

The honey -laden bee on return from the
field is not in a hurry to get rid of her load,
and it is not at all unusual for her to
keep it for half an hour or more before
depositing it. She may walk aimlessly
about or settle quietly down somewhei'e
and seeuiingly forget the world, or she
may, after an extended journey over the
combs, select a cell for her load. She en-
ters the cell with her back down and feet
up. If the cell has no honey in it, she goes
in until her mandibles touch the upper and
rearmost angle. The mouth and mandibles
t re opened and a drojD of nectar api^ears,
welling up until it touches the cell wall.
Slowly the bee turns her head from side to
side, spreading the nectar against the up-
per part of the cell. All this time the
mandibles are kept in motion ; and as the
nectar covers their gland openings, it is
possible that the secretion of those glands
is being added to the nectar.

When the bee is adding her load to honey
already in a cell, the proceeding is the
same, except that the mouth parts are sub-
merged in the honey already there. The
mandibles are kept in motion as before.
The tongue in neither case takes any part
in the proceeding, but is kept folded beliind
the head.

THE RESTING PERIODS OF BEES.

When rid of her load, the worker may at
once return to the field, but usually she
loiters about the hive for anywhere from a
few minutes to half a day. So commonly
do such bees crawl into a cell and go to

90

BEE BEHAVIOR

sleep for a half -hour or so that it is reason-
able to assume that such is the customary
proceeding. By sleeping is meant as nearly
a complete suspension of movement as pos-
sible. The customary pulsation of the ab-
domen nearly: if not quite, ceases, or is
suspended for minutes at a time, and the
occasional pulsation is very slow.

When the nap is over, the bee backs out,
combs ofl her head just as if " scratching
for a thought," and starts off in more or
less of a hurry.

Presumably, all the bees of a colony do
some of this sleeping, and drones and
queen are no exception ; but in the case of
the latter two, the sleeping is not usually
done in cells.

When bees are getting stolen sweets, a
very different condition arises; a feverish
excitement is noticeable in the returning
workers, and it is not long before the whole
colony is in a more or less disturbed state.
Sleeping then is not in evidence. Why a
load or several loads of honey should cause
so marked a difference from several loads
of nectar is unknown, and until we know
more about the bee it is idle to speculate.

HOW BEES RIPEN flONEY.

The process by which the bees evaporate
and gradually convert the thin nectar into
thick honey is called ripening.

Honey-ripening is a slow but interesting
process. After the day's work is about
over, almost the whole colony spreads out
over all available surface, and nearly every
bee has her sac full of honey. All the bees
hang vertically with head up, and all seem
to prefer not to be crowded too closely by
the other bees. Then each bee opens her
mandibles and mouth and forces up a drop
of nectar. This drop fills the mouth and
extends up over the upper lip and fills the
space between the mandibles, covering the
openings of the glands connected therewith.
The tongue meantime is kept folded behind
the head. Next, the bee begins a chewing
motion with the lower " jaw " and this
causes the drop to pulsate. The mandibles
are held still. They are not moved as in de-
positing nectar.

For about ten minutes this operation is
continued; then the drop is swallowed, and
after a few moments' pause another drop
appears, and the process is renewed. This

is continued by the colony until about 11
P. M., or sometimes later, and then work
stops and all hands go to sleep.

While the work is in process, the heavy
hum so pleasant to the ears of beekeepers
is continuous ; but after the work ceases,
the hive becomes almost silent. This varies
with the amount of honey gathered during
the day. Sometimes the humming lasts
almost all night, and sometimes it ceases
early in the e^'ening.

COMB-BUILDING AND ITS RELATION TO THE
RIPENING OF HONEY.

Comb-building is rapid when most of the
bees are ripening nectar. If the flow is
good and many bees have to retain their
loads for awhile, as, with a recently hived
swarm, wax secretion is rapid. Or if the
flow is heavy and nearly all have to work
at the ripening process, wax secretion is
forced. The bees cannot help producing it
then. Its production seems to be closely
connected with the conversion of nectar in-
to honey. If this view is correct, it affords
an explanation of the failure to obtain
satisfactory results in feeding back ripe
honey to have sections completed. Honey
extracted "raw" or "green" (that is before
it is sufficiently ripened) and fed to comb-
building colonies gives much better results.

VARIATION IN COMB-BUILDING.

No satisfactory explanation lias been
found to account for the construction of
the two sizes of cells. Several theories have
been advanced, but so far are only inter-
esting.

Great variation in comb work is found
between bees of different strains or of dif-
ferent colonies closely related. Some colo-
nies build comb of wonderful smoothness
and uniformity, and others never produce
good combs. One will rarely use a brace-
or a burr-comb, that is combs built irregu-
larly on sides of hives or combs, while an-
other sticks them everywhere. By selection
the beekeeper can weed out the stock with
undesirable traits and perpetuate the oth-
ers.

The difference in capping is well recog-
nized, and selection is as effective in this
case as in the former. The difference be-
tween colonies in building out to frame or
section sides and down to bottom-bars or of

BEE BEHAVIOR

91

rounding off the edges has often been re-
marked. It may be stated in a general way
that the bees which build clear to the wood
usually leave the outer cells unsealed, while
those bees which round off the edges of the
combs seal all cells. (This was first defined
by Allen Latham.) Of course, there are all
gradations, but fundamentally the law
holds good.

THE ARRANGEilENT OF BROOD^ POLLEX^ AXD
HONEY.

The arrangement of brood, pollen, and
honey, tlie first in the center, then the oth-
ers in order about it, is interesting, and
with rare exceptions is always the arrange-
ment. As the brood increases in the spring,
we may say the pollen is forced outward
and the honey forced beyond that. In the
closing of the season the process is revers-
ed, and under what we may be permitted
to call natural conditions, as in a tree, box,
or undisturbed frame hive, the brood is
slowly worked downward and forward, so
that at the end of the season the cluster is
down by the entrance with the stores at
each side of, above, and behind it. This is
not always the location of the cluster in our
frame hives; but if man has not meddled
after midsummer, it will generally be
found to be so.

THE QUEEN".

This individual is unquestionably the
most interesting member of the' bee com-
munity, and more talked of and written
about than any other, and perhaps more
misunderstood. From earliest infancy she
is subject to more vagaries than any of the-
other bees.

The presence or absence of the fimction-
al odor may have something to do with the
-introduction of alien queens, or it may be
wholly their behavior.

After handling a laying queen, bees from
any hive will run over one's hand, appar-
ently eagerly seeking the queen, and the
behavior of all workers is the same whether
they are from the queen's hive or from
another.

There is much difference in the tempera-
ment of queens. Some are very timid, and
will run on the slightest disturbance, and,
if handled or anointed with any foreign
^ibstance, seem to become really frantic.
Such queens are very apt to be balled or

killed by the bees. Other queens will pas-
sively submit to all sorts of treatment, and,
as soon as let alone, will quietly resume
their duties.

Virgin queens are almost always nervous
or timid; and if put into a strange colony,
large or small, very often, or perhaps it
would be more accurate to say generally,
run out and fly away, by no means always
returning.

Before mating, a queen hunts up her own
food from the combs; but after she begins
to lay she tirrns to the workers for virtually
all her food. Once in a great while she will
dip her tongue into a cell of honey, but not
often. As she passes about her duties, she
from time to time crosses antennse with
workers. Finally one is found with a sup-
ply of food ; the worker's mouth opens and
the queen inserts her tongue and begins to
eat. The worker's tongue is kept folded
behind the head. It is quite common to see
several other workers extend their tongues
and try to get a taste of the food^ and
sometimes one will succeed in putting her
tongue in with the queen's. It is not at
all unusual to see two workers getting food
thus from another worker, and the drones
obtain their food in the same way.

Egg production is influenced by several
factors. Queens differ in fecundity, and
egg development is dependent on food. The
food supply comes chiefly from the
younger bees; and, if they are not numer-
ous, the queen cannot produce eggs in
abundance. If honey and pollen are scarce
or temperature is low, food is not prepar-
ed freely.

If the queen is young and \dgorous and
the colony small, she may deposit several
eggs in each cell. If comb surface is insuf-
ficient and bees abundant, she will use cells
of any shape, deep, shallow, or crooked,
and will pat in each one an egg which will
produce a worker. It has been even claim-
ed that under some conditions a normal
queen may at times put into worker celh
eggs which will produce drones.

So many are the vagaries of a queen that
only by observation and experience car
most of them be learned, and the seasoned
veteran not infrequently nms across some
new peculiarity.

A normal laying queen proceeds over the
comb depositing drone eggs in drone cells

92

BEE-HUNTING

and worker eggs in worker cells, apparent-
ly being able to lay either drone or workei'
eggs at will. After an egg is put in a cell
a worker is pretty sure to pop in and in-
spect it, and it has been supposed that pos-
sibly they did something to it. Inspection
of thousands of bees occupied in examin-
ing eggs has failed to find a single one that
touches an egg in any way. Bees often
take their nap in cells containing eggs or
larv86.

During a heavy flow of nectar, the bees
often deposit it in cells containing eggs,
sometimes filling the cells half full. Such
nectar is removed within a few hours, and
the eggs hatch as usual.

DRONES.

Drones have many interesting habits, and
are well worth closer study than they have
yet received. They are much slower to ma-
ture after emergence from cells than the
workers. They are very fond of warmth,
and may often in cool weather be found
massed shoulder to shoulder in outlying
sealed brood.

It seems to take a lot of preparation on
the drone's part before he can take wing.
Drones pay no attention to a virgin queen
among them in the hive, no matter what
her age.

SV^ ARMING.

Swarming apparently starts with a bee
here and there. Such a bee suddenly begins
to run a few steps one way, then a few
another, then spins around and finally ap-
pears to work itself into a veritable frenzy.
Other bees take it up and soon a rush is
made, and is quite as apt to be from as
toward the entrance. As soon, however, as
part of the flood begins to emerge from
the entrance the tide turns that way and the
majority of the bees begin pouring from
the hive by thousands until the air is filled
with a great cloud of humming bees. Usu-
ally they cluster on the branch of a tree
not far from their hive, waiting to make
certain that the queen is with them before
leaving for their new home, which general-
ly has been chosen by the scouts sent out
several days before the swarm issues. ( See
Swarming.)

For the behavior of bees during winter,
see Temperature, sub-head "Temperature
of the Cluster in Winter."

BEEBREAD. — A term in common use,
applied to pollen when stored in the combs.
In olden times, when bees were killed with
sulphur to get at the honey, more or less
pollen was usually found mixed with the
honey ; it has something of a " bready "
taste, and hence, probably, came its name.
Since the advent of the extractor and sec-
tion boxes, it is very rare to find pollen in
the honey designed for table use. See
Pollen.

BEE-DRESS.— See Veils.

BEE-ESCAPES.— See Comb Honey, al-
so Extracting.

BEE-HUNTING.— The reader is given
the warning so often, against leaving
sweets of any kind about the apiary, and
about being careful not to let the bees get
to robbing each other, that it may seem
strange for us to tell how best to encour-
age and develop this very robbing propen-
sity.

The only season in which one can trap
bees is when they will rob briskly at home ;
for while honey is to be found in the flow-
ers in plenty, they will hardly deign to no-
tice bait of even honey in the comb. Be-
fore starting out, if will be policy to learn
if there are any bees kept in the vicinity,
for one might otherwise waste much time
in following lines that lead into the hives
of his neighbors. The beekeeper should
be at least a mile from any one who has
a hive of bees when he commences opera-
tions, and it is safer to be two miles. This
does not mean that there are no bee-trees
near large apiaries, for a number will often
be found within half a mile of one's own;
but those who are just learning would, very
likely, be much perplexed and bothered by
lining bees that proved to be his neighbor's.

LINING THE BEES.

Perhaps the readiest means of getting a
line started is to catch bees that will be
found on the flowers, especially in the early
part of the day. They should be induced
to take a sip of the honey brought for that
purpose, and they will, true to their in-
stinctive love of gain, speed homeward with
their load, soon to return for another. To
find the tree, it is necessary to watch and
see where they go.

BEE-HUNTING

93

The bee-hunter can get along with very
simple implements; but, if time is valua-
ble, it may pay to go out fully equipped.
For instance, a small glass tumbler will an-
swer to catch bees; and after one has been
caught, the glass can be set over a piece
of honeycomb. It should now be covered
with a handkerchief to stop the bee's buz-
zing against the glass, and it will soon dis-
cover the honey and load up. As soon as
it is really at work on the honey, the glass
should be raised and the bee-hunter should
creep away where he may get a good view
of the proceedings. As soon as it takes
wing it will circle about the honey, as a
young bee does in front of the hive, that
it may know where to return ; for a whole
" chunk " of honey, during the dry autumn
days, is apparently quite a little gold mine
in its estimation. There may, perhaps, be
a thousand or more hungry mouths to feed,
away in the forest at its leafy home.

If one is quick enough to keep track of
the bee's eccentric circles and oscillations,
he will see that these circles become larger
and .larger, and that each time the bee
comes around it sways to one side; that is,
instead of making the honey the center of
its circles, it makes it almost on one edge,
so that the last few times the bee comes
around it simply comes back after it has
started home, and throws a loop, as it were,
about the honey to make sure of it for the
last time. Now one can be pretty sure
which way its home lies almost the very
first circuit it makes, for it has its home in
mind all the time, and bears more and more
toward it.

If the bee-hunter can keep his eye on it
until it finally takes the " bee line "
for home, he does pretty well, for a new
hand can seldom do this. After the bee is
out of sight, he has only to wait until it
comes back, which it will surely do, if hon-
ey is scarce. Of course, if its home is near
by it will get back soon; and to determine
how far it is by the length of time the bee
is gone, brings in another very important
point. The honey that bees get from flow-
ers is very thin ; in fact, it is nearer sweet-
ened water than honey, and if one wishes
a bee to load up and fly at about a natural
" gait," he should give it honey diluted
with water to about this consistency. Un-
less he does, it will not only take a great

deal more time in loading up, but the thick
honey is so much heavier the bees will very
likely stagger under the load, and make a
very crooked bee line of its homeward path.
Besides it will take much more time to un-
load. Sometimes, after circling about quite
a time, the bee will stop to take breath be-
fore going home, which is apt to mislead
the hunter unless he is experienced; all
this is avoided by filling the honeycomb
with honey and water, instead of with hon-
ey alone.

It takes quite a little time to get a bee
caught and started at work, and it is best
to have several bees started at the same
time. To do this expeditiously, a bee-
hunting box made as in the following cut
should be used.

BOX FOR BEE-HUNTING.

A suitable box for bee-hunting may easi-
ly be made from an ordinary cigar box.
But it should be well aired as bees do not
l^ke the odor of tobacco. In the lid should
be cut a small hole, perhaps an inch square.
Over this cover a tin slide should be ar-
ranged so that the hole may be opened and
closed as desired. On the cover of the cigar
box, and covering this hole, should be at-
tached a small box with a sliding glass top
and no bottom. In the bottom of the
cigar box a small feeder should be placed.
One similar to the Simplicity feeder would
do nicely.

HOW TO USE THE HUNTING-BOX.

The hunter should take with the box
about a pint of diluted honey in a bottle.
If he fills the bottle half full of thick hon-
ey, and then fills it up with warm water, it
will be about right. In the fall of the year
one will be more likely to find bees on the
flowers in the early part of the day. When
he gets on the ground, near some forest,
where he suspects the presence of wild bees,
he should pour a little honey into the feed-
er, and, with open box, cautiously approacli
a bee feeding upon some flower.

As soon as the box is near enough, the
bee should be caught in the box and the
lid quickly closed. In a short time, the bee
will have sipped a load of honey and, see-
ing the light thru the small hole above, will
soon emerge into the upper box and buzz
against the glass. The lower tin slide may

94

BEE-HUNTING

then be closed and the box placed on some
elevated point, such as the top of a stump
in an open space in the field and the glass
slide withdrawn. The hunter should stoop
down now, and be ready to keep his eye
on one bee whichever way it may turn. If
he keeps his head low, he will be more like-
ly to have the sky as a background. If
he fails in following one, he must try an-
other; and as soon as he gets a sure line
on a bee as it bears finally for home, he
should be sure to mark it by some object
that he can remember. If he is curious to

Improved hunting-box used by Mell Pritchard, Medi-
na, 0. The construction of the box is plainly shown in
this illustration.

know how long they are gone, he can, with
some white paint and a pencil-brush, mark
one of them on the back* or he may dust
the entire bee with flour. This is quite a
help where one has two or more lines work-
ing from the same bait. When a bee comes
back, it can be recognized by the peculiar
inquiring hum, like robbers in front of a
hive where they have once had a taste of
spoils. If the tree is near by, each one will
bring others along in its wake, and soon
the box will be humming with a throng so
eager that a further filling of the feeder
from the bottle will be needed. As soon as
the hunter is pretty well satisfied in which
direction they are located, he can close the
box and move along on the line, nearer the
woods. After the box is again opened,
the bees will soon be as busy as ever. To

* Since this was written, an A B C scholar says :
" Bees vary in their flight. But we have found that
on an average they will fly a mile in five minutes,
and spend about two minutes in the hive or tree.
Of course, they will spend more time in a tree when
they have to crawl a long distance to get to the
brood-nest, hence we may deduce the rule: Subtract
two from the number of minutes absent, and divide
by ten. The quotient is the number of miles from
the stand to the tree. This applies to partially
wooded country. Perhaps in a clearing they could
make better time. On a very windy day it takes
them longer to make trips."

aid in deciding just where they are, he
can move off to one side and start a cross-
line.* Of course the tree will be found
just where these lines meet; when he gets
where he thinks they should be, he should
examine the trees carefully, especially all
the knot-holes, or any place that might al-
low bees to enter and find a cavity. If he
places himself so that the bees will be be-
tween him and the sun, he can see them
plainly, even if they are among the highest
branches. He should make a careful and
minute examination of every tree, little and
big, body and limbs, even if it does make
his neck ache. If he does not find them
by carefully looking the trees over, he
should go back and get his hunting-box,
bring it up to the spot, and give them feed
until he gets a quart or more at work. He
can then see pretty clearly where they en-
ter. If he does not find them the first day,
he can readily start them again almost any
time, for they are very quick to start, when
they have once been at work, even tho it is
several days afterward. Bees are some-
times started by burning what is called a
"smudge." Some old bits of comb "con-
taining beebread as well as honey may be
burned on a small tin -plate sitting over a
little fire. The bees will be attracted by the
odor of the burning honey and comb, and,
if near, will sometimes come in great num-
bers.

A telescope is very convenient in finding
where the bees go in, especially if the tree
is very tall; even the toy telescopes sold
for 50 cents or a dollar are sometimes quite
a help. The most serviceable, however, are
the achromatic opera glasses that cost five
or ten times this amount. With these, one
can use both eyes, and the field is so broad
that no time is lost in getting the glass in-
stantly on the spot. He can, in fact, see
bees with them in the tops of the tallest
trees almost as clearly as he can see them
going into hives placed on the ground.

After one has found the tree, probably
he will be in a hurry to get the bees that

* The same writer says further: " It is a waste ot
time to look for the bee-tree, or to make cross-lines,
until you get beyond the tree. When the bees fly
back on the line you may be rest assured that you are
beyond the tree. Move your last two stands closer
together (lining the bees carefully), so that they are
only 10 or 15 rods apart. Now, as you have bees
flying from two directions into the tree you will
probably discover where they are immediately. But
if you fail to find them easily, take a stand at one
side, eight or ten rods, and cross-line. This is the
only place that I find a cross-line of any advantage."

BEE-HUNTING

95

he knows are there, and the honey that
may be there. One should not put his ex-
pectations too high, for he may not get a
single pound of honey. Of two trees that
the writer took a few years ago, one con-
tained just about as much honey as he had
fed the bees, and the other contained not
one visible cell full. The former were fair
hybrids, and the latter well-marked Ital-
ians. If the tree is not a valuable one, and
stands where timber is cheap and plentiful,
perhaps the easiest way is to cut it down.
This may result in a smashed heap of ruins,
with combs, honey, and bees all mixed up
with dirt and rubbish, or it may fall so as
to strike on the limbs or small trees, and
thus ease its fall in such a way as to do
little injury to the tree or contents. The
chances are rather in favor of the former,
and on many accounts it is safer to climb
the tree and let the bees down with a rope.
If the hollow is in the body of the tree, or
so situated that it cannot be cut off above
and below the bees, the combs may be tak-
en out and let down in a pail or basket;
for the brood-combs, and such as contain
but little honey, the basket will be rather
preferable. The first thing, however, will
be to climb the tree; and as the writer
would be very sorry to give any advice in
this book that might in any way lead to
loss of life, we shall, at the outset, ask you
not to attempt climbing unless you are, or
can be, a very careful person. An old gen-
tleman who has been out with us remarked
that he once knew a very expert climber
who took all the bees out of the trees for
miles around, but was finally killed instant-
ly by letting his hands slip as he was get-
ting above a large knot in the tree. We
do not wish to run any risks where human
life is at stake.

CLIMBERS FOR BEE-HUNTERS.

For climbing trees 12 to 18 inches in
diameter, a pair of climbers should be used,
such as can be obtained at any telephone
office.

If the tree is large, the climber provides
himself with a withe or whip of some tough
green bough, and bends this so it will go
around the trunk, while an end is held in
each hand. As he climbs upward, this is
hitched up the tree. If he keeps a sure and
firm hold on this whip, and strikes his

A bee-tree 11 feet in diameter climbed by Green
Derrington.

climbers into the trunk firmly, he can go
up the most forbidding trees rapidly and
safely. Some light cord, a clothesline, for
instance, should be tied around his waist,
so he can draw up such tools as he may
need. Those needed are a sharp ax, a

96

BEE-HUNTING

hatchet, saw, and an. auger to bore in to see
just how far the hollow extends. If
the bees are to be saved, the limb or tree
should be cut off above the hollow, and al-
lowed to fall. A stout rope can then be
tied about the log hive, passed over some
limb above, the end brought down and
wrapped about a tree until the hive is cut
oil ready to lower. After it is down, it
should stand an hoLu* or two, or until sun-
down, when all the bees will have found
and enteied the hive; then, the entrance
having been covered with wire cloth, the
hive may be taken home. ,

There are some trees, indeed, so large
that it would be impossible to climb them
with the implements already given. A very
ingenious plan, however, has been put into
execution by Green Derrington of Poplar
Bluff, Mo. Here is given his description,
together with an engraving made from a
photograph which he sent.

I send you a photograph of a very large
tree, which I climbed by means of spikes
and staples. To prevent the possibility of
falling I put a belt under my arms. To this
I attached two chains. At the end of each
chain is a snap. My m.ethod of climbing is
as follows: After ascending the ladder as
far as I can go, I drive into the side of the
tree a large bridge spike, far enough into
the wood to hold my weight. A little fur-
ther up I drive another spike. In between
the spikes I drive the first staple, and to
this I attach the first chain by means of the
snap, and ascend by the nails as far as the
chain will allow me; I then drive another
staple, and attach the other chain, and next
looiien the lower snap. After driving in
more spikes, I again ascend as high as the
chain will allow me, and attach the other
cliaiu to another staple. In this manner I
can make my ascent with perfect security.

The tree stands close to the Black River,
iu a graveyard, and from it I obtained 50
lbs. of honey. Regular climbers are excel-
lent for small trees^ say from two to three
feet in diameter; but the tree illustrated has
such a rough and uneven bark, and is so
large that it would be difficult to climb it
without the aid of spikes and the staples I
have mentioned. On account of the large
knots it would be impossible to use a rope,
or something similar, to hitch up by climb-
ers. Knots are not in the way when I use
spikes and staples. Green Derrington.

HOW TO GET BEES OUT OF BEE-TREES OR FROM
BETWEEN THE SIDINGS OF A HOUSE WITH-
OUT MUTILATING EITHER THE TREE OR THE
HOUSE.

It sometimes happens that a colony of

bees will take their abode in some fine shade
tree in a park, which the authorities will
not allow to be cut; or they will domicile
in the woods of some farmer, who, while
he will allow the bee-hunter to get the bees,
will not let him cut the tree; or, as it often
happens, a colony will make its home be-
tween the plaster and the clapboarding of
a house. How, then, can such bees and their

Two-foot log split open, exposing large colony of
bees.

lioney be secured without doing any dam-
age to the tree or the building that gives
them a home and p)rotection? The matter
is made very easy by the use of the modern
bee-escape. For particulars regarding this
device, see Comb Honey and Extracted
Honey.

Having the bees located in the bee-tree,
the hunter prepares a small colony of bees
or a nucleus with a queen, putting it into
a light hive or box, which can be carried to
the scene of operations. He takes along
with him a hammer, a saw, some nails, and
lumber, with which he can make a tempo-
rary platform. On arriving on the spot he
lights his smoker and then prepares to set

A dissected bee-tree. This shows the general arrangement of combs in the cavity. Fortunately in this
case the swarm was accommodating enough to make the nest close to the ground where it was easily captured,

98

BEE-HUNTING

up his platform directly opposite to or in
front of the flight-hole of the bee-tree, or
the knot-hole of the dwelling. The platform
he constructs out of the lumber he has
brought. Before doing so it will be neces-
sary for him to blow smoke into the flight-
hole, in order to prevent bees from inter-
fering with the building of the temporary
hive-stand. He next puts a Porter bee-es-
cape over the flight-hole of the tree or
building, in such a way that the bees can
come out but not go back in. Last of
all he places his hive with the bees which
he has brought, with its entrance as near

brimstones the old colony, or what is left,
which by this time is probably not more
than a handful of bees with the queen.

Again he leaves the scene of operation;
but the bee-escape is not replaced. What
happens now ? The bees in the hive, includ-
ing those that were captured, rob all the
honey out of the old nest in the tree or
house in the course of three or four days,
carrying it into the hive on the extempo-
rized platform.

The bee-hunter now takes away the hive,
removes the temporary hive-stand and car-
ries the bees home. If they be taken a mile

The largest Tsee-tree in the world — 65 feet in circumference.

as possible to the bee-escape (now placed
over the old entrance).

His work is now complete, and he leaves
the bees to work out their own salvation.

The bees from the tree, as fast as they
come out, are, of course, unable to return.
These, one by one, find their way into the
hive on the temporary platform. At the
end of four or five weeks the queen in the
tree or dwelling will have very few bees
left, and there will also be but little brood
tor that matter, thru lack of bees to take
care of it, for her subjects are nearly all
in the hive on the outside.

At this time Mr. Bee-hunter appears on
the scene. He loads his smoker with fuel
(brimstone), removes the bee-escape and

or a mile and a half, they will stay where
placed.

In the meantime, no damage has been
done either to tree or building, as the case
may be. All that will be left in the tree
will be some old dry combs which, in the
form of wax, probably would not amount
to fifty cents, if the time of rendering be
taken into account.

This method of taking bees could not
very well be practiced where the bees are
located in inaccessible positions, as in high
trees; but it will be found very useful
where a colony is located in some building
or shade tree in a park.

We are indebted for the general princi-
ples here set forth to Ralph Fisher of

Closer view of largest bee-tre-e in the world. Native children in foreground give an idea of its size.

Great Meadows, N. J., who has practiced
this plan with great success.

DOES BEE-HUNTING PAYf

for in himting for a bee to start with he
finds many plants that are curious and
many that he would not otherwise know
to be frequented by bees.

If one can earn a dollar per day at some
steady employment, bee-hunting, as a rule,
would not pay ; yet, doubtless, there are lo-
calities where an expert would make it pay
well in the fall of the year. With present fa-
cilities for rearing bees, a beekeeper could
stock an apiary much quicker by rearing
bees than he would by bringing them home
from the woods, and transferring. In the
former case he would have nice straight
combs, especially if he used foundation;
but the combs from the woods would re-
quire a great deal of fussing, and even
then would never be nearly as nice as those
built on foundation. So much by way of
discouragement. On the other hand, a
ramble in the woods, such as bee-hunting
furnishes, is one of the most healthful
forms of recreation one can find, because
it gives him a chance to study not only the
habits of the bees but the flowers as well ;

BEE-TREES MENACE TO QUEEN-BREEDERS.

It may also be mentioned that if one is
trying to Italianize his apiary the presence
of black bees in the woods will seriously
interfere with pure mating. When bees
build their combs naturally in trees they
build an excessive amount of drone comb.
The blacks will, therefore, raise drones out
of all proportion to the number raised in
hives of Italians where only combs from
foundation are used. Indeed, it is not any
exaggeration to say that one colony of
blacks on natural combs will raise as many
drones as 40 or 50 colonies of Italians
whose combs are built from all-worker
foundation. It would, therefore, pay and
pay well to get all the bee-trees of blacks
or hybrids, even if there were no financial
gain in the honey or bees so secured.

100

BEEKEEPING FOR WOMEN

BEEKEEPING AS A SPECIALTY.—

See Beginning with Bees and Peofits in
Bees; also Specialty in Bees.

BEEKEEPING FOR WOMEN.

[It is presumed, of course, that no ordinary man
wmiid be entirelii competent to write on a subject
of this kind. In looking about for some woman to
do this, the author could think of no one more able
than Mrs. Anna B. Comstock, author of a charming
work for beginners on " How to Keep Bees." Mrs.
Comstock is the wife of Prof. J. Henry Comstock,
of Cornell University, and both of them are ento-
mologists. We engaged her to write the following
article.]

Two questions invariably pop up at us
when this matter of feminine beekeeping
is discussed : One is, "Why shouldn't a wo-
man keep bees?" and the other is, "Why
should a woman keep bees?" Like most
other questions these may be answered
more or less rationally with proper consid-
eration.

Taking the " why shouldn't " question
first, we are bound to confess that nowa-
days there is no effective reason why a wo-
man should not do almost any thing that
she takes into her enterprising little head
to do. But quite aside from the considera-
tion of woman's prowess, there are one or
two reasons that might deter some of the
faint-hearted fair from undertaking bee-
keeping. There is no use trying to gloss
over the fact that there is a great deal of
hard work and heavy lifting in the care of
a profitable apiary. The hard work is real-
ly no objection, as most women of whatever
class are at it any way. But lifting heavy
hives is certainly not particularly good ex-
ercise for any woman, altho I must con-
fers that I have never lifted half so strenu-
ously when caring for the bees as I used to
on the farm when we moved the cook-stove
into the summer kitchen, accomplishing
this feat by our feminine selves, rather
than to bring to the surface any of the
latent profanity which seems to be engen-
dered in the masculine bosom when taking
part in this seasonal pastime.

There are at least two ways of obviating
this feminine disability in beekeeping.
One, practiced successfully by several wo-
men, is thru the use of a light wheelbar-
row, which almost solves the problem if
the bees are wintered out of doors and do
not have to be carried up and down cellar
stairs ; the other method is to get some man

to do the lifting and carrying.* It may be
the husband, the father, the brother, the
son, or the hired man; but as this work
can be done at a time which can be planned
for, it is not so difficult for the men of the
establishment to give the help needed. I
am sure my husband would say that I am
quite enthusiastically in favor of the man
solution of this problem; but his opinion
does not count for much, because he loves
the bees so enthusiastically I have to beg
for a chance to work with them at all, al-
tho he virtuously points out the hives to
people as " Mrs. Comstock's bees."

Another " shouldn't " reason might be
that women are afraid of bee-stings. This
falls flat, from the fact that women are not
a bit more nervous than men in this respect.
This year when I was struggling to hive a
swarm from a most difficult position, an
interested man stood off at a safe distance
in a most pained state of mind. He was a
courteous gentleman, and he felt that it was
outrageous for me to have to do the work
alone, but he did not dare to come to my
aid, and I., think he considered my temerity
in dealing with the swarm as almost scan-
dalous.

Thus having disposed of all the reasons I
can think of why women shouldn't keep
bees, I turn gladly to the more interesting
reasons why she should look upon the api-
ary as one of her legitimate fields of labor.
There are so many reasons for this that I
could not enumerate them even if a com-
plete number of a bee journal were given
me for the purpose. So I shall speak of
just a few of the most important reasons.
I should put first of all, and as embracing
all other reasons, that beekeeping may be
made an interesting avocation which can
be carried on coincidentally with other em-
ployments; it is an interesting study in
natural history; it cultivates calmness of
spirit, self-control, and patience; it is a
" heap " of fun ; incidentally it may sup-
ply the home table with a real luxury; and
it may add a very considerable amount to
any woman's spending-money. It can also
be carried on as a regular business, to sup-
port a family.

But it is as an avocation that I am espe-
cially interested in the apiary. Any woman
who keeps house needs an avocation to take

* Some frail women remove all honey, one comb
at a time.

BEEKEEPING FOR WOMEN

101

the mind and attention completely off her
household cares at times. There is some-
thing about the daily routine of housekeep-
ing that wears mind and body full of ruts,
even in the case of those who love to do
housework better than anything else. Talk
about the servant question! It is not the
servant question, but the housework ques-
tion. If some means could be devised by
which housework could be performed with
inspiration, zeal, and enthusiasm, the ser-
vant problem would solve itself; but this
ideal Avay of doing housework can be car-
ried on only when the spirit is freed from
the sense of eternal drudgery. I am not a
wizard to bring about this change; but I
know one step toward it, and that is the
establishment of some permanent interest
for woman that will pull her out of the ruts
and give her body and mind a complete
change and rest. Embroidery, lace-making,
weaving, painting, and several other like
occupations, may serve this purpose in a
measure; and, perhaps, if carried on in the
right way, may achieve more in this line
than they do at present. But these are all
indoor occupations; and what a woman
needs is something to take her out of doors
where she can have fresh air. Excess of
perspiration induced by the cook-stove is
weakening ; but honest sweat called forth in
the open air by the application of generous
sunshine is a source of health and strength.

Beekeeping is one of the best of these
life-saving, nerve-healing avocations; it
takes the mind from household cares as
completely as would a trip to Europe, for
one cannot Avork with bees and think of
anything else. Some of the attributes which
make beekeeping an interesting avocation I
will mention: First of all, bees are such
wonderful creatures, and so far beyond our
comprehension, that they have for us al-
ways the fascination of an unsolved prob-
lem. I never pass our hive without mental-
ly asking, " Well, you dear little rascals,
what Avill you do next? " Bees are of par-
ticular interest to every woman for several
reasons: if she likes good housekeeping,
then the bee is a model; if she likes a
woman of business, again is the bee a shin-
ing light; if she is interested in the care of
the young, then is the bee-nurse an example
of perfection ; if she believes in the political
rights of women, she will find the highest
feminine political wisdom in the constitu-

tion of the bee commune. In fact, it is only
as a wife that the bee is a little too casual
to pose as ideal, altho as a widow she is
certainly remarkable and perhaps even no-
torious.

Another phase which makes beekeeping a
pleasing avocation for women is that much
of the work is interesting and attractive. I
never sit down to the " job " of folding
sections and putting in starters without ex-
periencing joy at the prettiness of the
work. And if there is any higher artistic
happiness than comes from cleaning up a
section holding a pound of well-capped
amber honey and putting the same in a
dainty carton for market, then I have never
experienced it; and the making of pictures
has been one of my regular avocations. By
the way, woman has never used her artistic
talent rightly in this matter of cartons.
Each woman beekeeper ought to make her
own colored design for the carton, thus
securing something so individual and at-
tractive as to catch at once the eye of the
customer.

As a means of cultivating calmness, pa-
tience, and self-control the bee is a well-
recognized factor. Bees can be, and often
are, profoundly exasperating; and yet hoAv
worse than futile it is to evince that exas-
peration by word or movement! No crea-
ture reacts more quickly against irritation
than the bee. She cannot be kicked nor
spanked ; and if we smoke her too much, we
ourselves are the losers. There is only one
way to manage exasperation with bees —
that is, to control it; and this makes the
apiary a means of grace.

The money-making side of beekeeping is
a very important phase in arousing and
continuing the woman's interest in her
work. I think woman is by birth and train-
ing a natural gambler, and the uncertainty
of the nectar supply and of the honey mar-
ket adds to rather than detracts from her
interest in her apiary. I know of several
women who have made comfortable incomes
and supported their families by beekeep-
ing; but, as yet, I think such instances are
few. However, I believe there are a large
number of women who have added a good-
ly sum yearly to their amount of spending
money, and have found the work a joy
instead of drudgery. Personally, I have
had very little experience with the commer-
cial side of beekeeping. Once when our

102

BEES AND FRUIT-GROWING

maddeningly snecessful apiary grew to 40
hives when we did not want more than a
dozen at most, and the neighborhood was
surfeited with our bounty, we were "just
naturally " obliged to sell honey. We en-
joyed gTeatly getting the product ready for
market, and were somehow surprised that
so much fun could be turned into ready
cash. As a matter of fact, both my husband
and myself have absorbing vocations and
avocations in plenty, so that our sole reason
for keeping bees is because we love the lit-
tle creatures, and find them so interesting
that we would not feel that home was
really home without them ; the sight of our
busy little co-workers adds daily to our
psychic income. We are so very busy that
we have but very little time to spend with
them, and have finally formulated our ideal
for our own beekeeping, and that is to
keep bees for honey and for "fun." We
shall have plenty of honey for our own
table, and just enough to bestow on neigh-
bors so they will not get tired of it; and
fun enough to season life with an out-of-
door interest and the feeling that no sum-
mer day is likely to pass without a surprise.
(See Veils.)

BEE LEGISLATION.— See Laws Re-
LATixG TO Bees.

BEE MOTH.— See Moth Miller.

BEE PARALYSIS.— See Diseases of
Bees.

BEE-SPACE.— This term is applied to
spaces left by the bees both between combs
they build and between the parts of the
hive and the combs. It varies all the way
from 3-16 to 3-8 ; but 5-16 is considered the
correct average. But in hive-construction
it has been found that a space of ^ inch
will be more free from the building of bits
of comb and the depositing of propolis
than a little wider spacing. Any less space
than 3-16 will be plugged up with propolis
and wax. See Frames.

Father Langstroth, in the great inven-
tion which he gave to the world — the first
practical movable frame — made the dis-
covery that bees recognize and protect pas-
sageways which are now called bee-spaces.
Taking advantage of this fact he made a
frame (for holding comb) so that there

would be a bee-space all around between it
and the hive, and a bee-space between it
and any other frame. All who preceded
him had failed to gTasp the fact that bees
would leave such spaces unfilled with wax
or propolis. Before Langstroth's time it
was necessary to pull out frames stuck
fast to the hives with propolis, or tear or
cut loose the combs with a thin-bladed
knife, before they could be removed for
the purpose of inspection.

By bringing out his bee-spaced frame the
" father of modern apiculture " solved,
with one great master stroke, a problem
that had been puzzling the minds of bee-
keepers for centuries.

In later years, manufacturers of hives
have been compelled to recognize this great
principle, that there are certain parts in-
side of the hive that must be bee-spaced
from every other part or else they will be
stuck or glued together in a way that will
make them practically inseparable. For
exaniple, the bottoms of supers containing
the sections must be 5/16 inch above the
tops of the brood-frames in the lower part
of the hive. The sections themselves must
be held a bee-space away from the sepa-
rators or fences. It has come to be a gen-
eral practice to put the bee-space in the
bottom-board, leaving the bottoms of the
frames in the brood-nest nearly flush with
the bottom of the hive. This makes it
necessary to have the sides and ends of the
hive project above the general level of the
frames about 5/16 inch. In the same way
the supers have a bee-space on top but not
on the bottom. If a super be removed, and
a hive-cover be put in its place, there will
still be a space between the cover and the
brood-frames.

BEES. — See Races of Bees; also Ital-
ian Bees.

BEES AND FRUIT-GROWING.— Un-
der Fruit Blossoms and also under Pol-
len it has been shown that beekeeping is
very intimately related to fruit-growing.
The production of fruit by many tre'es and
shrubs is dependent on the pollen being
carried by bees to the bloom from different
individuals or varieties of the same spe-
cies, and almost invariably the quality of
the fruit is improved by such cross-pol-
lination. The two industries can, there-

BEES AND POULTRY 103

Bees and chickens m the same back lot, Detroit, Mich.

fore, be united with gTeat advantage.
Fruit-growers have learned to appreciate
the vahiable work performed by bees. As
they became comdnced that the services
of these little friends were indispensable,
from California and Wisconsin to ISTew
York and Florida, they not only began
buying colonies of bees, but gTadually in-
creased their number until now it is not
uncommon for a f ruit-gTOwer to own a
large apiary. So far from adding to the
expenses of fruit culture, the surplus of
honey obtained has proved that beekeeping,
in this connection, may prove to be a very
profitable side line. One man, or force of
men-, can care for the bees a part of the
time, and for the fruit trees the other part,
and thus be able to furnish two of the
finest sweets in the world — the sugar in
fruit and the sugar in the nectar of the
flowers.

Within the last few years the citrus-
growers of California and the Southern
States, particularly Florida and the Isle
of Pines, have in many instances increased
the quantity of fruit produced by their
groves by the introduction of the domestic
bee. While the number of colonies re-

quii'ed has been estimated as low as one per
acre, to pollinate the bloom thoroly four or
five are desirable. A larger number of bees
are necessary to cover a given acreage in
the Northern States than in the South,
since in the former section climatic con-
ditions are far more unfavorable, and bees
may be able to work on the flowers for
onlv a short time.

BEES AND POULTRY. — Under the
head of Bees and FRUiT-GROwma it is
shown how beekeeping and fruit-growing
go well together. If there is any industry,
aside from that of growing fruit, that com-
bines nicely with the keeping of bees, it is
poultry. When the bees require the most
attention, the poultiy needs the least.
When chickens demand the most time, the
bees are taking their long winter sleep, and,
of course, require no attention, or very lit-
tle. In the more northern States, at least,
the bees are put into winter quarters along
in the fall, and require almost no attention
until the following spring, along in April
or May. During this time the chickens
require considerable care. If one would
have early broilers in the spring, he must
start his incubator going early. He must

104

BEES AS A NUISANCE

feed bis chickens so that they will lay dur-
ing the winter, and not only that, but give
him fertile eggs so that he can start his
incubator. Incubator work and the brood-
ing of chickens take place in the spring.
The bees at that time require a little atten-
tion in the way of feeding and going over
to see whether any of them need uniting;
but, beyond that, they will not require very
much care until about the middle of May
or the first of June. In the mean time,
the cleaning-out of the poultry-houses,
gathering of eggs, marketing, all require
considerable time on the part of the owner
of the chickens. Just about the time the
bees begin to require considerable atten-
tion, the hens will begin to lessen their lay-
ing, and the weather will be such that they
will not require such careful feeding; for
usually they can get a good deal of their
green food directly from the ground. At
that time the beekeeper will be either giv-
ing his colonies more room or extracting.
If the chickens require a good deal of his
time then, he can simply put on extra su-
pers, ]3iling them one on top of the other,
until he has the hives stacked up three or
four stories high. If he practices swarm
prevention by the methods given under the
head of Swarming and Artificial Sv^ arm-
ing he will not have much trouble with
swarms. Taking it all in all, he can post-
pone the greater part of his bee work until
his chickens do not require very much at-
tention, and then he can take off his honey,
scrape his sections, or extract if necessary.

The great majority of those who keep
bees in the United States work them in
connection with some profession or some
other industry, like fruit-growing or poul-
try-keeping, etc. Some localities do not
make it feasible to make beekeeping the
sole means of livelihood. While it is true
there are a great many specialists, espe-
cially in the West, they are in localities that
are particularly favorable for the keeping
of bees in a large way. One can scarcely
make a living from one or two hundred
colonies; but that number in connection
with poultry-keeping or the growing of
fruit helps to make up the general income
of the family. For a further consideration
of the question of whether bees can be
made the sole means of livelihood, see
Profits in Bees, Backlot Beekeeping,
Specialty in Bees^ and the Foreword.

BEES AND TRUCK GARDENING.—

Beekeeping can be managed in connection
with truck gardening, but these do not
make nearly as good a combination as bees
and poultry. The difficulty in combining
bees with gardening is that the latter re-
quires its greatest attention when the bees
also need a large amount of care. There
are times and circumstances, however, when
beekeeping, fruit-growing, and poultry-
keeping might all three be worked together ;
but in most cases, probably, the man who
attempted this would be a " Jack of all
trades and master of none."

BEES AND FARMING.— See Farmer-
Beekeeper.

BEES AS A NUISANCE.— It would
seem almost out of place to discuss this
question in a work intended for perusal
and study by those who believe (and right-
ly, too) that bees are not a nuisance; but,
as will be shown, there are very good rea-
sons why this question should be calmly
discussed in order to avoid trouble that
may arise in the future. Certain difficulties
have arisen between the keepers of bees
and their neighbors. Perhaps the bees,
after a long winter confinement, or after
several days' confinement at any time, have
taken a flight and soiled the washing hung
on a line in a neighbor's yard. Possibly,
some of his children have been stung, or
there have been times when he has been
greatly annoyed while in the peaceable pos-
session of his own property by bees coming
on his premises and smelling around, as
they sometimes do during the fruit-can-
ning season when the aroma of sugar and
juicy fruits escapes thru the doors and
windows of the kitchen. Possibly, the of-
fended neighbor keeps chickens, and mem-
bers of his feathered tribe have trespassed
on the grounds of the beekeeper. The re-
sult of all this is that bad feelings arise.
Complaint is made to the village officers;
an ordinance is proposed declaring bees
within the limits of the corporation to be a
nuisance, and requiring the keeper to re-
move them at once or suffer the penalty of
fine or imprisonment, or both. See Laws
Relating to Bees.

In some instances, live stock has been
stung; a cow or a calf or a horse may get
near the entrances of the hives, which, pos-

BEES' AS A XUISA^XE

105

sibly, are within a foot of a dividing line
between the two properties. Perhaps the
stock is stung nearly to death. Damage is
claimed and a lawsuit follows, with the re-
sult that a feeling of resentment is stirred
up against the beekeeper.

Or again, the beekeeper may have an
apiary in his front yard, bordering on the
common highway. A nucleus is robbed out,
with the result that the bees go on the
warpath, and begin to sting passers-by.
Perhaps a span of horses is attacked; a
rimaway follows; damages are claimed,
and another lawsuit is begun.

In the foregoing, possible instances have
been supposed. It is proper to state that

a

i

they are only types of what has occurred
and may occur again, so it behooves the
beekeeper to be careful.

In the first case mentioned (the aggriev-
ed neighbor's washing soiled by the stains
from bees affected with dysentery), it is
well for the beekeeper to send over several
nice sections of honey, or to offer to pay
for the damage done to the washing. Xoth-
iug makes a woman more angi-y than to
have her nice clean white linen, after she
has scrubbed, rinsed, and bung it out to
dry, daubed with nasty, ill-smelling brown
stains. But if the beekeeper shows a dis-

position to make the matter good and takes
pains to offer an apology before the
woman makes complaint, ti'ouble will in
most cases be averted. And right here it
should be said, if the bees are in the cellar
they should not be set out on a wash-day ;
or if they are outdoors, and the sun comes
out bright so they begin to fly strongly
from the hives, one should send word to the
neighbors and ask them not to hang out
their washing, if it is a wash-day, for a few
hoiu's. It might be well also to send along
a few boxes of honey, and keep the folks
across the way "•sweetened up." Xinety-
nine neighbors out of a hundred will put
up with a great deal of inconveniences.

and say, Oh ! that is all right. It won't
take long to rinse out the clothes again."

TVe will now consider the more sei-ious
cases — -those in which horses or cattle have
been stung. • If the beekeeper has been
foolish enough to place hives near the hi^'h-
way or near his neighbor's line fence where
he has loose stock, such beekeeper may
have to pay pretty dearly for it before he
gets thru. The remedy is prevention. He
should always put his bees in a back yard,
and not too close to a neighbor's line fence.
He should be careful, also, to iire's-ent rob-
bing. He should see that there ai'e no weak

Scheme for protecting horses -n-hile cultivating a field next to a bee-yard.

106

BEES AS A NUISANCE

nuclei with entrances too large. As soon
as the honey flow stops, he should contract
the entrances of all the weaker colonies. If
extracting is done after the honey flow,
great caution needs to be exercised. The
extracting-room should be screened off, and
no honey left exposed to the bees. When-
ever possible, he should take off all surplus
by the use of bee-escapes rather than by
shaking. See Robbing and Extracting.

Under the head of Anger of Bees, in the
latter part of the article, and under the
head of Apiaries, emphasis is put upon the
importance of placing the hives so that
they shall be screened by shrubbery or
small trees from other hives and objects in

be much better,
ing.

See Backlot Beekeep-

WHAT to do when THE BEES ATTACK
NEIGHBORS^ HORSES.

But it sometimes happens that something
must be done at once to avert an attack
upon teams of horses working in fields ad-
joining a bee-yard. We have one outyard
located near a field where our neighbor's
horses have been attacked by the bees on
several occasions. We supplied our neigh-
bor with clover seed for this field; and
when he came to cut the crop the horses
would occasionally be stung while drawing
the mower. In one case there came very

When the team was in the flight of the bees the smoker was held in readiness should the horses be stuag.

the yard. Nothing is more conducive to
insuring good temper on the part of bees
than to place the individual hives so that
the inmates cannot from their own door-
steps see moving objects in the immediate
vicinity. When the space where the apiary
is located is open, without shrubbery or
trees to screen the hives, the bees are much
Grosser than when placed behind obstruct-
ing objects. The average backlot bee-
keeper will have much better bees to han-
dle, and no trouble with neighbors, if he
puts his hives among the bushes. If he
has a high board fence, or a hedge of ever-
greens to shut off the little apiary from
passing teams, pedestrians, or children that
play in the next yard, the conditions will

near being a serious mixup, as the team
nearly ran away with the mowing machine.

Two years later corn was planted in this
same field. When the horses were cultivat-
ing up and down the rows they were at-
tacked again by the bees, for they were
going in great droves across this field to a
patch of clover beyond. Notwithstanding
we had a high board fence to raise the
fiight of the bees above the team when
near our yard, there was more or less trou-
ble. On one occasion the driver was stung
pretty severely, and the horses became un-
manageable. Fortunately, the driver got
them under control without any serious
consequences.

Now, our neighbor is a kindly man; and

BEES ATTACKING FRUIT

107

when he telephoned what had happened we
f^aw that something would have to be done.
We told him to go to the harness-shop and
secure some large horse-blankets that would
cover the necks and backs of the horses,
and we would pay the bill. TVe then di-
rected him to secure some large squares
of mosquito netting and fold this around
the horses' heads. In the meantime we sup-
plied him with veils for himself and man.

"When the next day came for cultivating,
the blankets were put on and we went down
to watch developments. We found that the
blankets helped very materially, as they
protected the horses from the onslaught
of bees around their backs and necks where
they could not brush or switch them off.
Our neighbor did not think it was neces-
saiy to put the mosquito netting over their
heads, as he said his horses did not mind
bees on the face, as they could be biiished
oif on the fore-legs. With these large
blankets the horses went up and down the
rows with veiy little trouble.

We found upon investigation that the
bees were not disposed to- be cross, but in
going to and from the fields in search of
honey they were interrupted in their flight
The switching of the tails of the horses an-
gered them, with the result as stated.

In cases of this kind it is an advantage
to have an experienced beeman, and also
an experienced horseman, if the two can be
combined in one person. We happened to
have just such a man in our employ, and
sent him along aroimd with the mower and
reaper with a lighted smoker. If he found
the bees were flying around the horses'
heads, he used a little smoke and drove
them away. It was not necessary for him
to foUow the machine clear around the
field, but only along that side next to the
flight of the bees.

But suppose the neighbor is imreason-
able and ugly, and he brings suit for dam-
ages; or suppose that the bees are located
in a city or village, and that the town coun-
cil has declared bees a nuisance.

Do not move the bees if reasonable pre-
caution has been used, but write at once to
the author.

Suppose attorneys have been retained.
Any number of decisions have been handed
down to prove that bees are not a nuisance
per se; that, when they are properly kept,
and due precautions are used, they cannot

be driven out of the corporation. There
are several precedents from various courts,
even from the Supreme Court of Arkansas,
to show that bees have the right to be kept
within a corporation like any live stock, so
that any ordinance not in conformity with
these decisions can be declared unconstitu-
tional. Several ordinances declaring bees
to be a nuisance have been repealed. See
Laws Relating to Bees.

BEES ATTACKING(?) FRUIT.— Oc-
casionally complaints have been made that
bees will attack and eat up fruit : and to a
casual observer, at least, they apparently
do bite thru the skin and extract the juices
until the specimen is shriveled up to a mere
semblance of its former shape and size.
However, careful investigation has shown
repeatedly that bees never attack sound

i ^

Grapes punctured by "birds and despoiled by bees.

fruit, no matter how soft the skin nor how
juicy and pulpy the contents within the
skin.

We have attended various horticultural
and pomological conventions, both state
and national. Among the progressive
fruit-gTOwers and horticulturists there is a
general acknowledgment that bees do not
attack sound fruit; that the little harm
they do to damaged fruit is conpensateH
for a hundred times over by the indispensa-
ble service they perfoiin in polluiating
fruit blossoms early in the season when no
other insects or means of mingling the pol-
len exists. Oiu' best fruit-gTowers are now
keeping a few hives of bees in each of theii'

108

BEES ATTACKING FRUIT

orelinrds. Often they invite beekeepers to
locate yards of bees either in the orchards
or as near as it is practicable to put them.

Some years ago, Prof. N. W. McLain,
then in the employ of the Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C, conducted
an elaborate series of experiments in which
he placed sound fruit, consisting of grapes,
peaches, apricots, and the like, in hives con-
taining bees that were brought to the verge
of starvation. This fruit was left in the
hives day after day, but it was never once
molested. Then he tried breaking some of
the fruit, and in every case all such speci-
mens were attacked by the bees sucking up
the juices until nothing but a dried skin
and the stones or seeds were left.

Years later. Prof. H. A. Surface, eco-
nomic zoologist at Harrisburg, Pa., tried a
similar experiment, but in no case did the
bees attack sound fruit, altho they par-
took freely of that which he had broken.

At the Wilmington State Fair, held in
September, 1918, in Delaware, Joel Gil-
fillan of Newark, Del., had on exhibition a
three-story observation hive containing two
combs of bees. In the third story were
hung a peach, a pear, and a bunch of
grapes. This hive was kept on exhibition
during the entire fair where the general
public could see it. As is shown, this fruit
was never one« visited by the bees. The
general verdict of those who saw it, fruit-
men and farmers alike, was that bees did
not injure this fruit.

We have had, during the past 30 years,
betw^^en 1;hree and four hundred colonies
located in a vineyard at our home apiary.
Notwithstanding hundreds and hundreds
of pounds of grapes are raised every year,
the bunches hanging within three or foui-
feet of the entrance of the hives, the sound
fruit is never attacked; but, during a
dearth of honey, a broken or otherwise
bruised bunch of grapes will often be visit-
ed by a few bees.

But a casual observer might easily get
the impression that bees not only suck
damaged fruit dry, but actually puncture
and eat up sound fruit. Some years ago n
neighbor sent word that he would like to
have us come to his vineyard and he would
give us indisputable proof that our bees
were actually puncturing his grapes and
sucking out the juice. We looked at the
luscious bunches as they were hanging

down, and, sure enough, there were small
needle-like holes in almost every gTape that
the bees were working on. It looked like a
clear case of " caught in the act " evidence
against them. For the time being we were
unable to offer a satisfactory explanation.
We brought the matter to the attention of
an old farmer who had been a beekeeper
for many years. Finally one morning he
sent word to us that he had found the cul-
prit, and that if we would come down to
his place early some morning he would
point him out. This we did. He showed us
a little bird, quick of flight, and almost
never to be seen around the vines when
any human being was present. This bird,
about the size of a sparrow, striped, and
called the Cape May warbler (Dendroica
tigrina), has a long sharp needlelike beak.
It would alight on a bunch, and about as
fast as one could count them, would punc-

One of the exhibits of bees at the Griinge Fair, in
Wilmington, Del., held in Septerabei-, 1908. A card
in the hive read, " Bees do not injure sound fruit."

ture grape after grape. After his birdship
has done his mischief he leaves, and then
come the innocent bees during the later
hours of the day and finish the work
of destruction by sucking the juices and

BEES ATTACKING FRUIT

109

Apricots damaged by birds ; fruits thus injured are sucked dry by bees, which store the juice as honey

the pulp of the grape until it becomes a
withered skin over a few seeds. Thus the
grapes were punctured by the birds during
the early hours of the day; but the bees,
coming on later, received all the credit for
the mischief.

The Cape May warbler is not the only
bird guilty of puncturing grapes. There
are many other species of small birds that
learn this habit, and . among them may be
named the ever present sparrow and the
beautiful Baltimore oriole, the sweet singer
that is sometimes called the swinging bird,
from its habit of building its nest on some
overhanging limb.

Some seasons the bird visitors are much
more numerous than others. Several years
may pass before any complaint is made, and
then the beekeeper will have angry people
in the vicinity of his bees calling him up
on the telephone, saying the bees are eating
up their grapes. The thing to do is to call
on each complainant, and prove that the
birds are the ones that do the mischief in
the first place, and that it is only by care-
ful watching at intervals that they can be
seen at their work.

In order to determine their presence the
observer should go away from the grape-
vine about 50 or perhaps 100 feet. The
early morning hours are the most favora-
ble for catching the miscreant at work.
The Cape May warbler is a shy little fel-
low, and he will not usually show himself if
any one is near the vines. It is for that
reason that the bird is seen on the grapes

only at brief intervals; and the bees, work-
ing on the bunches all day, get the blame
for all the damage.

For further information regarding grape-
puncturing birds, refer to bulletins by Dr.
Merriam of the United States Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

WHEN BEES MAY DAMAGE FRUIT.

But there are times when bees are a nui-
sance, and it is then that their owner should
compromise; or, better still, seek means to
avoid trouble in the first place. In the
fruit-drying ranches of California, apri-
cots and peaches are cut up into small
pieces and laid upon trays exposed to the
sun's rays. If there is a dearth of honey at
this time, and a large number of bees in
the locality, this fruit may be attacked. The
bees may visit it in such large numbers that
they suck out the juices, leaving nothing
but the shriveled form of the fruit. The
property is, of course, damaged, and its
sale ruined. Before anything of this kind
can happen, the beekeeper should move his
whole yard to a point three or four miles
distant from any fruit-drying operations.
Failing to do so the fruit-grower, if the
bees caused trouble, might enter suit for
damages, and possibly recover the value of
his crop.

Years ago we had trouble with a cider-
maker. He claimed that our bees would
lick up the cider from the press as fast as
he could make it. We easily adjusted this

110

BEES ON SHARES

difficulty by screening his building with
mosquito netting.

In every case of this sort the owner of
bees should avoid trouble. In the case of
the fruit-drying ranches and the cider
mills, the beekeeper had better err on the
safe side by avoiding suit for damages, be-
cause no lawyers would be able to give
much assistance where it was clearly proven
that the bees were doing an actual damage.

BEES EXONERATED BY A JURY.

In 1900, trouble arose at Amity, N. Y.,
between two brothers named Utter. One
was a beekeeper and the other a fruit-
grower. The latter averred that the for-
mer's bees punctured his peaches, and, in
consequence of their alleged damage, he
claimed he was unable to raise any fruit.
There had not been veiy good feeling be-
tween the brothers for years. The fruit-
grower brought suit against the beekeeper,
and the case was tried on Dec. 17, 18, and
19, 1899, at Goshen. There was no lack of
legal talent on either side. The case was a
very hard.-fought one from beginning to
end. Among some thirty odd witnesses ex-
amined, the Government expert, Frank
Benton, formerly of the United States De-
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D.
C, gave his testimony to the effect that
bees never puncture sound fruit; that it is
practically impossible for them to do so,
owdng to the fact that they have no cutting-
jaws like those found in the wasp and other
insects of that character. He also showed
that wasps and birds will, under some con-
ditions, puncture fruit; that these minute
holes they make will, during a dearth of
honey, be visited by bees. Other expert
testimony was offered, nearly all of which
exonerated the bees. After all the evidence
was in and the arguments were made, ^ the
jury returned a verdict for the defendant.

For further particulars regarding this,
the reader is referred to the publishers of
this work.

In ease trouble arises, the owner of the
bees will do well to read Bees as a Nui-
sance, and also the other subject found in
its alphabetical order. Laws Relating to
Bees,

BEES, CROSS.— See Anger of Bees.
BEES, CROSSES OF —See Hybrids.

BEES, HANDLING.— See A B C of

Beekeeping, Manipulation of Colonies;
also Honey Exhibits.

BEES ON SHARES.— In some localities,
notably in California, Colorado, and the
gTeat West, bees are often kept on shares.
While this method of doing business has
usually been conducted quite successfully
and satisfactorily to both parties, yet nev-
ertheless many disputes and troubles have
arisen, perhaps because there was a lack
of contract ; or, if there was one, there was
nothing in it to cover the point in dispute.

The following form of contract was very
carefully drawn by an attorney, and it is
hoped it will meet every condition.

ARTICLES OF AGREEMENT.

This agreement, made and entered into at

, this day of , 19 — , by and

between of , party of the first part,

and hereinafter called the owner, and ,

of — , party of the second part, and herein-
after called the employee,

Witnesseth: First, that said owner has
agreed, and in consideration of the cove-
nants and agreements herein contained and
to be performed by said employee, does here-
by agree to provide a good location for keep-
ing bees, at or near , and furnish and

put thereon, on or before the day of

, 19 — , not less than colonies of

healthy bees, and then and thereafter at
such times as needed during the continuance
of this contract, to provide and furnish, at
his own cost and expense, all hives, tools,
implements, machinery, and buildings neces-
sary to enable said employee to carry on
successfully the business of producing and
securing honey and wax from said bees; and
further to pay one-half of the cost aijd ex-
pense of all sections, cans, bottles, shipping
cases, and packages that may be required to
put the honey and wax into marketable
shape; and in case it shall be necessary to
feed said bees, to provide and furnish feed-
ers and sugar for making the syrup; and
said owner further agrees to give and deliv-
er on the said premises, to said employee, as
and for his conpensation for labor done and
provided by him in caring for said bees and
securing honey and wax, the full one-half of
all marketable honey and wax produced and
secured from said bees.

Second: In consideration of the above

covenants and agreements, the said ,

employee, hereby agrees to enter the em-
ploy of said owner on said day of ,

19 — , and at once care for said bees in a
proper manner; do, perform, and provide all
labor necessary to carry on successfully the
business of producing and securing honey
and wax ready for market; pay one-half the

BEES, STINGLESS.

Ill

cost and expense of all sections, cans, bet
ties, shipping cases, and packages tliat may
be required to put the honey and wax into
marketable shape; feed the bees, when neces-
sary that they shall be fed, and deliver on
the premises to the said owner the full one-
half of the marketable honey and wax
produced and secured from said bees, and to
accept the remaining half as and for his full
compensation for labor done and provided
by him in the care of said bees and the pro-
duction and securing of honey and wax.

Provided, and it is mutually agreed and
understood by and between the parties here-
to, that said employee shall double up all of
said hives at the close of the season or leave
them reasonably strong and well supplied
with stores and prepared for the winter; and
if any of said colonies of bees are lost thru
the carelessness or negligence of said em-
ployee, said owner may recover from said
employee as damages an amount not greater
than one-half what it would cost to replace
said bees and queens; all increase of swarms
(artificial or natural) to belong to said own-
er. It is further mutually agreed and un-
derstood that in case no honey is secured, or
the amount runs below ten (10) pounds per
colony, said owner shall pay to said em-
ployee, as and for his compensation for all
labor done and provided by him on and
about 'said bees, an amount not exceeding —
cents per hour for each and every hour of
labor so performed, and provided by said
employee on and about said bees, and in
such case all honey to belong to said owner.

Signed in duplicate by said parties, the
day and year first above written.

Signed in presence of

The foregoing comprises the essential
features of a contract; but local conditions
may render it necessary to make some mod-
ifications.

The last clause in the contract is inserted
as a matter of fairness to the employee.
If no lioney should be secured, he has per-
formed his part of the contract in good
faith, and, moreover, has improved the
apiary — perhaps increased it — so that it
will be in better condition the following
year for a honey crop. For this better-
ment it is no more than right that the own-
er should pay his man a reasonable sum,
whatever amount may be agTeed on: or, if
preferred, a certain number of colonies.
One can readily see that, in case the honey
season was an absolute failure, the em-
ployee would suffer a total loss except for
a provision of this kind, and the owner

would still have his bees, the increase, his
implements, and everything necessary to
carry on the business for another season.

By the above contract it is to the interest
of both parties to keep down increase. The
employee must know, if he is a practical
beekeeper, that, the greater the increase,
the less the honey; and he will, therefore,
bend all his efforts and skill to keep the
colonies in the best condition to obtain a
crop of honey.

Keeping bees on shares is practiced quite
extensively in Colorado and California. It
very often happens that a beekeeper lately
arrived from the East desires to try a local-
ity to determine whether it will be suited to
his health, and whether or not he can maks
the keeping of bees a success. He accord-
ingly finds a beekeeper whose other busi-
ness leads him to desire some one compe-
tent to manage his bees for him. But where
one is well settled in a locality, and has the
means whereby he can purchase the bees,
he should do so.

The business of keeping bees on shares
has not always been an unqualified success ;
and where one can buy bees outright, pay-
ing for them out of his earnings, he would
better do so. But the owner of the bees
should, of course, be secured hy a chattel
mortgage until the last payment is made.

BEES, STINGLESS.— Their habitat ex-
tends from the boundary between the Unit-
ed States and Mexico down to Buenos Aires
in Argentina, embracing an area of 8,000,-
000 square miles. One comparatively un-
important species inhabits most of the
West India islands. There are a few spe-
cies in Asia and Africa.

By entomologists these bees are usually
classed under two gTeat genera — Melipona
and Trigona; but some naturalists are dis-
posed to add another, Tetrasoma. There is
an extraordinary variety of these bees,
which is supposed to embrace at least 100
species, whereas there are not more than 8
species of Apis. The variation in size is
also great, for some are no larger than a
mosquito, while others are considerably
larger than the hive bee. A number of
naturalists have studied them with a vievf
to their proper classification and arrange-
ment by species.

There is an equal variation in the number
of bees per colony, for some consist of only

>

112

BEES, STINGLESS.

a few (100) individuals while others are
supposed to contain not less than 100,000
bees.

Some build only small nests, not much
larger than an orange; others construct a
home as large as an ordinary flour-barrel.
Some build in a hole in the ground; others
in the open air, as wasps and hornets do.

history and habits. The work was left for
the twentieth-century naturalists. Geoffrey
St. Hilaire, a naturalist-explorer, did some-
thing to awaken interest by his now classi-
cal observations on honey-gathering wasps
of Paraguay, of which he furnished a com-
plete account in 1825 (Paris). Azara, a
similar explorer, also called attention, to

Stingless Worker Italian Workei

Magnified t

while quite a number build their nests in
the hollows of forest trees.

Early travelers in South and Central
America did not fail to notice the stingless
bees, and quite frequently referred to
them. Capt. Basil Hall, in the 18th

Italian Queen Stingless Queen

Magnified two times.

century, noticed apiaries of them in Peru;
and Koster, in his Travels in Brazil, care-
fully mentions them. Spanish writers on
Central America casually noticed them in
the 16th century; but no European seems
to have been interested enough in them to
make a comprehensive study of their life

Italian Queen

wo times.

them in his travel thru Paraguay. He de-
scribes a species twice as large as Apis,
mellifica.

Other . explorers have mentioned them
from time to time, but nothing of real val-
ue was elicited until lately. Their study
has now been taken up in earnest. White
men have been inclined to dismiss them as
worthless for practical purposes; but the
natives of South America are certainly not
of that opinion. On the contrary, they re-
gard them as superior to the " stinging
fly " of the white man. In Southern Mex-
ico, Central America, and South America,
they are quite frequently kept in a domesti-
cated state by the native inhabitants — that
is to say, they have them in hollow logs
which have been brought from the forests.
These " hives " are generally hung up by
ropes around their dwellings to protect the
bees from their chief enemy, the lizard.
The logs are robbed at stated intervals, the
keeper being well satisfied if he can secure
a gallon of honey per hive at a robbing,
depending somewhat on the species used
for domestication.

Apparently no effort has ever been made
to invent a hive suitable to their wants. It
is noticeable that the natives use only those
species whose homes are made in hollow

BEGINNING WITH BEES

Prof. H. A. Snrfare. Zoologist, at Harrisburg. Pa., with, his beginners' class in beekeeping.

trees, no effort being made to utilize the
many other species whose nests are made
in holes in the ground or on tree branches.

The quality of the honey and wax varies
\ ery much, some of it being quite good and
some quite the opposite. The wax is apt
to be mixed with propolis to a great ex-
tent ; but at least one species inhabiting the
upper tributaries of the Orinoco, in Colom-
bia, furnishes a desirable wax, which has
been frequently sold in this country.

While the stingless bees cannot sting
they bite and worry in a way to surpass
bees possessed of a sting. At the Phila-
delphia field-day meeting at which a thou-
sand beekeepers were present, in June,
1906, two colonies of a large species of
stingless bee were exhibited. A hive of
them was torn apart and opened for in-
spection. Did those stingless bees take
such intrusion without any objections'?
Not at all. They attacked their despoilers
in a way they will not soon forget. They
would bite, grasp the hair and eyelashes,
twist and pull, and even crawl into the ears
and noses of their tormentors. So vicious
was their onslaught that they drove one

man, who had a hand in breaking up their
home, from the scene of action. While the
pain of their bite is infinitesimal, yet the
high-note hissing sound, getting into the
hair, pulling at the eyes and eyelashes, and
crawling into the nostrils and ears, almost
makes one crazy.

It is fair to state that stingless bees do
not offer such attack unless provoked to
fury; ordinarily they can be handled with-
out any protection whatever.

BEGINNING WITH BEES.— The be-
ginner should, first of all, read the A B C
OF Beekeeping, the initial article of this
work. He should also visit some well-known
beekeeper. He will then find that he will be
able to understand the articles and appli-
ances in this work much more readily. If he
can afford it, it would be well for him even
to go some distance to see some progressive
beekeeper, and spend a whole day where he
will be able to pick up tricks of the trade,
and a fund of information that might take
him weeks or months to dig out of text-
books. Such a beekeeper could very easily
illustrate the proper manner of opening

114

BEGINNING WITH BEES

A jironp of boys ■who liei'e found out that 'bees can he " tamed."

a hive and handling the frames — in short,
make a practical demonstration of many
of the manipulations here explained. If
there is no beekeeper he can visit, he
should send to his nearest dealer and get
a two- or three-frame nucleus with a queen.
Let him follow carefully the directions on
the outside of the shipping-box; then, with
the bees before him, read and study his
ABC. Having seen the bees and learned
how to open a hive, what next?

The importance of a small beginning
with as little expense as possible cannot be
urged too strongly, for nothing is more
discouraging after having plunged into the
business extensively than to lose a large
portion of the bees, either thru bad winter-
ing or from some other cause — all for the
want of a little practical experience, oi
even a theoretical knowledge. Many a per-
son has met with disaster from starting
out with bees on altogether too large a
scale. Sometimes one is offered a bargain
of 50 or 100 colonies including hives, bees,
implements, smokers, etc., and the tempta-
tion becomes strong to buy. He had better
not invest unless he has read the several
articles indicated at the close of the Fore-
word at the beginning.

After investing $25.00, one should put
no more into the business until the bees

bring in some returns. In other words,
make the bees pay their way. It is very
easy to throw good money into the venture
and get no returns; because beekeeping,
perhaps as much as any business, depends
greatly upon weather conditions. For this
reason it is not advisable for any beginner
to rely on bees as a sole means of liveli-
hood. True it is that there are manj^
beekeeping specialists; but they are men
who have gradually grown into the busi-
ness, and, as a general rule, have an espe-
cially favorable location, keeping from 200
to 1,000 or more colonies.

The keeping of bees is generally more
successfully carried on in connection with
some other line of business. (See Bees
AND Fruit-grov5^ing; also Bees and Poul-
try. Many a professional man desires
some sort of light recreation, and a few
bees will afford him just the diversion he
needs. Farmers, fruit-growers, or horti-
culturists, may keep from 50 to 100 colo-
nies without greatly interfering with any
other work; and nearly every one, as ex-
plained under Apiary^ can keep a few colo-
nies in his back yard. Ten or twenty colo-
nies will be almost certain to yield a much
larger revenue, per colony, than ten times
that number. See Backlot Beekeeping.

Having considered some of the difficulties
and uncertainties of beekeeping the ques-

BEGIXXIXG "WITH BEES 115

116

BEGINNING WITH BEES

tion now arises whether one should go into
the business at all. With the knowledge
that from 10 to 20 colonies can usually be
handled successfully, and at a good profit,
the beginner will naturally desire to try
his hand at it. How shall he make his
start? Whenever possible he should pur-
chase bees in his own vicinity, and should
provide himself with a strong colony of
Italian bees, with a tested queen, in a new
standard hive, or in any modern hive. If
bees are bought of a dealer from a distance
it will cost more. Usually bees that are
hybrids or blacks, in movable-frame hives,
second hand, sell at a very low price. If
there are no modem beekeepers in the vi-
cinity, he may have to purchase a box hive
or two with the combs all built solidly into
the hive — see Box Hives.

To move colonies in box hives, turn the
hive upside down, and tie over the open
side a piece of cheese-cloth. The moving
should be done at night, or at least on a
cool day, carrying them a distance of at
least a mile and a half, otherwise many
of the bees will return to their old location,
unless they are much bumped and jounced
in moving. See Moving Bees.

In some localities it may not be possible
to buy bees of any one. In such a case
send to the nearest dealer in beekeepers'
supplies for a beginner's outfit consisting
of hives and general equipment that one
will need. This will cost all the way from
$25 to $50, according to the size of the
outfit. The equipment will consist of one
or more hives, a smoker, veil, and a book
of instructions ; and last, but not least, two
or three pounds of bees with queen or a
nucleus of two or three frames^ of bees
with brood and queen. Because of the

danger of transmitting bee disease it is
safer to buy the bees alone without any
brood.

The Postofifice Department now permits
bees to be sent by parcel post. The Gov-
ernment ruling is as follows:

Office of the Postmaster-General,
Washington, June 18, 1918.

Order No. 1577.

Amend paragraph 1, Section 476, Postal
Laws and Regulations of 1913, by adding
thereto the following as sub-paragraph a:
a. Honeybees in quantities may be sent
in the mail, without insurance or C. O. D.
privileges, under the same conditions as are
prescribed for queen-bees and their attend-
ant bees when delivery can be made to the
addressees within a period of five days. If
the cages are wooden, the material of which
they are constructed shall not be less than
three-eighths of an inch thick, and the
saw-cuts therein or spaces between slats shall
not be over one-eighth of an inch wide. If
wire screen is used for the sides of the
cages there shall be two thicknesses of
screen separated by slats at least three-
eighths of an inch in thickness. The con-
tainer shall be provided with a suitable
handle, and no water or liquid food shall
be placed therein. Such parcels shall be
transported outside of mail-bags.

A. S. BURLESON,

Postmaster-General.

Packages may be sent in this manner
halfway across the country in lots of one-
half pound, one, two, or three pounds per
box, but we do not recommend to the be-
ginner anything smaller than the two-
pound size. In buying bees in this way it
is necessary to select dome reliable dealer,
as sometimes bees are dead on arrival. Any
well-known breeder will make replacement
free of cost. In larger lots it is advisable
to get bees by express. It is customary to
get ten or twelve two-pound packages of
bees in a crate. The cost of transportation
is relatively less. Moreover, the express
company will assume the responsibility
of safe arrival, while Uncle Sam makes no
guarantees when bees are sent by mail.

It has been learned that bees will ship
better on frames of foundation. (See
Comb Foundation.) When they are en
route for four or five days they will draw
this foundation into comb, and the queen
will lay eggs. When bees are shipped
without foundation or combs, the condition

BEGINNING WITH BEES

117

is abnormal, and the bees have a tendency
to worry and die.

When buying bees without combs, it is
advisable to get them as early in the spring
as possible. While bees can be shipped in
extremely warm weather, they go thru in
much better condition in cool weather. A
two-pound package of bees received in the
northern part of the United States by May
1, will stand a good chance of paying all
cost of outlay, and leave a nice little sur-
plus besides. Bees received after July 15
will not be able to get any honey except
some fall flow, and usually will require
sugar syrup. (See Feedixg.)

No beekeeper should make the mistake
of buving bees without combs until he has

As soon as the hives are received in the
flat, they should be nailed up and painted.
With every lot of hives there will be suffi-
cient nails of the right kind to put them
together. If one cannot afford to take the
time himself, he should employ some car-
penter, who, with the printed directions,
will be able to put them together in a work-
manlike manner. (A carpenter is not
needed, however.)

Having all the hives in readiness, five or
ten, as the case may be, one can, with his
two- or three-pound packages of bees or
two- or three-frame nuclei with queens,
build them up by feeding, and then divide.
See Nucleus,, Ii^crease^ and Feeding.

If the beginner is successful thus far,
he may then, with some assurance, purchase

The postal authorities favor two types of cages, those with saw cut sides and those with sides con-
structed of two thicknesses of wire screen. This illustration shows the cage with saw-cut sides. Notice
the frame of foundation in position in the second cage sliown above.

an equipment of hives and other acces-
sories in readiness. Hives may be obtained
cheaper if purchased in lots of five or ten,
in the flat. When one buys a whole hive
of bees he will not require any extras ex-
cept upper stories or supers, a smoker,
and a veil. As there are several differ-
ent kinds of hives on the market, all of
them fairly good, the beginner may be at a
loss to know which of them to choose. For
comb honey the standard 10-frame hive is
recommended. (For particulars see Hives.)
It is sold by all the dealers; and as it
is almost exclusively used by expert bee-
keepers who carry on the business quite ex-
tensively with good results, the novice will
not go far astray by adopting it.

of his dealer one or two Italian queens,
which he can easily introduce to the nuclei.
(See Introducing.) In dividing or fonn-
ing nuclei, he should, of course, give the
new queen he just purchased to the bees
that are made queenless. After he has had
a little more experience in watching and
studying bees he may then be able to do
something at queen-rearing. (See Queens
and Queen-rearing.) To avoid trouble
with robbers he should then read very care-
fully the subject of Stings and Robbing.
Toward the close of the season he should
next take up Wintering^ as found in its
alphabetical order, reading this carefully;
for more disasters in apiculture result from
failure to winter bees properly than from
any other cause.

118

BORAGE

BELLFLOWER— See Campanilla.

BLACK BROOD.— See Foul Brood.

BLACK LOCUST.— See Locust.

BLEACHING COMB HONEY.— Under
head of Comb Hoxey^ and Grading Comb
HoNEY^ will be found something concerning
the fact that a good many sections have
soiled surfaces. This discoloration of cap-
pings may go clear thru, or it may be upon
the surface itself. If the reader will look

White's bleaching-house for soiled comb honey.

over the unsold odds and ends of comb
honey at the grocer's he will be able to
find samples of such sections, and the fall
of the year is a good time to find them, as
they are the last to sell.

A knowledge of how to make dark or
soiled sections No. 1 white, thus putting
them at the top of the market, may be
worth hundreds of dollars to some beekeep-
ers; and while it is probably not possible
to make water-soaked and certain kinds of
travel-stained sections white, there is a
probability that a very large class of the
soiled boxes can be rendered No. 1.

The late Byron Walker, a honey mer-
chant of Chicago, accidentally placed some
yellow or pollen-stained sections in his
show window, where they were subjected to
the direct rays of sunlight. A short time
after he noticed that the faces of these
sections that were next to the light were
bleached white, while those on the reverse
side retained the old color. Instantly grasp-
ing at the suggestion he placed other sec-
tions of the same kind in the same window,
and was gTatified to leam that these were
likewise bleached as were the first; but, so
far as known, Mr. Walker was successful
in bleaching pollen-stained or yellow-faced
combs only. The real travel-stained and

water-soaked ones he considered beyond re-
demption. The time required to bleach the
yellow sections was anywhere from two to
three days, depending on weather and sun-
light.

A. E. White of Pala, Calif., apparently
went one step further; for in connection
with sunlight he used sulphur, which is
known to be a powerful bleaching agent.
His method is described as follows:

" We first fumigate with sulphur, then
place the combs where the sun will shine
on them, and that is the whole process.

" I build a frame on the south side of my
honey-house, and cover the same with cot-
ton cloth. A door opens from the honey-
house into this room. I place shelves on
the sides and ends of this room, the bottom
shelf being a wide board to be used as a
table. I place the combs on these shelves
so that the sunlight will strike them. Dark
combs will require several hours. This plan
will whiten dark combs here in California.
If you fumigate a few combs, and place
them on a window sill where the sun will
shine on them, you will be convinced.

" In placing the sections on shelves in the
morning, I find the following plan good:
On the shelves at the east and west end of
the room I place sections end to end length-
wise of the shelves, two rows on each shelf,
one row on the outer and the other on the

White sulphur-box for bleaching.

inner edge. The morning sun strikes one
side, and the afternoon sun the other side.
On the front shelves, I set them crosswise
of the shelf, far enough apart so as not to
shade each other.

" 1 pack them away every evening ; all
not white I put out again next morning.
Some of them will bleach quite slowly, but
I have been able to whiten the worst ones
by perseverance."

BORAGE {Borago Officinalis L.).— The
common borage, introduced from Europe,

BORAGE

119

is cultivated as a honey plant and for or-
nament. The rotate or wheel-shaped flow-
ers are sky-blue with a black cone of an-
thers in the center. Under the dome formed
by the anthers nectar is freely secreted by
the pale yellow base of the ovarj'. The
more or less inverted position of the flow-
ers which face the earth protects them
from rain. The anthers mature long be-
fore the stigmas. Each anther contains
about 120,000 gTains of pollen.

Honeybees constantly visit the flowers
for both nectar and pollen. Tayo groups of

between the stamens. The anthers open
slowly and the free pollen falls out into the
conical chamber between them. On each
anther there is a tooth-like projection.
\\ hen a bee grasps with its claw the handle
on the lower anther, it is pulled downward
and the pollen is sprinkled over its body.
As soon as released the anther springs back
in place, and later more pollen collects in
the conical chamber. The stigmas are at
first concealed beneath the anthers: but
after all the pollen has been removed they
grow out and become receptive. The flow-

Coininon borage

flowers, one containing five and the other
four flowers, were watched for 10 minutes.
The first received 15 and the second 13
Aisits from honeybees. The value of the
blue corollas in attracting bees was shown
by the following experiment. When they
were all removed from the flowers of the
first group, the visits of the bees ceased
entirely. To reach the nectar the bee hangs
under the flower and inserts its tongue

ers are also visited by bumblebees and
solitary bees.

The eagerness with which bees visit the
borage blossoms shows that it possesses a
fine flavor, and the honey is reported to be
excellent. The plants can be easily gTOwn
from seed, and produce a profusion of
flowers from midsimiraer until frost. In
the extreme southern part of Australia,
where there is abundant rain, boras'e has

120

BOTTLING HONEY

spread sparingly, and is of medium value
as a honey plant. It will not, however, be
found profitable to cultivate borage for
honey alone. The leaves are sometimes
used in salads and in medicine.

BOTTLING HONEY.— Under Barre'ls
are given some general directions on how
to put up honey in wood so that it may be
sent to market. Under Extracted Honey
are shown the styles of containers made of
tin. Under Gtranulated Honey it is told
how to liquefy; but here some details on
putting up honey in glass will be given.
One who can bottle honey and put it up in
neat and attractive form, so it will not
granulate for at least a year, can get good
prices and do a good business.

With one or two exceptions all extracted
honey, unless especially treated, will granu-
late toward the approach of cooler weather
— especially when the temperature begins
to vary from 70 or 80 to near freezing or
below it. As a general thing, gxanulated
honey in glass is unsalable; and it will
therefore be shown how to keep the honey
liquid until it is sold.

Two methods are used to accomplish this.
One is, to heat the honey and seal it while
hot ; and the other, to sterilize it by expos-
ing it to the sun's rays. This will be dis-
cussed later.

HEATING TRAY.

Instead of using a gasoline stove to heat the water
in the traj^ %-inch steam pipes connected as in the
manner shown can be used. The outside pipes should
be perforated with holes that blow a jet of steam
transversely across the bottom of the pan. The coil
of steam pipes below serves no purpose but to keep
the large filling tank of honey warm.

Steam from a boiler is, of course, the
most convenient of anything for heating
that can be employed; but as the average
reader of this work probably cannot get it
he must use something else. While the
ordinary cooking-range or cook-stove, us-

ing either wood or coal, may be used for
heating honey, a gas or gasoline stove with
three burners is far better — better, because
the heat can he perfectly controlled. A
wood or coal fire is apt to burn too strongly
at one time or go down at another. If the
honey be overheated it will be injured, both
in color and flavor. It may be scorched, or
the flavor so impaired that it will sell at
only a moderate price.

There are two methods for heating honey
to put in glass or tin. One is, to draw it
off from a large can while cold, into bot-
tles or tumblers, and, before they are seal-
ed, heating the honey while the bottles are
standing up to their necks in hot water.
The other plan, and the one generally used,
is to heat in bulk and then draw off into
bottles while hot, and seal. This method
has the advantage that warm or hot honey
flows more freely, and, of course, can be
handled more rapidly. On the other hand,
heating honey in the retail glass packages
has the advantage of being better adapted
to a small business.

HEATING HONEY IN BOTTLES^ OR BOTTLING
FOR A LOCAL TOWN TRADE.

Provide a square or oblong galvanized-
iron pan as large as the top of the stove,
with perpendicular sides, and about six or
seven inches deep. If a gasoline stove is
used, the pan should be as long and as
broad as the top ; and, if the three burners
are on the same level, all the better. The
pan should be just about the depth of an
ordinaiy Mason jar, or, rather, a little
deeper than the deepest package to be used.
A false bottom of coarse wire cloth should
be seciu-ed about half an inch above the
bottom proper by means of proper stays.
This is for the purpose of providing a cir-
culation of water under the bottoms of the
bottles, for otherwise they might break
fi'om the direct heat of the stove. Fill the
pan about half-full of water, and set it
on the stove.

When the water registers about 180 ac-
cording to the thermometer, set the bottles
of cold honey into the tray, on the false
bottom of wire cloth. When the pan is full
of bottles placed close together, the water
should be raised within an inch of the
top of the bottles. Let them stand in the
hot water until the honey in one of the

BOTTLING HOXEY

121

bottles registers about 160. They may now
be taken out and corked or sealed. A fresh
supply of filled bottles of honey should
next be put back to replace the first, and
the operation of heating and sealing can be
continued indefinitely.

There are several advantages of this
method, aside from the one of first cost for
apparatus ; ^-iz. :

1. One can fill a small order at any time,
and it is not necessary to heat a great bulk
of honey in order to put up a dozen bottles
or so of honey. In heating a large quantity
of honey one necessarily has to keep it hot
for a considerable time. The louger the
honey is kept hot, the greater the liability
to discolor and impair its flavor.

2. Bottles that are submerged in hot
water can be easily wiped off with a cloth :
and as soon as they are corked or sealed
they are ready for labeling.

3. Any honey that has been poured from
a honey-gate into the vessels cold will have
a tendency to collect air bubbles, and form
a froth on top of the honey. TVhen the
honey is heated gradually in the bottles
after filling, the process expels the bub-
bles; and by the time the honey is clear
it is ready for sealing and labeling.

4. If any honey should candy, one can
unseal, and set the bottles in the tray of hot
water, and reheat and seal without empty-
ing.

Honey bottled in this way will retain
more of the original flavor than when it is
heated in bulk and then bottled.

Where one has a little larger trade, and
takes care of one or two towns outside of
his own community, the foregoing will be
a little too sIoav; and, besides, it has the
decided disadvantage that honey bottled in
this way will granulate more quickly
than honey heated in bulk and kept hot for
a considerable length of time. A large
quantity of honey in a tank can be kept hot
for five or six hours at a temperatm^e of
130 degrees Fahr. This low temperature
long continued will keep honey in a liquid
condition longer than a higher temperature
for a shorter period. But. as already stat-
ed, a long-hot honey will uot have quite
as fine a fiavor as the quicker-heated and
quickly cooled article. But this difference
will be noted, not by the ordinary consum-
er, but by the bottler or honey connoisseur.

Chalon Fowls of Oberlin, 0,, has used
a method of bottling that requires but very
little outlay for apparatus, and is quite
inexpensive. Outside of two large cans
and a filling tank he utilizes only what can
be found in the ordinary home.

As stated, IMr. Fowls makes use of a
gasoline stove and a couple of large cans
which he puts on each of the top burners.
These are partially filled with water, then
a square can of honey is let down in each
until it is completely submerged. After
the contents are all melted, a thennometer
is let down, as will be seen; and when the
mercury rises to about 150 (not higher than
160), the honey is drawn off by means of
a siphon into a filling tank that stands on
a lower step of the stove. The siphon may

ilr. FoTvls"" melting-tanks, siphon, and gasoline
stove.

be of glass or fiexible tubing. The latter
is to be preferred, because it is more con-
venient to handle. TVhile the honey is hot
the tubing should be immersed in the honey
until it is filled. To do this, attach a string
at both ends, and submerge it. Draw out
one end and run it over into the filling tank,
which is lower down. The hot honey will
now immediately rim out ; and as the can ii
emptied, the water surrounding the can
should be drawn off or else the can will
float and tip over. From the filling tank
the honey is drawn off while hot, or about
as near l-IO as possible, into honey tum-
blers. Mason jars, Muth jars, or any of the
packages already described. When filled
they should be sealed while hot; after

122

BOTTLING HONEY

which, as soon as they are sponged off with
warm water, they may be labeled, when
they are ready for market.

BOTTLING ON" A LARGE SCALE.

The Fowls plan will take care of several
towns of two or three thousand inhabitants
each ; but it is not well adapted to a general
business, taking a whole state or a series of
them. An ordinary stove or a gas stove is
not well adapted to take care of a large
business ; hence it will be necessary to pur-
chase a five- or ten-horse-power boiler and
install it in a room or basement where the
bottling is to be carried on. Steam is by
all odds the best heating agent in a general
bottling establishment. It is more conven-
ient, cheaper, and there is not so much
danger of overheating the honey.

The great bulk of the honey for bottling
purposes will come in 60-lb. square cans.
While some of it may be secured in kegs
or bariels, producers and buyers generally
prefer to sell and buy honey in large
square cans, even at an extra price of half
a cent; so we may as well figure that in a
bottling business the honey will be receiv-
ed in the tin containers. Much of this
honey will be granulated before the bot-
tling season comes on.

There are two ways of melting honey in
square cans. One is, to submerge them
three-fourths their depth in a large tank of
water heated by steam until all the honey is
melted. But this is objectionable, in that
the melted portion has to remain with the
portion still granulated until' the whole
bulk has been brought to a liquid condition.
This impairs the flavor, for the longer
honey is kept hot, the more its delicate
aroma and color are sacrificed. The plan
also necessitates the lifting of heavy cans
of honey out of their bath of hot water and
emptying them into the filling tank.

A far better plan is to heat these cans
with hot air, while inverted, in a steam
oven. The caps are, of course, removed,
and as fast as the honey melts it runs out
and is caught in a receiving trough beneath.
Thence it flows immediately into another
container, or is pumped out with an ordi-
nary honey-pump, such as is used in con-
nection with power-driven honey-extrac-
tors.

Illustrations showing a honey-heating

oven will be found under Granulated
Honey. See Figs. 1 and 2, Pouder's meth-
od.

While Mr. Ponder uses a gas jet, it is
preferable to use steam pipes, so placed as
to be out of the way of the honey that runs
out of the screw tops into the bottom of
the oven or tank. Enough steam radiation
should be provided to bring the tempera-
ture of the air in the oven up to 180 or
190 degrees.

When steam is used as a heating agent
for these honey-melting ovens, it is not nec-
essary to use a metal box, but a large
double-walled wooden box with lid, with
packing material between the walls, and a
galvanized tray or trough in the bottom to
catch the honey. The melted honey should
not be allowed to accumulate in the oven,
but should be drawn or pumped out into a
receiving or filling tank immediately. This
is important, as it is not practicable to have
the oven placed on a level above the filling
tank. A honey-pump to deliver the honey
to the tank is much more satisfactory than
a tank and honey-melting oven placed at
different elevations.

The receiving tank is made on the double-
boiler principle — one tank inside of the
other. The outer one should be at least
two inches larger in diameter, and the space
of about one inch between the tanks should
be filled with water heated by steam. The
inner tank to hold the honey should have a
tube at the bottom, passing thru the hot
water to the outer tank, to which is attach-
ed a honey-gate. This gate may be used
for filling the bottles direct, or the tank
may be used for making up the blend re-
ferred to further on, as practically all bot-
tled honeys nowadays are made up of two
or three different flavors. When a blend is
used it is customary to run the honey from
the receiving tank into a separate filling
tank. From the filling tank there should
be attached a three-quarter steam hose five
or six feet long. On the end of this hose
is attached a specially made honey-gate,
with a spout long enough to reach down to
the bottom of the bottles or glass jars.
While packages can be filled from a honey-
gate attached directly to the tank, it is
much more convenient and better to use
rubber hose with a gate on the end. The
bottles should be placed in groups of one

BOTTLIXG HOXEY

123

or two dozen in a tray: and by means of
the flexible hose and honey-filling gate, each
package is filled Tvithoiit handling. More-
over, a long snout on the gate enables one
to direct the stream of honey clear dovrn to
the bottom of the jar, thus avoiding the
acciunulation of air bubbles that make the
honey look frothy on top, and. besides,
hasten gTannlation. In filHng, the snout
should be put clear to the bottom of the
jar; and as the jar fills, the gate should be
lifted slowly until the jar is full. This fea-
ture is important. The process is repeated
with the next jar until aU are filled. An-
other tray of jars is placed within reach of
the rubber hose, and the process is repeat-
ed. After the jars are filled they are sealed
while hot, then labeled and wrapped, ready
to be put in f)aper cartons.

A BLEXD OF SEVEEJlL KIXDS OF HOXEY FOK
EOTTLIXG PrEPOSES.

The seasons for honey production are so
uncertain at times that one finds himself
imable to supply his trade with the honey
he produces from his own yard. If. for
example, his honey is almost exclusively
from clover, with little or no basswood or
faU flow, the trade will become educated to
like that particular flavor, and will reject
aU other honeys of other flavors on the
ground that they are impure. To provide
against a contingency of this kind it is ad-
visable to use from the start for bottling
purposes a honey that can always be fiu'-
nished year after year. It is usually cus-
tomary to make a blend of white clover,
basswood, alfalfa, and mountain sage. and.
if the trade is supplied with this blend
from the very start, it will become accus-
tomed to it. Such a blend can be made u])
of honeys that one can pirrehase when local
honey fails; whereas if one puts up only
white clover at the beginning, he will find
it difficult to purchase a stiictly pure clover
except at highest prices. TVhere one lives
in a clover locality he will do well to make
up a blend of 50 per cent of clover, 25 per
cent of sage, and 25 per cent of alfalfa.
It may be assumed, for example, that he
has a season of failure, and yet the bottling
trade keeps up just the same. He usually
buys a mixture of clover and basswood. His
taste will become educated so he can deter-
mine the percentage of the one to the other.

Then by putting in a smaU amount of al-
falfa, which he can always procure, he will
be able to supply his ti'ade with the proper
blend.

If one lives in a locality where alfalfa is
]irouuced extensively, there will be no need
of having a special blend, because the pui-e
alfalfa can usually be obtained in sufticient
quantity.

In mixing the different flavors of honey
it will be necessary, after putting into the
tank the requisite amount of each kind, to
stir them slightly while heating. This is to
prevent overheating a part of the honey,
and to bring about a thoro blend. The
stirring may be done with a paddle: but a
better arrangement is a sort of extractor-
reel having blades that will thoroly mix the
honey. The reel should revolve four or five
times a minute. Faster than this will not
be necessary. The little motor that is used
to operate the honey-pump can also rim a
countershaft geared back so that the mix-
ing reel inside of the blending tank will not
revolve faster than the time stated.

rSIXG THE Srx'S EATS IX SOLAE VTAX-EX-
TEACTOES TO PEEVEXT HOXEY IX BOT-
TLES FEOM GEAXrLATIXG.

The late H. E. Boardman of Collins,
Ohio; E. B. Rood of Bradentown. Florida,
and some others, have been placing theii-
bottled honey in solar wax-extractors, to
sterilize " the honey. See TTax. subhead.
'■ Solar Wax-extractor." Fnder some con-
ditions the temperature would reach 150 de-
grees Fahrenheit. When this is maintained
for a large part of the day the heat alone,
apparently to a gTeat extent, tends to pre-
vent gTannlation; but seemingly, at least,
the actinic rays of the sun have some
chemical effect, in addition to the heat. Mr.
Boardman, who has been a pioneer in the
art of sterilizing honey in bottles by the
use of heat and light of the sun, wrote
an article for Gleanings in Bee Culture.
Vol. XXXYIL, page 769. This is what he
says :

During the last 10 years I have kept,
perhaps, an average of 100 colonies of bees,
and have run them mostly for extracted
honey. Nearly all of this I have put in
glass packages, sterilized in niy solar ster-
ilizer, and furnished to the grocery trade or
sold in my home market. So entirely satis-
factory has this honey been found that I

124

BOTTLING HONEY

now have very little, if any, other. I am se-
riously contemplating cutting out comb-hon-
cy production entirely in the near future.

I started my experiments with the rays of
the sun by placing granulated honey in a
solar-extractor to restore it to the liquid
state. So well pleased was I with the results
that I continued the experiments further.
In the mean time I discovered that there
were some properties besides heat in the
sun 's rays which were being imparted to my
honey that made it act differently from any
honey that I had warmed artificially. These
results led me to treat liquid honey, as soon
as I extracted it, in the same way, and I
found that it came out bright and sparkling,
with the delicate original flavor unimpaired.

LAST YEARNS CROP.

Some of my honey from last year I car-
ried over. It was in two-quart jars, and all
that was thoroly treated to the sun I found
remained bright and sparkling, and in per-
fect condition in every way. Some that had
been treated hurriedly, on account of a lack
of capacity of my sterilizer, crystallized
more or less, but I was not disappointed
in this. Honey that is often disturbed will
soon show a tendency to granulate. Moisture
will cause honey to granulate. Some of the
jars showed some granulation. A little water
got into these jars after the honey was
sterilized last year. This honey grained and
settled down into the clear liquid, and re-
mained suspended in fantastic shapes.

In 1902 I sent the editor some samples of
honey put up in jelly glasses, and taken
from a lot prepared for market the year pre-
vious. At that time, as it showed no signs
of granulating, I supposed it would remain
liquid indefinitely. This was put to a stren-
uous test during the winter, and it granulat-
ed, as reported at the time. I am entirely
satisfied, however, from further experiments,
that this granulating was caused by fre-
quent handling and disturbing. I have some
of this same lot of samples yet that have
remained undisturbed, and there is no gran-
ulation even tho seven years have elapsed.

In the light of these experiments I think
it is conservative to say that honey thoroly
and properly sterilized will remain from
year to year unchanged, and, under favor-
able conditions, will remain indefinitely
without granulating. If, for any reason, the
honey is not thoroly treated, it may sooner
or later show a tendency to crystallize.

In this connection I would say that I have
found full sunshine absolutely essential to
perfect sterilization. Unfortunately, this is
a feature which we cannot control. In the
sunny South I know of no reason why a so-
lar sterilizer of honey should not be emi-
nently successful, and, to some extent, be
utilized in putting up bulk comb honey.

The honey to which Mr. Boardiuan re-
fers, and which he desired us to test, was

placed on the window sill just outside of
the office. This honey stood outdoors dur-
ing the following winter, subject to ex-
tremes of temperature; and if there is any
thing that will make honey granulate, it is
alternate warming and cooling. The tem-
perature during the summer would proba-
bly go up to 90 in the shade, and in winter
anywhere from 50 degrees above to 10 be-
low zero. Certainly the conditions were
favorable for making this honey granulate ;
but it remained liquid thruout the winter
and all the following summer; but by the
middle of the following winter it began to
show slight traces of granulation. Proba-
bly, no honey that has been subjected to
heat alone would have stood this extreme
difference of temperature for so long a
period, and it may be concluded that there
must be something in the chemical effect
of the sunlight itself.

The question naturally arises why large
bottlers of honey do not use the sun's rays
rather than artificial heat alone. Principal-
ly because the solar wax-extractor, for
commercial purposes, is too slow; and be-
cause, further, in the Northern States there
are too many days without direct sunlight,
especially at that time of the year when the
bottling trade would be at its height. But
for a local demand, the solar wax-extractor
in the matter of convenience and effective-
ness is probably much ahead of artificial
heat alone.

WASHING AND CLEANING BOTTLES.

Prepare several tubs of water — one of
them with strong suds — and then have on
hand a few ounces of shot — No. 6 is about
right. If particles of glass or dirt cling to
the inside of the bottles, pour in four or
five ounces of shot and give the bottle a
shaking. This will dislodge all particles,
when the shot may be poured into another
bottle, to be similarly treated. In rinsing,
use clear soft water. Hard water is liable
to leave traces of sediment. Any glass pack-
age used for honey designed for table pur
poses should be spotlessly clean.

HOW TO INSERT CORKS IN BOTTLES.

Two or three methods are emploj^ed. One
is, to use a rubber mallet, which can be
purchased at any of the rubber stores.
The ends of the mallet being soft, a cork

BOTTLING HONEY

125

tliat is barely entered can be driven into the
bottle with a blow.

Another plan is to use a lever, as shown
at D, in cut. This lever should have a
projection on the under side so the cork
can be forced down into the bottle about a
sixteenth of an inch. It is important, after
corking, to pour a layer of paraffin or wax
over the top of the cork. Some go so far
as to dip the corks into hot paraffin, then
pour a hot layer on top after they are in-
serted in the bottles. Some go even fur-
ther. After the corks have been paraffined
they put on a neat tinfoil top. If the
honey has been heated above 160, and seal-
ed while hot, and the cork is made imper-
vious, it will remain liquid for months.
Samples of honey put up in Muth jars
have been kept in a refrigerator six
months, and yet would remain perfectly
clear all the time. But the grocer's custo-
mers should not be advised to put honey in
a cold place. The bottles should not be
handled more than is necessary, but be kept
in a warm place at as uniform a tempera-
ture as possible.

Assuming that no directions are neces-
sary for sealing packages using rubber
rings, it is important that the sealing be

made as tight as possible. In the case of
Mason jars, the tops should be screwed
down with a wrench, and screwed down
tight.

In sealing jelly tumblers, cut circles of
paper (preferably paraffined paper) about
the size of the top of the tumbler. When
the jar is filled, put the paper on top of the
jar, and squeeze the top down with the
palm of the hand, putting a large part of
the weight of the body on it. If the top
goes down too easily, use thicker paper or
two thicknesses.

REQUIREMENTS OF THE LAW AS TO LABELS.

The national pure-food law, and in some
cases state laws, require that the label shall
indicate the exact contents of a package;
and therefore it would not be advisable to
call a blend, such as has been described, a
pure clover. It will be perfectly proper to
say " pure extracted honey bottled by John
Jones;" but John Jones must not say
" pure extracted honey from the apiary of
John Jones " unless such honey did actual-
ly come from his apiary.

Allusion has already been made to the
fact that the federal laws, and in some in-
stances state laws, require that the exact
quantity by weight or measure of the con-
tents for retail purposes shall show on the
label. It should be stated, in this connec-
tion, that the Bureau of Chemistry has
ruled that anything under one pound
should be stated in ounces. Anything above
a pound should be stated in terms of
pounds and ounces. It is contrary to the
ruling to make a label read " 36 ounces, net
weight," when it should read " two pounds
and four ounces, net weight." The purpose
of this is to prevent confusing the con-
sumer by making a statement which may
be at the same time misleading. If the
package states, for example, that the pack-
age contains 60 ounces, the consumer has
to make a mental calculation to determine
how much honey or other food product he
is getting. The purpose of the law is to
give the consumer an opportunity to know
just what he is getting, and the exact
weight in terms that are the most easily
understood.

LABELING BOTTLED HONEY.

As a general rule, small circular labels
should be used. The big ones that cover up
the whole jar do not usually afford as pret-
ty an effect as the small, neat, tasty labels
that give the customer an opportunity to

126

BOX HIVES

A typical backlot box-hive apiary under a shed.

see the honey. It is the honey that sells;
and if it is a fine quality, the grocer should
be induced to display it in such a way in
his window that the light will sparkle thru
it, and it will then readily sell itself. See
Labels for Honey.

For putting up in tin cans see Extract-
ed Honey.

BOX HIVES.— It seems as if any de-
scription of box hives in a work to teach
modern apiculture would be out of place;
but the facts are, there are thousands upon
thousands of colonies kept in these old
gums in the South Atlantic States where
there are more bees and beekeepers to the
square mile than anywhere else in the Unit-
ed States.

These hives, as the name indicates, are
merely boxes containing neither brood-
frames nor movable fixtures. They usually
consist of a rude, rough box about 12 or
15 inches square, and from 18 to 24 inches
high. Thru the center there are two cross-

sticks, the purpose of which is to help sus-
tain the weight of the combs built in ir-
regular sheets within the hive.

At the close of the season it was and is
the custom for the owner of box hives to
go around and " heft " his hives. Those
that are heavy are marked to be brim-
stoned; and those that are light are left to
winter over for the next season if they can.
The bees of the first named are destroyed
with sulphur fumes, and then the beebread,
honey, and everything are cut out.

In the more modern box hives there are
boxes with glass ends that can be drawn
out from an upper part, leaving the lower
intact. In this case the bees are not de-
stroyed. In any case there is no oppor-
tunity to inspect combs, hunt queens, di-
vide, nor perform any of the hundred and
one operations peculiar to modern apicul-
ture.

As stated at the outset, in some of the
Southern States, particularly the South At-
lantic — Virginia, North Carolina, South

BOX HIVES

127

Carolina, Alabama, and Georgia — box
hives or log gums are used very largely.
Indeed, there are very few modern hives or
modern beekeepers. The mountaineers in
some of those States are of the purest of
pure Anglo-Saxon blood. Their ancestors
came from England 300 years ago. As
their isolation up in the mountains shuts
them out completely from the outside
world, many of the old customs and modes
of speech still cling to them. At all events,
they appear to be keeping bees in box hives
or gums just as it was done in England 300

No matter what the season is, even tho
the crop has been only half harvested, the
colony must be brimstoned and the honey
taken off at some particular phase of the
moon.

Whenever there is a death in the family,
the bees must be notified by pounding on
the gum and telling it that So and So is
dead. On Washington's birthday, Feb. 22,
the gums must be moved an inch or two or
the bees will all die. If a visitor calls to see
the bees, and the owner is asked how many
gums he has, he always says he does not

A TYPICAL LOG-GUM APIARY IN THE MOUNTAINS OF GEORGIA.

There are many log apiaries all thru the South. The hollow logs are
better because the walls are thicker than those of the regular box hives.

years ago. They have no knowledge of
modern methods. The moth miller, swarm-
ing, and poor wintering are the handicaps
that prevent them from getting much hon-
ey. The most of them, for example, know
nothing of hiving the first swarms on the
old stand, and placing the parent colony to
one side or in an entirely new location in
order to catch all the flying bees with the
swarm. They leave the parent colony on
the old stand, and, of course, it continues
to swarm itself weak. In the mean time
the moth miller and winter perform their
destructive work. The result is that little
or no increase is made, and the prime
swarms are the only ones that yield any
return. If foul brood ever gets a foothold
here, the business, such as it is, will be
wiped out.

know exactly. If the visitor proceeds to
count the colonies he is stopped immediate-
ly; for to count the colonies and know the
exact number would invite calamity; and
so common superstition seems to have got-
ten hold of these splendid highlanders, the
purest of the pure descendants of our fore-
fathers.

Possibly, here is a case showing that if
ignorance is bliss 'tis folly to be wise; but
the United States evidently thinking other-
wise, has recently been sending experts
down into this country to teach modern
methods; for statistics show that there
are more bees and beekeepers in this South-
land than in any other portion of the
United States. The country is exceedingly
favorable for the keeping of bees, and the
day should not be far distant when modern

BOX HIVES

apiculture will supplant the old box-hive
system, coupled as it is with ignorance and
superstition.

It is only fair to state, however, that the
class of box-hive beekeepers here described

i

does not represent all of this Southland ;
but there are enough of them to require the
earnest attention of the extension workers
or county agents sent out by the general
Government.

Some of these people live in almost abso-
lute poverty when they might just as well
get a fair living, if they could but know of
the modern methods of handling even box
hives.

Moses Quinby, in the early '50's, handled
box hives so that he made money; and if
these people cannot afford movable-frame
hives, they could, by the simple expedient
of hiving' a swarm back on the parent stand

BREEDING STOCK

129

and removing the parent colon}-, vastly in-
crease their resources. Father Qiiinby did
not brimstone his bees; and neither will
these purest of pure Anglo-Saxons up in
the mountains of the South Atlantic States
be compelled to do so. Quinby's old book
of 1853 — a reprint of which has been made
by the publishers of this volume — explains

A. type of bos hive largely used 50 years ago and
still found in old-fashioned apiaries.

how bees can be kept on the box-hive sys-
tem without the use of brimstone. While
the tricks of the trade taught in this old
work of Quinby would enable the high-
landers to increase their yields per colony,
the modern hive with movable frames
would enable them to do vastly better.

BREEDING STOCK.— Evei-y well-regu-
lated apiary or series of apiaries should
have one or more choice queens from which
to breed. Such queens should, of course,
be the very best in the apiary, or, better
still, the best out of a series of outyards
including the home apiary. Such queens
should not only be prolific but be the
mothers of workers that are energetic and
good workers — that is, bees that will store
more honey than any others. It is impor-
tant, also, that they be of pure stock in or-
der that they may the better transmit their
5

qualities. While gentleness is desirable, it
is sometimes necessary to sacrifice this de-
sirable quality in order to get bees for
business.

When using Italian stock one should not
be misled by the fad of a bright golden or
yellow color. If it comes about accidental-
ly without the sacrifice of business quali-
ties, the beekeeper is that much ahead. As
a rule, the darker strains of Italians will
show more desii'able points than the bright-
colored ones.

Abilit}^ to stand a severe winter is a
necessary quality. It usually follows that
bees that will breed up early in the spring,
and prove to be good workers, are also
good winterers. Bees that have difficulty in
resisting the winter wiU be too weak, if
they survive, to be good for anything in
the season. It follows as a natural infer-
ence that a colony of bees that can pile up
super after super of honey is also good
for wintering.

It has been proven that some strains of
bees will resist disease much better than
others. While no stock is immune, there
are some that do not readily contract dis-
ease, while others will fall easy victims. If
possible a breeding queen should be one
whose bees have demonstrated their ability
to ward off disease, and there are some that
have shown gTcat superiority in this re-
spect.

In this connection, good breeding drones
should not be forgotten. It is generally
accepted that a male is more able to trans-
mit his good or bad qualities than the
female; and the same rule holds good in
bee culture. In selecting breeding queens
one should not only select those that will
produce good daughters but those that will
beget good sons. It very often and gener-
ally happens that, in order to prevent in-
breeding, one must go to some other breed-
er to get stock for crossing with his own.

The average beginner should buy his
breeding stock, especially if he has only a
few colonies; and even after he becomes
fairly expert, if he has only one apiary it
will be advisable for hhn to buy a breeding
queen of two or three of the best breeders
in the country. A good queen is worth
from $5.00 to $10.00— usually the latter
figure. Sometimes as much as $25.00 is
paid. When one buys a breeder he should

130

BROOD AND BROOD-REARING

Close vieAv of eggs. Notice the cell in the lower left-hand corner contains two eggs, while that at the
right-hand corner has a larva.

always have her sent to him in a nucleus
rather than thru the mails. Usually a
breeding queen is not less than one year
old, for it takes at least a year, unless the
season is exceedingly favorable, to measure
up her value. A queen one or two years
old will not stand transmission thru the
mails like an untested queen that has just
begun to lay.

After one receives a breeder he should
give her the utmost care, not expecting that
she will live more than a year, especially if
she is already two years old. He must keep
her in a small nucleus, for no breeding
queen during the active season should be
the mother of a powerful colony. She
should be kept down, and given as little
egg-laying to do as possible ; and then in the
winter, when the active season is over, her
colony should be gradually built up with
combs of hatching brood. She should be
given young brood in this way until she is
the mother of a large colony, and then in
addition she should be given every advan-
tage by housing her colony in a large dou-
ble-walled hive in a protected location. Or
if one has a good cellar where he can con-
trol conditions, her colony should be placed
indoors. See Wintering Outdoors and
Wintering in Cellars.

The use of a good breeding queen may

mean the difference between profit and loss
in a year's business. It is folly to keep
scrub cows on the farm when good cows on
the same feed will furnish two or three
tijnes the milk. It is equally foolish to
breed from anything but the best queen
stock obtainable. A good strain of bees
will produce anywhere from two to three
times as much honey as a poor one. See
Queens and Queen-rearing.

BROOD AND BROOD - REARING. —

" Brood " is a term commonly used to des-
ignate the young of the bees in the cells
that have not hatched out. It may be young
bees just before they have emerged from
the cells, the larvse in various stages of
growth, or even the eggs.

Very often the beginner is confused be-
cause he is not able to distinguish capped
honey from capped brood; nor does he
know the difference between drone and
worker brood. Sealed brood is of a light
to dark-brown color, depending on the age
and color of the comb itself. In ordinary
worker brood, in cells five to the inch, the
cappings are made up of wax and fibrous
material, smooth and slightly convex if the
brood is not diseased. Drone brood is the
same in appearance except that the cap-
pings are more convex with four cells to

BROOD AND BROOD-REARING

131

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132

BROOD AND BROOD-REARINQ

the inch. The cappings over honey are
white, bluish -white, or yellow, are more or
less irregular, and somewhat flattened. The
honey may be in either worker- or drone-
cells. By comparing the illustrations of
brood shown on preceding page, together
with the cappings of comb honey under
Comb Honey^ the beginner will easily make
the distinction.

The average beginner may not be able
to see eggs at first. One trouble is, he does
not know where to look nor what to expect.
When he peers down into the bottoms of
the cells and sees tiny little objects stand-
ing on end at . an angle he hardly knows
what they are. The accouipanying photo
shows the eggs in the bottoms of the cells,
altho photography is not able to show the
depth of the cell. The next view shows
brood in various stages of development.

HOW THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCi; OF BROOD
REVEALS THE REAL CONDITION OF THE
COLONY.

It is the presence of eggs or young larvee
that shows that the bees have a queen and
are beginning to rear brood. This may
show even during midwinter if the weather
has been warm for a few days; or it may
occur, as it usually does, in early spring.
Brood will be found in all stages of growth
as the season progresses.

On the other hand, the absence of unseal-
ed brood, and especially the absence of
eggs, may be an indication that the colony
is queenless. During spring and early sum-
mer there will be, or should be, brood in
all stages, including eggs. Such a condition
indicates general prosperity, and the bee-
keeper can feel that his pets are doing well.
But if there are no eggs nor young larvge,
and the queen cannot be found; and if,
also, there are initial queen-cells during
spring and the fore part of summer, the
strong probabilities are that the queen has
recently died or that a swarm has issued.
It may further be said that the absence of
eggs and the presence of initial queen-cells
during the active season is fairly good
proof either that the queen is not in the
hive, or that the one that is there is good
for nothing and should be replaced. It will
be seen, then, that the presence or absence
of brood in various stages of growth, and
especially young brood and eggs, gives one

a pretty accurate idea of the condition of
tne colony.

After the main honey flow, which usually
occurs in the Northern States from July 1
to August 1, the activity of the queen in
egg-laying will decrease and the amount of
brood; even in a normal colony, will be very
much less than at any time preceding the
honey flow. Sometimes there will be almost
no larvse nor eggs, and but very little seal-
ed brood. The beginner will be inclined to
think the queen is failing, when, as a mat-
ter of fact, she and her colony are pursu-
ing a normal coarse. Nature evidently
works on the plan that there is no use in
producing a lot of worker bees and con-
sumers when they can.be of no possible
help to the colony; so she husbands her
forces until another honey flow comes on
toward fall. At that time brood-rearing
will start up again; and possibly the hives
may have as much brood as at any time
during spring or early summer. But if cool
or frosty nights come on, the amount, prob-
ably, will not go beyond one or two frames.
If considerable brood is in the hive when
a severe cool or cold spell comes on, it is
apt to result in a lot of chilled brood.

Sometimes during the flow, when aster
and goldenrod are in bloom, the bees and
queen apparently become excited and begin
breeding heavily. A chilly, rainy spell
may come on for four or five days, but not
cold enough to kill the blossoms in the
fields. During the interim the cluster con-
tracts, especially at night. The young
brood outside of the cluster chills and dies.
In a day or two these larvas will be found
scattered around the entrance of the hive,
and the beginner is inclined to come to the
conclusion that something is wrong — that
some bee disease like foul brood is in the
hives.

The statement was made that egg-laying
would begin to decrease after the main hon-
ey flow. This is true with all except young
laying queens. A queen reared in June
will probably continue laying all thru the
summer, and the colony will contain brood
in all stages. One reared in September will
begin laying immediately, no matter wjiat
the conditions, and she will keep it up till
cool or cold weather shuts it off.

In some localities it is an advantage to
use young queens in order that there may

BROOD AND BROOD-REARING

133

be a large force of bees for the honey flow
that will follow the main one. The second-
ary flow, perhaps, will be from buckwheat,
aster, goldenrod, or all of them. It is im-
portant to have a strong force of bees for
it. Brood-rearing should, therefore, he
continued from the first flow either by
having young queens or by stimulative
feeding, if honey is not coming in from
natural sources. (See Feeding, subhead
" Feeding to Stimulate."

"by their fruits ye shall know them.^^

The amount of brood, the manner in
which the eggs are laid — whether in scat-
tering or irregular patches — also give one
a fair idea, even tho he has not seen her, of
the kind of queen he has in the hive. If
there is only a scant amount of brood, and
eggs are scattering when other colonies are
well supplied, the presumption is that the
queen is poor, and that a better queen
should be put in her place. After she is
found, the probabilities are that she Y\^il] be
small, no larger than a worker.

If, on the other hand, brood is found in
six or seven frames, in all stages of growth
from eggs to the hatching bees, in a ten-
frame colony, the conclusion may be drawn
that the queen is a good one, even tho she
has not been seen. "By their fruits ye
shall know them." When located, the queen
will probably be discovered to be large,
handsome, long or full-bodied. By wait-
ing a moment, one may have the pleasure
of seeing her lay an egg, for such a queen
is usually on the job night and day.

As already stated, after the main honey
flow egg-laying may almost entirely cease.
One is more apt to find this condition at
the close of the general harvest where the
queen is one or two years old. A young
queen reared in spring will usually con-
tinue to lay thruout the season. But usu-
ally any queen will begin laying when new-
honey begins to come in or when the col-
ony is given stimulative feeding. Brood-
rearing late in the fall, however, should
not be attempted since it does more harm
than good. There should be no brood in
the hives during winter in the North until
about February or March, and then in
only small patches and in outdoor colonies.

Too early brood-rearing during Avinter
may or may not be a good omen. Much

will depend on the climate and the winter.
A mild winter or a mild climate will start
breeding, especially if the bees can fly;
but if a sharp cold snap follows, much of
the brood will die, and the colony will
suffer. In the South, brood-rearing on ac-
count of the mildness of the climate may
or may not progress every month in the
year. Breeding always requires a large
amount of stores, and this explains why
bees in the Southern States consume more
stores during winter than those in the
North.

BROOD-REARING DURING MIDWINTER.

Mention has been made of the fact that
brood may be found in the hive during
midwinter, particularly with bees outdoors.
If the weather is mild, or if bees are
located in a southern climate, brood may
be found in the hive every month in the
year. Ordinarily, in the Northern States
no brood will be found much before Feb-
ruary; but breeding may be started either
in the cellar or outdoors by giving slabs
of hard candy laid flat on top of the
brood-nest with two %-inch cleats to
hold it up from the top of the frames.
(See Candy, particularly Hard Candy.)
Disturbance of the brood-nest in or out of
the cellar will also often start breeding.
The average beginner would do well not
to hasten things before the bees themselves
commence. If brood-rearing begins too
early, there is danger of dysentery setting
in. In order to maintain brood-rearing, the
temperature of the colony must be up to
about blood heat — 98. This stimulates the
activities of the colony, causing a large
consumption of stores; but if the bees
are not able to make winter flights, the
retention of the feces may cause dysentery.
When this starts in January or February
it will probably mean the loss of the colony
before spring. (See Dysentery.) How-
ever, an experienced beekeeper in the
Northern States may start brood-rearing
sometimes by giving slabs of candy, and
the result will be that the colony will be
stronger by spring than in the fall. But
the average beginner should let the bees
severely alone, provided he is sure they
have plenty of stores and are well housed.

For a further discussion of brood and
brood-rearing, see Feeding, subhead Feed-

134

BROOD AND BROOD-REARINa

ING TO Stimulate; Candy; Speeading
Brood; Queens and Queen-rearing. For
a discussion of brood diseases, chilled
brood, and neglected brood, see Foul
Brood.

drone brood.

This has the general characteristics of
worker brood, except that the cells are
larger and the cappings more convex.
While worker brood hatches out in from
20 to 21 days from the laying of the egg,
drone brood emerges in from 23 to 24
days. See large half-tone plate.

A drone-laying queen or a laying worker
(see Laying Workers) may lay drone
eggs in worker-cells. In that case the brood
will be worker size, but the cappings will
be more convex than ordinary worker.

Drone brood will often die from neg-
lect. It will smell like foul brood, but
lack the characteristics of either European
or American foul brood. Beginners some-
times suppose it to be a disease. But
dead drone brood usually means nothing
serious, especially if the worker brood in
the hive is normally healthy.

Under the head of Bee Behavior and
Development op Bees^ the scientific side
of the growth of the bee from the egg to
the fully developed worker has been dis-
cussed; but, as there may be some who
do not care to go into the science of this,
something here is presented that will en-
able one to follow out for himself the
entire development of the bee, from the
egg up to the time that it hatches, and
even after it begins to perform some of
the duties of the hive.

THE development OP BROOD.*

During warm weather, while bees are
gathering honey, open the hive about noon,
and i^ut in the center a frame containing
a sheet of foundation. Examine it every
morning, noon, and evening, until eggs
can be seen in the cells. By inserting it
between two combs already containing
brood, eggs will be found in the cells the
next day.

If one has never seen an egg that is to
produce a bee, he may have to look very
sharply the first time, for they are white
like polished ivory, and scarcely larger

* See also Development of Bees.

than the letter "i" in this print. (See De-
velopment OP Bees.) They will be seen
in the center of the cells attached to the
comb by one end. The egg under the
microscope much resembles the cut. It is
covered, as will be noted, with a sort of
lacelike penciling, or network it might
properly be called. Immediately on dis-
covering eggs, the date should be marked.

A queen's egg under the microscope.

If the weather is favorable, these eggs
will hatch out in about three days or a
little more, when, in place of the egg, if
one looks sharply enough, he will see a
tiny white worm or grub floa,ting in a
minute drop of milky fluid. If he watches
he Avill find bees incessantly poking their
heads into these cells. Just before the
inmate breaks its way out of the shell a
milky food is placed on and about the egg.
Experiments have proven this necessary
to the development of the egg; for if
eggs are removed from the hive and sub-
jected to the proper temperature they will
hatch if supplied with the milky food;
otherwise not. These worms that hatch
from the eggs are really young bees in
their larval state, and we shall in the
future call them larvae. They thrive and
grow very rapidly on their bread-and-milk
diet, as can be seen if they are looked
at very often. They will more than double
in size in a single half-day. This seems
almost incredible; but there they are,
right before our eyes. Probably it is ow-
ing to the highly concentrated nature of
this bread-and-milk food that the workers
are so constantly giving them that they
grow so rapidly. If the comb is taken
away from the bees for a little while, the
larvae will be seen opening their mouths to
be fed, like a nest of young birds.

Figures under the cut represent the age
in days from the laying of an egg. First,
the larva just having broken the egg-shell

BROOD AND BROOD-REARIXG

135

on the third day ; next, a larva on the
fourth day. Dui^ing the fifth and the sixth
days they grow very rapidly, but it is
difficult to fix any precise mark in regard
to size. On the ninth day, the larva hav-

The daily growth of larvcC.

LQg straightened itself out, worker bees
cap it over. (See Developmext of Bees.)
We have made a pretty accurate experi-
ment on this point, and it was just six
days and seven hours after the first egg
hatched that the bees completely capped it
over. To determine when larv^ begin to
have legs and eyes, see De^telop^^fext of
Bees. The wings develop toward the last
of the gi^owth.

After the larv£e are 6 days old, or be-
tween 9 and 10 days from the time the egg
was laid, one will find the bees sealing up
some of the largest. This sealing is done
with a porous-lil^e substance in which are
found wax shreds, old silk, bee hair, and
sometimes pollen; and while it shuts the
3''oung bee up, it still allows it a chance to
breathe thru the pores of the capping. It
is given its last food, and the nurse bees
seem to say, "There! you have been fed
enough. Spin your cocoon, and take care
of yourself." (See Deatelopmext of
Bees.)

After this the young bee is generally
left covered up until it gnaws off the cap-
ping and comes out a perfect bee. This
will be in about 21 days from the time the
egg was laid, or it may be 20 if the
weather is very favorable; therefore it is
shut up 11 or 12 days.

There is an exception to this last state-
ment, and it has caused not a little trouble
and solicitude to beginners. During very
warm summer weather, the bees, for one
reason or another, decide to let a part of
their children go "bareheaded," and there-
fore, on opening a hive, whole patches of
immature bees will be found looking like
silent corpses with their white heads in
tiers just about on a level with the surface

of the comb. This seems to be peculiar
to the offspring of some queens or strains,
and is sometimes so pronounced that al-
most no brood is perfectly sealed at any
season. At this stage of growth they are
motionless, of course, and so the young
beekeeper sends a postal card, saying the
brood in his hive is all dead. Some have
imagined that the extractor killed them,
others that it was foul hrood (see Foul
Brood) ; and we often think, when read-
ing these letters, of the family which
moved from the city into the country.
When their beans began to come up, they
thought the poor things had made a mis-
take by coming up wi^ong end fii'st; so
they pulled them aU up, and replanted
them with the bean part in the ground,
leaving the proper roots sprawling in the
ail'. One can rest assured that the bees
always know when it is safe to let the
children's heads go uncovered.

It is very important, many times, to
discover just when a queen was lost or a
colony swarmed; hence one should learn
these data thoroly: the development of a
bee occupies 3 days in the egg, 6 in the
larval state, and 12 days sealed up.

The capping of worker-brood is nearly
flat; that of the drones so much raised or
convexed that we can at a glance tell when
drones are reared in worker-cells, as is
sometimes the case. See large plate.

BEOOD AFTER IT HATCHES.

The yoimg bee, when it gnaws its way
out of the cell, commences to rub its own
nose, straighten out its feathers, and then
push its way among the busy throng,
doubtless rejoicing to become one of that
vast commonwealth. Xobody says a word,
nor, apparently, takes any notice of the
youngster; but for all that, these young
bees, as a whole, the author is well con-
vinced, feel encouraged, and rejoice in
their own way at a house full of young
folks. If a colony is kept without young
bees for a time, one will see a new energy
infused into aU hands just as soon as
young bees begin to gnaw out.

If one should vary the experiment by
putting a frame of Italian eggs into a
colony of black bees, he will be better able
to follow the newly emerged young bee

136

BUCKBUSH

as it matui^es. The first day it does little
but c:a.\vi around; but about the next day
it will be found dipping greedily into the
cells of unsealed honey. After about the first
day it will begin to look after the wants
of the unsealed larvee, and very soon assists
in furnishing the milky food for them.
While so doing, a large amount of pollen
is used, and it is supposed that this larval
food is pollen and honey, partially digested
by these young nurses. Bees of this age
or a little older supply royal jelly for the
queen-cells, which is the same, probably, as
the food given very small larvas. Just
before they are sealed up, larvae to produce
worker bees and drones are fed on a
coarser, less perfectly digested mixture of
honey and pollen. Very possibly the only
difterence in this food is the addition of
honey with its contained pollen, to the food
previously given by other and perhaps
younger nurses. Young bees have a white
downy look until they are a full week old,
and continue a peculiar j^oung aspect until
they are quite two weeks old. At about
this latter age they are generally active
comb-builders of the hive. When a week
or ten days old they take their fli'st flight
out of doors; there is no prettier sight in
the apiary than a host of young Italians
taking a plaj^spell in the open air, in front
of their hive. Their antics and gambols
remind one of a lot of young lambs at
play. See Play-spells„

It is also very interesting to see these
young bees bringing their first load of
pollen from the fields. If there are plenty
of other bees in the hive of the proper
age, they will not usually take up this
work until about two weeks old. The first
load of pollen is to a young bee just about
what the first pair of pants is to a boy
baby. Instead of going straight into the
hive with its load, as the veterans do, a
vast amount of circling round the entrance
must be done; and, even after the young
bee has once alighted, it takes wing again,
then returns and rushes all thru the hive,
jostling nurses, drones, and perhaps the
queen too, seeming to say as plainly as
could words, "Look! Here am I. I gath-
ered this, all myself. Is it not nice?"

One might imiagine some old veteran,
who had brought thousands of such loads,
answering gruffly, "Well, suppose you

did; what of it? You had better put it
in a cell and start off after more, instead
of making all this row and wasting time,
when there are so many mouths to feed."
Yet, apparently, no one scolds or finds
fault, and the children are never forced to
work, unless they wish. If they are im-
provident, and starvation comes, they all
sufi'er alike, and, it is probable, without
any hard feeling or censure toward any
one. They all work together, just as the
right hand assists the left; and if one
would understand the economy of the bee-
hive, it were well to bear this point in
mind.

Shortly following the impulse for pollen-
collecting, comes that for honey-gathering;
and the bee is probably in its prime as a
worker when a month old. At this age it
can, like a man of forty, "turn its hand"
to almost any domestic duty; but if the
hive is well supplied with workers of all
ages, it now probably does most effective
service in the fields. See Bee Behavior;
also Age of Bees.

When a colony is formed of young bees
entirely, they will sometimes go out into
the fields for pollen when but five or six
days old. Also when a colony is form.ed
wholly of adult bees they can build comb,
feed the larvae, construct queen-cells, and
perform work generally that is usually
done by younger bees; yet it is probably
better economy to have bees of all ages in
the hive.

BROOD, SPREADING.— See Spreading
Brood.

BUCKBUSH {Symphoricarpos occiden-
talis). — Wolf berry. A branching shrub,
three to five feet tall, common in Washing-
ton and Idaho. In Idaho it is one of the
most important honey plants yielding a
surplus, on an average, of 25 pounds per
colony. Near Fraser in the northern part
of the State the honey is secured by the
thousand pounds. The extracted honey is
water-white with a very pleasant flavor
and is slow to granulate, a bottle of it
remaining liquid after three years. It
blooms from June 15 to July 20. The
small white flowers are white tinged with
pink, bell-shaped, hairy within, and are in
small clusters in the axils of the leaves.
They secrete nectar freely, and are very at-

BUCKWHEAT

137

tractive to wasps whence they have been
called wasp-flowers. The frnit is a white
berry, which is eaten by pheasants and
cattle.

This bush is also abundant in western
Iowa, where it yields well in dry weather.
The honey is white and very similar to
that of Avhite clover. In the ]Mi3S0Ui^i Paver
basin, especially on the loess bluffs, this
is a very common species : but it ceases to
be valuable east of Wisconsin and south of
Xebraska.

Coral-berry or Indian currant (5. orhi-
cidatiis) extends southward from Iowa to
Texas and is abundant alons' the ^lissouri

R

iver. ihe

small berries

are re a resem-

bling red currants. It blooms for two or
three weeks and secretes a larg-e cpaantity of
nectar.

Snowberry (S. race^iiosus^^ is a northern
species found from Alaska to Xova Scotia,
and southvrard on the east coast to
Pennsylvania and on the west coa-t
to California. In lord's, in summer
a large amount of excellent honey
is obtained from it. It is f rec.uent-
ly cultivated for ornament because
of its large white berries.

BUCKWHEAT [Fagopirum e$-
cidentum ]\Ioench. ) . — The English
name is derived from the German
hucliireizen (beechnut), so called
from the close resemblance of the
sharply three-angled seed to the
beechnut. The generic name Fa^yo-
pyrum is Greek for beackwheat.
The common species belongs to the
buckwheat family, or Polygonaceo?.
which likewise includes such famil-
iar weeds as the soiTels. docks, and
smartweeds. Heartsease, an im-
portant honey plant in the West,
also belongs here. There are about six
species of buckwheat and they are all na-
tives of Asia. Besides the common buck-
wheat two other species are cultivated for
grain. Tartary buckwheat (F. tataricum)
endures the cold better, but the seeds are
smaller. It is grown in the mountainous
regions of Asia and to some extent in east-
ern Canada and Mame. Xotch-seeded
buckwheat [F . emarginatum) is grown in
the highlands of northeast India and the
grain is used for food.

HISTORY.

The common species grow- wild on the
banks of the Amur River in Manchuria
and near Lake Baikal, and possibly also
in China and northern IncPa. It was im-
knoAvn to the Greeks and Romans, and its
cultivation is first mentioned in China
about the tenth century. It was intro-
duced into Europe thru Russia and was
grown in Germany in 1136. In the 16th
century it was cultivated in both Erance
and Italy. It was early brought to the
American colonies where it was largely
used as a substitute for wheat.

POLLIXATIOX.

The plant is a nearly smooth annual,
growing from one to four feet tall. The
leaves are halbert-shaped. The small tlovr-
ers are clu-tered and possess a strong fra-
grance; the petals are wanting but the
sepals are v.Pite or rose-colored. The nec-

tar is secreted by eight round yellow glands
interposed between the same number of
stamens. This species is dimorphic, that is
there are two forms of flowers, one with
long stamens and short styles and the other
with short stamens and long styles. This
arrangement promotes cross-poUination. In
the long-stamened flowers most visitors
touch the anthers with the under side of
the body and the stigmas with the head;
and the converse takes place in the short-
stamened flowers. Each plant bears flowers

138

BUCKWHEAT

of one form only, but the seed from
either form will produce both forms in
about equal numbers. The flowers ap-
pear to be self -sterile, and thus the pro-
duction of a crop of seed is dependent
upon the visits of insects, chiefly honey-
bees, which are estimated to make nine-
tenths of the visits. There are planted in

styles are also three in number. The food
stored in the seed for the nourishment of
the embryo, called the endosperm, is pure
white.

BUCKWHEAT AS A HONEY PLANT.

Buckwheat can be cultivated thruout the
North Temperate Zone. It is extensively

Japanese Buckwheat.

the United States annually 8,000,000 to
10,000,000 acres of buckwheat, and yet the
value of the services of the honeybee in
pollinating this great expanse of bloom is
almost wholly unknown. The outspread
calyx is shallow; and, as the nectar is
easily v/ithin the reach of short-lipped
insects, some 40 species of flies and soli-
tary bees have been recorded as visitors.
The dark-brown seeds are three-sided; the

grown in Asia, especially in Japan, and
is also widely cultivated in Europe. An
immense quantity of buckwheat honey is
gathered in Russia. In North America
while it is grown to some extent in Canada,
it is chiefly valuable for grain in the
United States. It is best adapted to New
York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Wis-
consin, and New England; and to the
mountainous sections of Maryland, West

BUCKWHEAT

139

Japanese buck-wheat Si inches high in a little over three weeks from the tiniL hhe seed was planted.

Vii-ginia, Kentucky, Xorth Carolina, and
Tennessee. About two-thii'ds of the crop
is now raised in Xew York and Pennsyl-
vania. In 1S99 about 2,000,000 farms re-
ported an average acreage of four acres
each.

In KeTT York and Pennsylvania there
are thousands of acres of buckwheat vrith-
in a radius of a few miles. On one hilltop
in Schoharie County, N. Y., the bees were
reported a few years ago to have access
^vithin a radius of three miles to 5,000
acres of buckwheat, all of which was with-
in range of the eye. So great is the
acreage of it in New York that from
2,000 to 3,000 colonies can be kept m some
counties, and immense quantities of buck-
wheat honey are stored annually. There
are hundreds of farmers who keep a few
colonies in order that they may get the
honey as well as the grain. One may ride
for an entire day thruout the buckwheat
region of this State without losing sight
of the buckwheat fields. So immense is the
area of bloom that the atmosphere is heav-
ily charged with its odor.

One beekeeper in the heart of the buck-
wheat country, who lived near Ca^ulga
Lake, harvested one year with 1,000 colo-
nies 78,000 pounds of honey ; another year
50,000 pounds; for many years his crops,
obtained chiefly from buckwheat, have been
in carloads. E. W. Alexander of Delan-
son, X. Y., also produced immense quanti-
ties of this honey. His apiary consisted
of 700 colonies, and from the top of the

hill where it was located there were in
sight 1,500 acres of buckwheat. Xowhere
does buckwheat thrive better than on the
hillsides of eastern Xew York, nor are the
climate and the soil elsewhere more favor-
able to a luxuriant groAvth.

The flowei's of buckwheat secrete ne:-tar
only in the morning; toward noon the
flow lessens and ceases entirely during the
afternoon, but begins again vigorously the
next morning. The visits of the bees quick-
ly decrease in nmnber until they cease
almost entirely, and they remain idle about
the hives for the balance of the day. Tlius
in the afternoon, notwithstanding the great
expanse of bloom and its strong fragrance,
only a few bees can be foimd in the fields.
Probably no beekeeper has ever had a
more extended experience with btickwheat
as a honey plant than E. W. Alexander.
He observed that the secretion of nectar
varied greatly vrith the temperature and
the condition of the weather. He says :

''Several years ago I kept nearly 200
colonies in a location where there were
barely 100 a r-res of buckwheat within reach
of my bees, that is. within four miles or in
a cii'cle eight miles in diameter. Still with
this small acreage it was no uncommon
thuig to harvest a surplus of 15 to 20
pounds of fine buckwheat section honey
per colony. As a result I became very
anxious to keep bees in a buckwheat loca-
tion, where thousands of acres were raised
annually, so I moved to Delanson, X. Y.
But I soon found out to my sorrow that

140

BUCKWHEAT

Honey for the bees, seed for harvest, fertilizer for the ground — buckwheat should be planted extensively.

the amount of bloom had but little bear-
ing on the amount of surplus I obtained,
and that in this respect buckv/heat was no
exception to other flowers. It does its best
when we have quite cool nights followed
by a clear sky and a bright hot sun with
little or no wind; then from about 9
o'clock in the morning until 2 in the after-
noon it secretes nectar very fast. We sel-
dom find a bee on it much earlier or later
in the day."

"A few years ago during our August
harvest, when our bees had at least 1,500
acres of buckwheat bloom to work on, and
were bringing in honey very fast, a heavy
shower came down from the north about
2 P. M., which caused the mercury to drop
21 degrees in less than half an hour. Then
this low temperature, with windy cloudy
weather, lasted some 11 days, during which
time the bees destroyed large quantities of
brood, for there was no nectar in the flow-
ers and they were ready to rob any hive
that was opened."

"I never saw the buckwheat harvest stop
so suddenly, with so little cause, as it did
in August, 1906. From the morning of

the 21st to the night of the 24th, the bees
brought in the honey very fast. Our hive
on scales averaged a gain of about 8
pounds a day, and we extracted a tankful
of a little more than two tons each day for
four consecutive days, and yet our men all
agreed there v/as more honey in the apiary
each night than there was in the morning.
But on the night of the 24-th we had a
slight shower with a fall in temperature
of 11 degrees. The bees w^ere very quiet
the next morning until about noon; then
when it warmed up a little they were ready
to rob anything they could get at, and
there were thousands trying to get into
our honey-house around the screened win-
dows— and we knew from past experience
that the honey season of 1906 had drawn
to a close. The hive on scales did not gain
one-half pound any day after that shower
and fall in temperature, altho there was
considerable buckwheat in bloom. At other
times I have noticed that when the weather
remains warm without any rain the flow
of nectar would last until Sept. 5."

In New York buckwheat can be de-
pended upon almost every year to yield a

A fieia of buckwheat in full bloom.

142

BUCKWHEAT

Buckwheat in full bloom in Butler Co., Pa.

crop of honey, but in the West it is more
uncertain, some years yielding no honey
and in others a fair amount. In Ohio the
yield of nectar from buckwheat is so irreg-
ular and scanty that there is seldom a
season that much honey is obtained from
it. Since in the East it is almost always
very reliable, when even basswood and
clover fail as they do sometimes in every
locality, the beekeeper is usually able to
make his expenses and a fair profit. In
New York it is seldom that he is not able
to make a fair living from buckwheat
alone.

Among cultivated crops there are few
which will afford a better artificial honey-
pasture than buckwheat. The beekeeper
who raises this cereal largely for honey
should plant at three different times in
order to prolong as much as possible the
flow of nectar. On an average it will oc-
cupy the land a little over 60 days. It will
commence to yield nectar in 15 or 20 days
from the time it is planted, and take about
10 days to mature after the honey flow
ceases. If the first crop is sown on the
20th of June, the second crop on the 4th

of July, and the third about the 18th
of this month, the beekeeper will be as-
sured of a good bee-pasturage from the
middle of July, when basswood and clover
are past, to the middle of September, when
the fall wild flowers begin to bloom.

Buckwheat seed may sometimes be given
away profitably to farmers in localities
where this grain is not grown. By fur-
nishing the seed free for one or two years
farmers may perhaps be induced to grow
this crop regularly in after j^ears. It is
not advisable to give the seed after the
second year; during the third and the
fourth years it should be furnished at half-
price. It should not be supplied free to
any one living more than a quarter of a
mile from the bees.

BUCKWHEAT HONEY.

Buckwheat honey is of a dark-purplish
color, and looks much like the old New
Orleans or sorghum molasses. The flavor
to one who is a lover of clover and bass-
wood honey and is unaccustomed to that
of buckwheat is more or less sickish; but
those who have alwavs eaten buckwheat

BUCKWHEAT

143

honey, or at least many of them, prefer
it even to that of clover or basswood.

A lady from the East once called at our
store and looked over our honey. We
shoTved her several samples of choice clover
and bassTvood honey.

"I do not like this/' she said. ^'It looks
like manufactured sugar honey. Haven't
you any buckwheat honey ?"

"Yes, but Ave did not suppose that you
would like that, because such honey rarely
sells in oiu' locality."

We then placed before her some sections
of buckwheat honey, and these suited her
exactly.

"That is real bee honey," said she, with
a look of satisfaction, and she carried home
several sections.

Her father had been a beekeeper in a
locality where buckwheat was abundant;
and unless honey had the strong flavor
and dark color of the honey with whic-h
she was familiar in her childhood days, it
was not honey to her. There are thousands
like her in the East who prefer buckwheat
honey; and this trade is so large in Xew
York and Albany that it brings almost
as high a price as the fancy grades of
white. But in the western markets, prin-
cipally in Chicago, it is witlioiit purchasers
and sells as an offgrade honey.

NotAvithstanding the color of buckwheat
honey itself is purplish, the comb honey is
very attractive, since the cappings, espe-
cially if made by black bees, are almost
pearly white.

•Buckwheat honey occasionally contains
33 per cent of water, and is, therefore,
too thin, according to the formula of the
national pure food law passed June 30,
1906, which limits the amount of water
in honey to 25 per cent. It is thus neces-
sary to evaporate thin hone^^ in order that
it may conform to the law. This may be
done by means of a honey evaporator, or
by storing it for awhile in a hot dry room.
The quality of the honey is so greatly
improved that it will fully conmpensate
for the trouble involved.

THE CULTUEE OF BUCKWHEAT.

Buckwheat is veiy sensitive to cold and
is killed by the first heavy frost. It should
not be sown too early in the spring since
it is liable to be killed by the frost after

it has sprouted, or the very hot weather
of midsummer may blast the flowers so
that they will produce no seed. No other
cereal crop requires so short a season to
mature, and under the most favorable con-
ditions a crop may be obtained in from
S to 10 weeks, but the average time is
about 12 weeks. As it fills best in cool
weather, the time of seeding for any local-
ity may be determined ydih. a fair degree
of accuracy by allowing a period of 12
weeks for growth before the fii'st killing
frost is expected. When seeded the last
week in June or the fii'st week in July in
Xew York and Pennsylvania, or about a
week earlier in Michigan and Wisconsin,
it is most liable to escape injury from hot
weather. Over 40 bushels per acre of
gi-ain have been harvested from a crop
di'illed in with 300 pounds of phosphate
as late as August 4. Buckwheat grows so
quickly that it can succeed another crop,
as barley, rye, or oats, or it may be sown
where corn or some other crop has been
planted but failed to grow. Such fields
should be innnediately ploughed and har-
rowed. Buckwheat leaves the land ex-
tremely mellow, which is an advantage in
the case of heaw soils, but undesirable if
the soil is light. With the exception of
corn, the yield of which, it is claimed, is
reduced, any crop may follow buckwheat
with excellent results. It is subject to very
little injury from insects or fungi.

TKW SEEDBED.

There is probably no other crop that
will Aueld better on infertile soil, such as
old meadow and pasture lands, than will
buckwheat. It is well suited to light, well-
drained soils such as sandy loams and to
the silt-loam soils. It will not grow on
land that is wet and heaw, or where the
water stands and dries up gradually, leav-
ing the soil in a hard condition. It is very
frequently grown on land which for some
reason was not planted early, or on land
on which some other crop has failed to
grow. Altho the poorest soil may be used
a fertile soil will, of course, give a larger
yield of both grain and straw. In gen-
eral, the land should be prepared as for
any other grain. The best results are
obtained when the land is plowed early
and is well prepared, but good result?

144

BUCKWHEAT

may be obtained by sowing immediately
after plowing and harrowing. Buckwheat
needs but little lime, growing well in an
acid soil without lime, where alfalfa and
red clover would not be a success.

FERTILIZER.

Where the soil is poor it is profitable to
use fertilizer, but where good wheat and
corn crops can be produced it is unneces-
sary for the buckwheat crop. On the poor-
est hill land a small application of nitrogen
and phosphorus is advisable, but generally
nitrogen is not needed. The plant, how-
ever, responds very readily to applica-
tions of phosphates. Low-grade fertilizers
containing phosphates and a small amount
of potash can be used to advantage on the
crop where the land is poor. The use of
100 to 150, to even 300 pounds of bone
phosphate per acre has been recommended.
Potash will usually produce a favorable
eifect on a sandy soil, altho it may not be
required on heavier soils.

VARIETIES.

Three varieties of buckwheat are com-
monly grown in the United States, the
Japanese, Silver Hull, and Common Gray,
the first two being most generally used.
Japanese has a large dark-colored seed,
while Silver Hull has a smaller seed, glossy
or silvery in appearance. These two varie-
ties are of about equal value when yields
are considered. The plant of the Japanese
variety has a larger stalk, and the flowers
do not blast so readily from heat; but
it is believed not to yield nectar as freely
as the other two varieties.

RATE OF SEEDING.

Buckwheat should generally be seeded at
the rate of 3 to 4 pecks to the acre. If the
soil is fertile and a drill is used and the
seed is of good vitality, as little as two
pecks may be sufficient. As much as five
pecks are sometimes used. It is best to
use a grain drill, but this is not essential
as the seed can be broadcasted and har-
rowed in with satisfactory results. It
should be sown from one-fifth of an inch
to two inches deep, depending on the con-
dition of the soil. It is better to sow

while the land is dry, rather than imme-
diately after rain. After sowing on such
soil it should be immediately rolled to com-
pact it, as the grain sprouts better and
more quickly, sometimes making its ap-
pearance in less than four days.

HARVESTING.

Buckwheat is usually harvested in Sep-
tember as soon as the first blossoms have
matured their seed, and before there has
been a frost. The old-fashioned cradle will
do the work well, or the drop reaper will
prove a \'ery satisfactory machine for this
purpose. Many farmers use the ordinary
binder, which practice is advisable where
it can be followed. The seed will mature
in a few days if, after cutting, the crop is
left in loose bundles where they are
dropped from the cradle or reaper. After-
wards they may be tied near the top with
the straw and set up on end singly to dry.
As the straw remains partially green and
is liable to heat, these shocks are seldom
stacked or stored in the barn. It should
be thrashed either with the flail or thrash-
ing machine on a dry windy day, and
should be at once winnowed as the damp
chaff may injure the grain. The grain
should be stored in bags and not in large
quantities in bins.

THE YIELD PER ACRE.

The average yield per acre in the United
States is from 14 to 18 bushels, but it
may vary from five to forty bushels. ^In
Pennsylvania three fields were sown on
July 6, 11, and 19 respectively, with buck-
wheat, the seed being drilled in. The first
yielded 16 bushels per acre with medium
straw; the second 22 bushels with heavier
straw than the first; the third 25 bushels
with straw like that of the first field. As
a rule, early sowing gives large straw and
a poor 3'ield of grain, while late sowing:
gives the opposite. Twenty-five bushels
per acre is considered a satisfactory crop.

In Canada, Michigan, New York, and
Pennsylvania the legal weight of a bushel
of buckwheat is 48 pounds; in other
States it is either more or less.

USES OF BUCKWHEAT.

Both in Europe and America the flour
is widely used in making buckwheat cakes.

BUILDINGS

145

In the Russian army buckwheat groats
form a part of the soldiers' rations. Eaten
too constantly it is said to produce a fever-
ish condition. Poultry are very fond of
the seeds, which are believed to stimulate
egg production. When ground it makes
an excellent feed for dairy cows, and a
mixture of ground buckwheat, corn, and
oats is highly recommended.

Buckwheat is also often ploughed under .
for green manuring. It will pay for its
cost as a fertilizer, and some buckwheat-
growers make a practice of enriching their
soil in this way, waiting, if beekeepers,
until blooming is over in order to obtain
the honey. Two or even three crops may
be ploughed in, one after the other, when
it is desired to get the ground in a high
state of cultivation. A crop of buckwheat
Avill help greatly in eradicating weeds and
subduing rough land.

Information in regard to the culture of
buckwheat has been furnished hj C. E.
Leighty of the Department of Agriculture.
Other articles on buckwheat culture will
be found in "The Cereals in America" by
Hunt, and "The Small Grains" by Carle"^-
ton.

BUILDINGS. — It is manifestly impossi-
ble to recommend any standard design of
buildings for beekeepers' use that would
suit all requirements. Some beekeepers re-
quire a room that can be used for extract-
ing only; others several rooms' for work-
shop, storage room, and extracting. The
same room may often be used for different
purposes at different times of the year, but,
nevertheless, the purpose for which the
building is to be used principally should
be taken into consideration when it is
planned.

The construction and materials for these
buildings also vary greatly from the light
framework covered with canvas to the most
substantial concrete structure. Except the
buildings erected at home apiaries, tempo-
rary or demountable or take-downable
buildings are the rule for the reason
that out-apiaries often have to be moved
about.

Some use small buildings that can be
easily loaded on a low wagon and hauled
about from place to place. Still others use
buildings made in sections, bolted together,

so that the various sections may be taken
apart and loaded on a wagon in the flat.
E. D, Townsend, of Michigan, has used
such buildings for years. Such a eonstruf-
tion costs a little more than the usual typu
built solid from the ground up, but tho
convenience, provided there is a likelihood
of frequent moves, more than offsets the
extra cost.

In order to make the various sections
strong enough to hold together after being
unbolted, 2x4 material is used for the
framework. There are six sections in all —
not counting the floor — the two ends, the
two sides, and the two halves of the roof.
Before nailing on the siding of the sections
Mr. Townsend tacks on a good grade of tar
paper which is proof against depredations
of mice, and makes the building more bee-
proof as well, certainly an essential feature
when extracting has to be done after
the honey flow when bees are inclined to
rob.

In locating a building the place most
convenient to the apiary must be taken into
consideration ; but if the lay of the ground
permits, a do^vnhill grade to the building
makes it much easier to wheel or cart stufl
to the building. In many instances it is of
advantage to have a two-story building, the
second floor, where the extracting is done,
on a level with the apiary. The honey can
then be piped into a tank in the lower
story, the floor of which should be on a
level, say, with the bed of a wagon on
the ground at the lower end of the
building.

When there is no sidehill and the "grav-
ity plan" is, therefore, impractical a honev-
pump is a real necessity to elevate the
honey so that the lifting and consequent
loss of time are avoided. See Extractixg.
In hilly or mountainous countries, however,
there is no difficulty in selecting a sidehiU.
If desired, as is the custom in many parts
of California, large honey-tanks may be
located out of doors on the lower side of
the building, the honey running from the
extra cting-room dii'ect to the tank.

The late E. W. Alexander of Delanson,
N. Y., a beekeeper Avho had 750 colonies all
in one apiary, used for m.any years a small
extracting-house just large enough to re-
ceive an extractor, uncapping-box, and
space to receive and pass out combs thru
openings in the side of the building, ordi-

E. D. Townsend's Spring Brook Apiary and sectional extracting-house. This building is made in
separate panels or sections, beside the floor, which bolt together at the corners, making it perfectly rigid,
desired, it may be quickly taken apart and moved on a wagon.

BUILDINGS

L47

narily covered with sliding doors. A tin
pipe conveyed the honey by gravity to a
large tank in another building on lower
ground.

E. S. Miles of Dunlap, Iowa, has a very
conveniently arranged building ha^dng two
large rooms, the floors of which are on dif-
ferent levels, the floor of the ell being 3^/^
feet below that of the main room. Needless
to say, Mr. IMiles has room for a workbench
where he nails shipping cases, cases for
comb honey, hives, and other stuff. Each
room has an outer door with a platform
just about the height of a wagon-bed.
These two doors are on a side of the build-
ing opposite from the bees so that there is
little danger in di'iving right up with a
team of horses.

Tvpical sideliill California honey -house. The honey
runs by gravity from the extractor thru pipes into the
large tanks located below the building on the outside.

The sides of the building are of 2 x 4
studding, 24 inches apart, boarded with
shiplap, then papered, and finally sided
with regular 6-inch house siding. The roof
is made of 2 x 4 rafters, 24 inches apart,
covered ^vith sheathing and shingled. The
material for the whole building cost about
$300. The main room is 16 x 4S feet ; the
addition, or ell, 12 by 18 feet. A buildmg

of this size is ample for all the work in con-
nection with the handling of 300 colonies.
By using a cheap shed for additional stor-
age it would be large enough for 500 colo-
nies.

VEXTILATIOX AND VTIXDOWS.

A common fault of beekeepers' buildings
is that the ceilings are too low and there
is inadequate ventilation so that the tem-
perature on a hot day becomes almost un-
bearable. A ceiling three or four feet
higher than it would actually have to be
adds but very little to the general cost and
at the same time permits a wide shelf, per-
haps seven feet from the floor, running the
entu^e length on either side of the build-
ing. Such shelves not only help to keep
the room cooler, but furnish much addi-
tional space for temporary storage.

For light and ventilation a very good
plan is to cut out long horizontal windows
in each side and perhaps in one end also,
ha^TJig hinged wooden shutters which can
be lowered to keep out the storm in bad
weather. A tight-fitting frame covered with
galvanized wire cloth makes the opening
bee-tight. There should be one or two
glass windows as well to permit of interior
work in stormy weather when it would be
best to have the shutters closed. All
screened openings should be provided with
several honey-house bee-escapes at the top
to let out bees that are bound to get inside
during extracting time. A screened door
is a positive disadvantage for the bees
keep hovermg around the door, and when
it is opened m-any of them get in. A solid
door or one having glass in the upper part
is to be preferred.

During a time when robbers are bad,
allowing the bees to escape to the outside
as fast as they get in the room is bad
practice. A number of large beekeepers,
instead of using bee-escapes, have the win-
dow screens removable or hinged at the
bottom. The bees collect on the screens
during the day; and after the work is
finished, or late in the afternoon, the
screens are removed or swung out at the
top so that all the bees escape at once to
their hives. The building thus acts as a
robber-trap until the bees are released
when flying is nearly over for the day.
By morning the excitement will be over.

148

BUILDINGS

An inexpensive and quickly constructed building that answers every requirement. Walls and floor of wood,
roof of canvas. A good canvas roof gives a better light inside and is cooler than a solid roof.

BUILDINGS

149

C. F. Hochstein of Cuba leaves an open-
ing three feet wide all around his building.
This he covers with heavy galvanized wire
cloth. Ingeniously made bee-escapes, con-
structed of wedge-shaped blocks of wood
between the wire cloth and the siding,
are located along the upper edge. For a
tropical climate this construction is all
right, but in other localities smaller open-
ings which can be entirely closed by means
of hinged shutters are to be preferred. All
honey-house bee-escapes which operate on
the "cone" principle ought to be so con-
structed that the openings can be entirely
closed in case the bees should get to rob-
bing and should find the small exits,

A su.bstantially constructed tent makes a
light, cool, and easily moved structure. G.
Frank Pease of Marshall, Mich., has a
very comfortable four-room work tent. The
floors and side walls are of wood, making
a very substantial construction and yet
inexpensive.

EXTRACTING-HOUSES ON WHEELS.

There are many ingenious portable ex-
tracting-rooms consisting of a canvas or
screen-covered framework on an extended
wagon-bed. W. D. Jefferson of Safford,
Ariz., uses a low wagon with small wide-
tired wheels. The platform is wide enough
to extend out even with the outer edges of
the wheels and long enough to give suffi-
cient room for extracting purposes. Un-

Jelferson's portable extracting-hoiise. A 200-gallon
honey-tank is located under the floor between the axles.

der the platform is a shallow tank hanging
between the front and rear axles which
holds 200 gallons. The screen for the
honey is in the floor over the tank where it
can be changed easily as often as it be-
comes clogged. The honey, of course, runs
from the extractor on to the screen and
then into the tank.

This portable outfit is hauled from yard

to yard, and the honey as fast as extracted
is Jiauled home so that none of it is left at
the outyard.

THE AUTHOR^S PORTABLE EXTRAOTING-
HOUSE.

For an extracting-house that may be
easily moved from one apiary to another,
the running gear of an old discarded out-
of-date touring car can often be used to
very good advantage, with a superstructure
similar to that of the Jefferson outfit.
These old automobiles can usually be
bought for little more than scrap price —
anywhere from $25 to $50. If there are
not tires on the machine already, second-
hand ones can be secured at a m^oderate
price. The whole outfit will not have to
make any considerable mileage — only short
distances to outyards. Cheap tires that
have seen their best days will answer a
good purpose for an extracting-trailer. The
illustrations show an outfit the author has
been using with considerable satisfaction.
The superstructure consists of two floors,
one resting directly upon the channel frame
of the machine, and the other on two by
twelve joists to clear the wheels. The
lower floor is to hold tools, containers, and
other equipment for general extracting.

The room on top is made in six parts
or panels held together by means of hooks
or Yan Deusen clamps. The two sides are
screened so they can be opened up, while
the rest of the panels are made of canvas.
The power extracting engine and uncap-
ping-box are arranged with the greatest
economy of floor space, so that the opera-
tor will have plenty of room for uncapping
and extracting. The honey is pumped from
the extractor into a receiving tank. From
here it is draT\Ti by gravity into square
tin cans by a pipe passing thru the floor.

Whether it is better to have a central
extracting plant and haul the combs into
it from the yard, returning them after they
are empty, or whether it is better to have
a portable outfit that can be used at each
yard, and thus do away with a long haul
for all the combs, will depend on condi-
tions. As a general thing, the majority
are in favor of the portable outfit. After
the extracting season is over, the extracting
equipment, together with the superstruc-

150

BUILDINGS

Canvas extracting-room built over an old touring-car converted into a trailer. There are two floors made,
of -inch lumber, the lower one just the size of the frame of the chassis, and the upper one, twelve inches
higher, is six feet wide. The space between may be used for carrj-ing supers, supplies, etc.

ture, can be removed, leaving* a first-class
trailer that can be hitched to an automobile
or horse-drawn wagon, and this trailer can
be used for carrying any kind of loads,
and will be specially serviceable in mov-
ing a whole apiary from one yard to an-
other. If the roads are not too hilly, a
Ford or other light machine will pull this
trailer around very easily.

THE SUBSTANTIAL BUILDING FOR THE HOME
YARD OR CENTRAL EXTR ACTING-PLANT.

Interior of the
capping-box stands
empty space at the

extracting-room on wheels. The
near the front on the left. The
right is for the supers.

As has been mentioned, the building suit-
able for an out-apiary is usually inade-
quate for the home yard where there must
be room for considerable storage, for mak-
ing supplies, and for all the inside work,
in fact, in connection with the business.
For this reason expensive conveniences are
usually out of place in a building in an
outyard. At home it pays to erect a larger
and more substantial building, includmg
such conveniences as are time and labor
savers. David Running of Filion, Mich.,

152

BUILDINGS

fLOOR JOIST TREATMENT

CONCRETE

--J<-- 19'11"-

'^x t-- She^t Iron Shield
Stove\ i]

/V2f/)Z7 0is/yv^?^-////v6f
^^7>j/A^^^BUTTors

si^^lrffsiDiNG

^BATTEN 4

FLOOR

feat design for both workshop and honey-room.

HoNEv Tank

■■ STORA G5 andBottl INt

Room

so UT H 30 'J _ /E LEVAT [O N

Garage and honey-house combined. The load may be taken off the auto and set directlv on to the platform
m the work room thru an opening in the walh

Very little carrying, lifting, or wheeling in this apiary.

BUILDINGS

153

David Running's 16 x 40-foot concrete building. There are two different floors besides the cellar where the
bees are wintered. The cellar has a capacitj- for nearly 350 colonies. Where gravel is cheap, concrete is cheaper
than lumber in the long rtm.

has one of the best and most completely
equipped concrete buildmgs in the country.
Concrete, so far as the cost of material is
concerned, especially where gravel is cheap,
often costs less than lumber. Mr. Run-
ning's building is 16 x 40 feet, has two
different floors besides the basement used

OUr-OF THE-WAV StORAOE RoOM \ ' |

SCREENED Extracting- and
/■/ON£Y Packing Room /

HONLYCAN S''OkAOE

as a bee-cellar, and yet the material cost
only $206.75, A large number of stones,
to save the cost of cement, were used and
cost nothing but the labor of picking up.

The walls, moreover, are only six inches
thick. Ill most instances eight inches for
solid concrete is thin enough. The lum-
ber used for making the forms is not
wasted, for it can all go into the roof.

More and more beekeepers are using
automobiles or auto trucks in their busi-
ness. While it is not always
possible nor desirable it is
oftentimes convenient, if the
honey-house and workshop
includes also the garage.
Henry Hograve of Wauketa,
Wis., has such a building, which
he finds a distinct advantage.
Mr. Hograve has a driveway
thru the center of his apiary,
and he uses the auto for carry-
ing full supers right into the
garage. From there they are
pushed thru an opening on to
a platform in the extracting-
room. It would doubtless fa-
cilitate loading and unloading
and save considerable lifting, if the floor
of the garage could be two or three feet
lower than the door of the adjoining
room.

FOR

Wl

ow

I TOOL 3

15i

BUILDING UP COLONIES

Louis Scholl's corrugated-iron honey-house and workshop. As shown in the sectional view (preceding page)
there are four different floors in this building which are used for carpenter work, extracting honey, storage, etc.

BUILDING UP COLOKIES.— Under
the heads of Increase^ Spring Dwind-
ling^ Spring Management^ and Unit-
ing^ will be found hints on building
up colonies in the spring and fall; but
this article will confine itself to the question
of building up colonies so that they will be
ready for the honey flow.

There is no more important matter in
this whole volume than having colonies
ready for harvest — not only strong, but
bees of the right flying age to secure a
crop. Colonies of only half strength, or
below par, will come far short of the
strongest colonies in honey production. A
beginner would naturally suppose that a
half or two-thirds strength stock would
gather proportionally as much honey as
one of full strength. But this is far from
being the case. In the production of comb
honey, at least, the half and medium-sized
colonies possibly might not go up into the
supei's at all, while the full colonies might
store 50, 100, or even 200 pounds each. In
the production of extracted honey the rela-
tive difference between the different sizes
of colonies is not so marked, but great
enough to make it very important that all
colonies should be regular boomers in size,
full to overflowing with bees.

Different beekeepers have different meth-
ods of building up colonies in the spring;
and it is likewise true that methods must
necessarily be modified according to the
locality. In early spring there will usu-
ally be colonies varying in strength from
those that are extra good to those that are
quite weak. There will be no trouble
about the strong colonies being ready for
the harvest. The problem is to bring the
medium up to a point where they will be
strong enough to do their part in secur-
ing a crop of honey. Sometimes one can
take hatching brood or near-hatching brood
from the strong colonies and give to the
medium. In doing this, care should be
taken not to give more than one frame of
brood at a time. Use sealed brood mainly
in place of unsealed^ and, as far as possi-
ble, brood that is nearly ready to hatch.
Generally brood can be given with adher-
ing bees, without danger to the queen, altho
it is usually advisable for the beginner to
brush or shake the bees off and then give
the bare brood to the colony that needs
building up. The danger of giving ad-
hering bees is that they may attack
the queen and kill her. However, the
author has given brood and adhering bees
hundreds of times without any bad results.

BUILDING UP COLONIES

155

While it is generally considered that a
colony can not be too strong when run for
extracted honey, yet there are many good
beekeepers in some localities who hold that
their medium colonies are less inclined
to swarm than those that are extra strong
at the beginning of the honey harvest. If
so, it is advisable in the spring to draw
from extra-strong colonies hatching brood
or near-hatching brood, and give to the
medium.

A weak colony should be united with a
medium colony — if possible, with its neigh-
bor. The two lots of bees should be put
into a hive located just halfway between
where the two stood. If the colonies are
in the sam.e yard, but some distance apart,
they may still be united if the newspaper
plan is used. (See Uniting.) If this
policy of eliminating the weak colonies and
building up the medium is pursued, all
colonies in the apiary will be of honey-
gathering strength when the honey flow
opens.

Very often the Alexander plan, as given
under Uniting^, is employed to very good
advantage; but with any of the schemes
for uniting, hatching brood can very often
be obtained from the extra strong and
given to the weaker to very good advan-
tage. Unsealed brood should never be
moved, for the simple reason that fair,
medium, or weak colonies will have no
more bees than are necessary to cover the
brood. When unsealed brood is given, there
is great danger that it may be neglected
on account of the insufficient number of
bees; but when hatching brood is given
it does not require the attention of nurse
bees, and, moreover, sealed brood ready
to hatch has a great deal of animal heat
of its own. Soon after giving hatching
brood there will be a force of young bees
large enough to give a wonderful impetus
to the colony.

The beginner should understand that no
colony can build up in the spring to good
advantage unless it is warmly housed —
preferably in double-walled hives or hives
in winter packing cases. The packing
should not be removed in the spring until
settled warm weather comes on. A colony
in a single-walled hive without protection
can not take care of its brood to the best
advantage. Much of it chills and dies
during chilly nights. The importance of

packing in building up colonies can not be
emphasized too strongly. See Spring
Management.

Unless there is a large reserve of stores
in the combs in early spring a colony will
be slow in building up. Good beekeepers
see to it that the colonies are well sup-
plied either with natural stores or sugar
syrup in the fall. Unless there is a large
reserve of stores there will be limited
brood-rearing in March or April, and the
colony will begin to spring dwindle on
account of the old bees dying off. (See
Spring Dwindling.)

If for any reason the colony is short
of stores in the spring it should be fed
combs of sealed stores or candy. Good
beekeepers should always lay aside a re-
serve of combs of honey to give in the
spring. One or two of these placed next
to the brood will put a colony in good
condition to build up. Some beekeepers
have successfully fed warm syrup, placing
it in the upper story and covering with
packing. (See Feeding.) But it is a poor
plan for beginners to try this early in the
spring, as it has a tendency to overstimu-
late and cause the bees to rush out of the
hives and become chilled. Sometimes the
beginner, in his eagerness to feed, will lose
more bees by their flying out on chilly days
than he will gain in the brood-rearing that
results from the feeding. See Feeding to
Stimulate.

Feeding sugar syrup in the spring should
always be avoided if possible. Where there
are no sealed combs available, use cakes of
candy. These can be laid right on top of
the brood-frames, and then covered with
packing. Candy does not cause the bees
to rush out, and it is nearly the equal of
natural stores for building up colonies.
See Candy.

It is important that bees in early spring
should have reserve combs of pollen. These
are almost as important as combs of sealed
stores. In some localities when there is
no natural pollen in the hive the bees will
rush out in the early spring, go to some
barn searching for feeding-troughs in sta-
bles, and helping themselves to the ground
feed; for brood can not be reared without
something besides mere honey or syrup.
See Pollen; read as to the necessity of
pollen for brood-rearing. Of course, after

156

BUMBLEBEES

bees can get natural pollen from the fields
during warm v/eather there is no danger
that they will run out of pollen.

There is one more hnportant requisite:
No colony will build up with all the help
that can be given unless it has a good
queen, and that often means one not more
than a year old. A really good queen,
generally, will have a good colony by
spring. But it sometimies happens that a
good queen in late fall has a light force of
bees on account of the eagerness on the
part of the beginner to increase. Such a
queen will build up very quickly if given
half a chance. As a rule, the strong to
good colonies in the apiary will have good
queens, while the medium and the weak
will have inferior ones. It is not always
possible to requeen such colonies, as new
stock can not always be had. And even
if it could be obtained, it would hardly
be advisable, since it sometimes happens
that an inferior queen when given a little
encouragement will speed up in egg-laying.
So, as explained at the outset, it is a good
plan to help the medium from the weak
and strong. To recapitulate:

There are several important requisites
in building up a colony; viz., warm hous-
ing or packing, plenty of stores, a reserve
of natural pollen, and a good queen. Where
any or all of these conditions are lacking,
the beekeeper can help out by removing
hatching brood from strong colonies and
giving to the weaker.

Under Pollen it is explained how arti-
ficial substitutes can be given; and while
these answer the purpose to a limited ex-
tent they by no means take the place of
the natural article, for the simple reason
that the nitrogenous food element that
the bees so urgently need is not supplied
in proper form.

For particulars on how to unite flying
bees with a colony on another stand, see
Uniting. Also read carefully the article
on Spring Management as well as Spring
Dwindling^ and Feeding.

BULK COMB HONEY.— See Comb
Honey.

BUMBLEBEES.— The bumblebee family,
or Bomhidae, includes only two genera,
Bornbus, or the nest-building bumblebees,
and PsitJiyrus, or the parasitic bumblebees.
About 234 species and varieties of Bombus

have been described in the world and 57 of
Psithyrus. Bmnblebees are found thruout
North and South America, extending north-
ward to MeCormack Bay 77 degrees north
latitude, Greenland, and to an altitude of
13,600 feet at Cuzco, Peru. They are also
widely distributed in Europe, Asia, and
North Africa, but the great Saharan deserts
offer an effectual barrier to their south-
ward extension. Australia and New Zea-
land have no native species, but three
species were introduced into New Zealand
from England in 1884.

bumblebees and flower pollination.

As agents in the pollination of flowers
bumblebees are second in importance only
to honeybees. Many flowers are adapted
wholly to their visits and are called bum-
blebee flowers, as the larkspurs, aconites,
columbines, red clover, jewelweed, turtle-
head, Linaria, snapdragon, the closed and
fringed gentians, besides a number of
orchids. While they generally avoid very
small flowers with a scanty supply of nec-
tar, they resort to a great variety of blos-
soms, many of which yield valuable fruits.
Altho seldom seen on the inflorescence of
the pear, they seek the apple bloom in
large numbers. They are likewise very
helpful in pollinating many blueberries,
cranberries, gooseberries, and cun^ants.
While leaf-cutting bees (Megachile) are
the chief pollinators of alfalfa, many flow-
ers are tripped by bumblebees. The flow-
ers of the squash, cucumber, and pumpkin
are also very attractive to them. As in
these plants the stamens and pistils are in
separate blossoms, their productiveness is
largety dependent upon bees.

But their numbers, wide distribution,
and industry enable the bumblebees to
perform a service of the greatest value in
the pollination of red clover, one of the
most important of fodder plants. As there
were no native bumblebees in New Zealand
red-clover seed could not be profitably
raised for market until after the introduc-
tion of European species. They now an-
nually benefit these islands to the extent of
thousands of dollars. In one province
alone, in 1912, 6610 acres were sown with
red clover, Avhich, it is estimated, yielded
an average of 158 pounds to the acre.

BUMBLEBEES

157

Fig. 1. — Two views of honey-pot of Domhus lapidarius. (After SLultii.)

Fields which were ahnost barren in the
absence of bumblebees produced a perfect
mass of seed after their advent. At Can-
terbury 26 acres of red clover was the
resort of thousands of bumblebees and
yielded 400 to 500 pounds of seed to the
acre. The Bureau of Plant Industry re-
ports that from 757 heads of red clover,
covered with tarlatan to exclude insects, an
average of only one-tenth of a seed per
head was obtained; while from 311 heads
visited by bumblebees there was an average
of 30 seeds per head. Bumblebees visit as
many as 30 to 35 flowers a min-
ute. They are less abundant in
the great central plain of the
United States than in the At-
lantic and Pacific highlands.

LIFE HISTORY AXD HABITS.

In midsummer or early autumn
a bumblebee colony produce?
males and queens. The males,
which are about the size of the
workers, are pleasantly scented
and make long flights over the
meadows and the open lands in
search of the less active females.
Before leaving the nest, to which
they seldom return, the virgin
queens fill the honey-sac with
honey; and very soon after im-
pregnation conceal themselves in
moss or leaves, or burrow in the
\ground, where they remain till
the following season. The period
of hibernation is about nine
months, . species which begin
sleeping in July awakening in
March, while later species do
not fly until Maj' or June. The

economy of Ameri-
can bumblebees is lit-
tle known, and this
account is based
largely on S la den's
observations of the
English species.

Soon after the
warmer weather of
spring permits the
queen to leave per-
manently her place
of hibernation she
begins to search for
the nest of a mouse
or mole in which to
rear her colony. A mouse nest consists usu-
ally of a mass of soft dried grass with a hol-
low in the center. Many species of bumble-
bees prefer nests which are underground,
while others select those which are on the sur-
face. Access to the subterranean nests is
gained thru a tunnel usually not far from two
feet in length and about an inch in diameter.
Queens may often be seen examining the
ground in fields in search of the openings
to these tunnels. Before she departs for
the field, the queen forms a memorj^ picture
of the location bv describing above it a

FrG. 2. — Nest of Bomhus ttrrestris showing cluster of cocoons
with groove in the center in which the queen sits, and honey-pot.
(After Sladen.)

158

BUMBLEBEES

series of gradually widening circles. In
the center of the nest a small cavity is
formed about an inch in diameter and a lit-
tle less in height, with an entrance about
the size of the queen's body.

On the center of the floor of this cavity
she stores a small mass of pollen gathered
from flowers and moistened with honey.
In a round cell of wax about the size of a
pea, built on top of the pollen, from six to
twelve eggs are laid, and the top of the cell
is then sealed over. According to Sladen
the wax is much softer than that of the
honeybee, and exudes from between the
segments on the upper side of the abdomen
instead of being excreted in little pockets
on the ventral side of the abdomen as in
the honeybee. A honey-pot is built in the
entrance to the cavity and filled with honey,
which the queen uses in the night time and
in rainy weather. It is about the size and
shape of a small marble, with open mouth,
and, altho very thin and fragile, it remains
intact for a month, which is as long as it is
needed (Fig. 1). The supply of honey is
frequently consumed and renewed and is,
consequently, much thinner than that of
the honeybee.* In large colonies additional
honey-pots are built near the edge of the
comb, and many of the cocoons are filled
with honey, the number of which may
amount to three or four hundi^ed.

Except when she leaves the nest to pro-
cure food the queen incubates the cell con-
stantly to keep the eggs warm. They hatch
in four days. The larv^ feed on the mass
of pollen and also on a milky food of par-
tially digested pollen and honey prepared
by the queen. This liquid is injected info
the wax cell thru a minute hole in the top.
At first the larvse are provided with a com-
mon supply, but later each is fed separate-
ly. When the larvse are five days old they
begin to grow very rapidly, and the cell
expands into a large globular bunch or
bag, in which the position of each can
easily be discerned. On the eleventh day
they reach their full size, and each larva
spins about itself a thin papery but very
tough cocoon. The cocoons stand upright
and form a compact cluster with a smooth
concave groove in the center, in which the

* T'he queen's honey-pot in a nest of B. fervidus
examined at Ottawa, Canada, in 1915, was found to be
completely closed, possibly a provision of nature, pre-
venting ants, etc., from discvoering the honey when the
queen is absent from the nest. — F. W. L. S.

queen sits to furnish the warmth needed to
mature the first brood of workers (Fig. 2).
On the 22d or 23d day the perfect workers
emerge from the cocoons by cutting a hole
in the top either alone or with the aid of
the queen. The newly hatched bees are a
duU gray and move about very feebly, but by
the third day they have acquired their natu-
ral colors and strength and are ready to de-
part for the field. The life of a worker bum-
blebee in midsummer is about four weeks.

As soon as the larvse of the first brood
spin their cocoons, the queen begins to
build a row of cells along the outer edge of
one side of this cluster parallel with the
central groove, and later a second row on
the other side of the cluster. She then lays
a variable number of eggs, but usually
from six to twelve in each cell. As soon
as the workers become sufficiently numer-
ous to provide supplies for the colony the
queen no longer leaves the nest and may
lay a new lot of eggs daily. The history of
the eggs in the later cells is similar to those
in the first cell except that the larvee are
fed largely or wholly by the workers, and
the cluster of cocoons is convex without a
central groove. The structure of the cocoon
clusters varies with diferent species. Those
of the English Bomhus terrestris are loose
and irregular, while those of B. agrorum
are compact and globular and are arranged
symmetrically in a ring around the nest
(Fig. 3). Underground species may pro-
tect the top of the comb by a roof of wax;
but this in surface dwellers is reduced to a
mere disc or is entirely wanting. On very
hot days the nest is ventilated by one or
m^ore workers standing on the comb or in
the entrance and rapidly fanning with their
wings. Night brings no rest to the colony.
Its activity even increases, for now the
entire population are at home and busily
engaged in caring for the brood and comb
(Fig. 4).

Pollen is never put in cells containing
honey, but is stored in empty cocoons or in
tall columnar cells, which may be over an
inch high and half an inch in diameter,
near the center of the nest. A few species
store it in little pockets on the side of the
wax-covered bunches of larvae, called by
Sladen pocket-makers to distinguish them
from the pollen-storers. The workers
gather the pollen and load it in the pollen-

BIBIBLEBEES

159

baskets in the
same manner as
described for the
honeybee.

The culminat-
ing event in the
history of a bum-
blebee colony is
the production of
males and queens,
for it is upon this
act that the life
of the species de-
pends. This is not
undertaken until
the old queen has
laid from 200 to
400 worker eggs,
according to the
species, and the
colony is in a
high state of pros-
perity. Both sexes
may occur in the

same cluster of cocoons, or it may consist
wholly of males or females. In exceptional
cases a colony produces exclusively males
or queens. The males appear earlier and
are about twice as numerous as the females.
One hundred to five hundred niales and
queens may be raised, according to the
strength of the colony. As in the case of
the honeybee the bumblebee queens are

Fig. 3. — Xest of Bombus aororum. shelving symmetrical arrangement of comb;
pollen-pockets. (After Sladen.)

probably fed on a different kind of food
than the workers, altho no difference has
yet been observed. The males live for about
three weeks, and, like the queens, after once
leaving the nest seldom return.

With the departure of the males and vir-
gin queens from the nest, the purpose, of
the colony has been attained in providing -
for the continuance of the species another
year, and the clos-
ing days of its ex-
istence are now
fast approaching.
The old queen be-
gins to fail, her
body becomes de-
nuded of hail', and
her productive-
ness decreases.
There are not
sufficient eggs to
keep the colo-
ny busy, and lay-
ing workers ap-
pear, which, how-
ever, produces
only males. Fi-
nally brood-rear-
ing ceases, and
the comb begins
to mold. There
is no longer an

Fig. 4. — Nest of Bombus lapidarius. (After Sladen.)

160

BUMBLP]BEES

Fig. 8. — Psithyrus laboriosusj a. queen; male.

BUMBLEBEES

161

abundance of flowers, and the surplus of
honey is consumed; then the older workers
die one by one and the dozen or more re-
maining become idle. "One night, a little
cooler than usual," says Sladen, "fmding
her food supply exhausted, the queen
grows torpid, as she has done many a time
before in the early part of her career, but
on this occasion, her life work finished,
there is no awakening."

There are 47 species of bumblebees
known in America north of Mexico, and 40
species in America south of Mexico, one
species [B. dahlbomii) being common on
the Straits of Magellan. A large and com-
mon species east of the Rocky Mountains is
Bomhus americanorum, which has a tongue
14 mm. long, (Fig. 5). The colonies live in
deserted mouse-nests both underground and
on the surface. B. fervidus is another
common species found in nearly every
State in the Union and in Canada (Fig. 6).
This species is a surface dw^eller, and its
nests may be found in a variety of loca-
tions. Putnam found on July 27 a nest of
paper and rags under the floor of a shed,
which contained 70 bees, 150 cells with
brood, and 200 larvae in various stages of
growth in the pollen masses, besides 50 cells
of honey. B. impatiens occurs thruout the
eastern United States (Fig. 7). It is a
subterranean species. A nest taken by
Franklin, Aug. 31, contained 340 bees, of
which 4 were queens and 15 males. It was
feet below the surface of the ground.
There were 330 unbroken cells, the major-
ity of which were queen-ceUs. Another
very common species of bumblebee, east
of the Rocky Mountains, and from coast
to coast in Canada is B. vagans. Accord-
ing to Franklin the honey-pots of Ameri-
can species appear to be made not of wax
but of pollen grains cemented with propolis.

THE PAEASITIC BUMBLEBEES.

Many bumblebee colonies are destroyed
by parasitic or false bumblebees belonging
to the genus Psithyrus. They are also called
inquiline or guest bumblebees. They closely
resemble bumblebees in appearance and are
no doubt descended from common ances-
tors. About ten species are known in
America north of Mexico, and three or
four more in Mexico and Central America.
It is a singular fact that not a single
6

species is certainly known from South
America. A common species widely dis-
tributed in the United States is Ps. labor-
iosus (Fig. 8). The worker caste is entire-
ly absent and only males and females are
produced. They do not build combs nor
gather pollen and nectar for their young,
but live in the nests of the true bumble-
bees, at whose expense their brood is reared.

They were long supposed to be commen-
sals living with the bumblebees but doing
little harm or possibly some benefit; but
much information in regard to the habits
of two English species has been gained
thru the observations of Sladen.* Like the
bumblebees they hibernate during the win-
ter, but begin to fly a little later in the
spring. A Psithyrus queen seeks to enter
the nest of the host bumblebee soon after
the first brood of workers have appeared.
Little opposition is then offered by the
doomed colony, which soon becomes accus-
tomed to her presence. So long as the
workers are too few to provide ample food
supplies the intruder with instinctive cun-
ning waits until they have become numer-
ous enough to care for herself and her
brood. As soon as the nest has become
populous a crisis is precipitated by the
Psithyrus queen preparing to lay eggs.
Aroused by this invasion of her rights, the
bumblebee queen apparently attacks the
usurper, altho she is doomed beforehand to
defeat. Protected by a thick tough integu-
ment and armed with a larger and more
curved sting, the parasitic queen invariably
kills the bumblebee queen. The Psithyrus
queen is at first compelled to protect her eggs
from the Bomhus workers, but they soon
care for her brood as faithfully as for
their own. In Austria two species of
Psithyrus\ are reported to live amicably
with their hosts, both producing males
and females.

If the Psithyrus queen waits too long
and then enters a colony of the host bum-
blebee which has a strong company of
workers, she is at once furiously assailed
by overpowering numbers; and, altho
fighting valiantly, is finally slain. Before
she is destroyed, however, a dozen or more

* One of these is Ps. ves talis ^ which dwells in the
nest of B. terrestris. Ps. ashtoni, the representative of
Ps. vestalis in Eastern Canada, possibly associates in
the same way with B. terricola. — F. W. L. S.

t Represented in North America bv Ps. lahoii/isns
Ps. insularis, and Ps. fernaldae. — F. W. L. S.

162

BUMBLEBEES

of her assailants are sometimes killed. If
two Psithyrus queens enter the same nest
they seem never to fight with each other,
but one soon goes away. The parasitic
bumblebees visit a variety of flowers, but
they show a preference for Composites
like the thoroughwort and goldenrod which
are rich in nectar. Their visits are made
in a leisurely way very unlike those of the
bumblebees.

The two genera, Bomhus and Psithyrus,
have doubtless been derived from a com-
mon stock. Psithyrus shows evidence of
degeneration in the loss of the pollen-
baskets, the smaller eyes, and the untoothed
mandibles. In explanation of the origin
of the parasitic habit Sladen points out
that the queens of several common species
of Bomhus often enter the nests of their
own species, fight a duel to the death with
the queen, and, if successful (which is
unusual) lay their eggs and assume the
duties of the foundress of the colony. B.
terrestris behaves in this way in the nest
of the nearly-related species B. lucorum,
but with the difference that she usually
succeeds by means of her greater alertness
and ferocity in killing the lucorum queen,

and, lucorum being an early species, she
frequently does not enter the lucorum nest
until the first workers are beginning to
emerge. If this practice were to become
habitual, an inquiline bee similar to Psi-
thyrus would be likely to result.

Bumblebee nests are destroyed by mice,
and Darwin suggested that in the vicinity
of towns their numbers were partly deter-
mined by the number of cats. The comb
and brood are devoured by the larvse of
wax moths and of several species of flies.
Ants destroy nests in the early stages.
Among other insects found in the nests are
flies belonging to the genus Volucella,
which mimic bumblebees in their appear-
ance and habits of flight so closely that
they are often mistaken for them. Two of
these flies were collected and sent to the
writer as bumblebees by an entomologist of
great experience. Like the bumblebees they
visit flowers for pollen and nectar.

For further information on bumblebees
see "Habits of Some Species of Humble
Bees," F. W. Putnam; "The Bombid^ of
the New World," H. J. Franklin; and
"The Humble-bee," F. W. L. Sladen, Mac-
millan & Co.

c

CAGES FOR QUEENS.— See Intro-
ducing.

CAMPANILLA. — There are two species
of Convolvulaceae, or morning-glory fam-
ily, which are of great importance to the
beekeepers of Cuba as honey plants ; name-
ly, Ipomoea sidaefolia Choisy, and I. tri-
loba L. Popular English and Spanish
names of I. sidaefolia are white bellflower,
campanilla blanca, campanilla, Christmas
pop, and aguinaldo de pascuas. It is a
perennial, the vines sometimes obtaining
the size of from two to three inches in
diameter, and is generally found growing
among trees and shrubs or along fences and

One day every vine is in full bloom; the
next day not a single vine is to be seen in
bloom in miles of travel.

PINK CAMPANILLA.

The pink campanilla, I. triloba, is also
known as campanilla morada, aguinaldo
rosado, and marrullero. It blooms during
the months of October and November. It
is found principally in western Cuba, in
the region knowTi as the "vuelta abaja,"
the great tobacco region; and it is the
growing of tobacco that makes possible the
great amount of this particular variety of

Campanilla.

stone walks. The height of bloom is about
Christmas, for which reason it is also called
the "aguinaldo de pascuas," and at this
season of the year it is a common sight to
see almost every tree, shrub, and fence
along the road one solid mass of white
aguinaldo bloom. The odd feature about
this plant is its irregular blooming. It will
bloom only every other day, and then,
again, several days in succession. The
days of blooming are always universal.

the campanilla, for tobacco seed is, as a
rule, always sown on virgin soil. Large
tracts of land, on both mountain and coast,
are cleared every year, just to grow one
crop of tobacco plants. When the plants
are big enough to be transplanted they are
pulled and shipped by railroad, ox-cart, or
mule-train, to where the tobacco is to be
grown. These tobacco-seed beds are, by
the next year, and for years to come, cov-
ered by the vines of the campanilla mora-

164

CANDY FOR BEES

da, which in weptern Cuba, springs up
wherever the land has been cultivated.

The honey from the campanilla, in color
and flavor, is equal to alfalfa or sage. The
comb built during the campanilla flow is
pearly white, and when melted it produces
wax as white as tallow.

CAMPECHE.— See Logwood.

CANADA THISTLE {Cirsium arvense
(L.) Scop.) .— Altho this troublesome weed,
naturalized, from Europe, is condemned, by
agriculturists and is outlawed everywhere,
it is a source of a small quantity of honey
in parts of Canada. Like m.ost pernicious
weeds it belongs to the family Compositae.
The heads are small but very numerous,
each head composed of about 100 rose-pur-
ple tubular florets. The nectar is secreted
so freely that it rises in the corolla tubes
to a point where it can be reached by near-
ly all insects. Honeybees gather both nec-
tar and pollen. The honey is light colored,
of very fine quality with a delightful flavor,
and is fully equal to the best clover or
basswood honey in the market.

Canada thistles will live in a great variety
of conditions, but they luxuriate in rich
bottom lands where they take almost com-
plete possession of the soil. It is a com-
mercial asset to the beekeeper chiefly in
those localities where it has become a pest
to farmers who would gladly exterminate
it root and byanch. Beekeepers should also
do. everything in their power to destroy it;
but the Canada thistle is difficult to eradi-
cate since it multiplies by underground
creeping rootstocks, a sraalL fragment of
which, if left in the soil, will give rise to a
new plant.

CANDIED HONEY.— See Granulated

HOXF.Y.

CANDY FOR BEES.— There is just one
kind of candy that is used universally by
beekeepers for queen-cages. While excel-
lent for this purpose it should not be used
as winter food unless in pans, where, if it
becomes soft, it will not run down and kill
the bees.

It is none other than what is popularly
termed the "Good" candy, after I. R.
Good, of Nappanee, Indiana, who intro-
duced it into this country. It was, how-

ever, first made by a German named
Scholz, many years before. See "Lang-
stroth on the Honeybee/' p. 274, 1875 edi-
tion. By Europeans it is, therefore, called
the Scholz candy.

HOW TO MAKE.

It is made of a stiff dough with a first
quality of extracted hone}^ or invert sugar
and powdered sugar. A thick, well-ripened
clover should be used when it can be ob-
tained. The powdered sugar must have no
starch in it. There are two kinds of frost-
ing sugar — one with starch and the other
without. Ihe latter should be specified,
and to determine whether the right article
has been secured, a small pa- tide should
be rubbed between the fingers. If it has
a granular feeling it probably contains no
starch. If, on the other hand, it contains
starch, the sugar will have a smooth, soft
touch. While starch is not necessarily
fatal to queen-cage candy, experience
shows that queens can be sent only short
distances on a food containing it.

Having secured the right ingredients,
the honey should be heated to a tempera-
ture of 140 degrees F. The pulverized
sugar should then be stirred in with a big
strong spoon or stick, adding all that it is
possible for the honey to absorb, and when
the stick or spoon cannot stir any more,
some jDowdered sugar should be spread
on a molding-board. Next the mixture
should be removed from the pan to the
board and the dough kneaded the same
as ordinary bread dough, adding sugar to M
prevent sticking. The candy should be a
worked until all the sugar has been incor- M
porated that it is possible to get in, and yet M
not have it too stilf nor too soft and moist, m
Right here is a very nice point: If too ^
much sugar is worked in, the candy will
become dry and hard; if not enough, it
will be soft, sticky, and shiny. If the
candy has been handled properly it should
hold its shape or form and not become
sticky at a temperature of 90 degrees.
Summer temperature will seldom exceed
this and if the candy holds its shape at this
temperature it will do so when it is colder.
It may then be set away in a closed tin
pan and used as a food to fill cages.

^ .During very hot moist weather, it may

CANDY FOR BEES

165

be necessary, before filling the cages, to
knead in a little more sugar.

The holes for holding the candy in
queen-cages should be lined with paraffin
or beeswax. The object of this is to pre-
vent the moisture of the candy from being
absorbed into the wood. This absorption
would make the bee-feed dry and hard. It
should be maintained not sticky but slight-
ly moist and soft, to the journey's end.

If it is impossible to make Good candy
by following these directions, either the
hone}^ or invert sugar is wrong or the pul-
verized sugar. And this suggests the wis-
dom of trying a few pounds of the sugar
before making a large batch of candy.

Recent postal regulations in the United
States require on the part of every queen-
breeder who sends queens by mail one of
two things — a certificate of inspection frora
a duly authorized bee inspector certifying
that no bee disease has been discovered in
the yard in which the queens are reared,
a copy of this to go on every package;
or in the event that there is no bee-inspection
law, and, of course, no inspector, the postal
authorities require a statement, duly at-
tested before a notary, that the honey of
which the candy has been made has been
boiled 20 minutes in a closed vessel, or
eJse that invert sugar is used.

But experience shows that boiled honey
does not make good queen-cage candy. The
character of the honey is so changed by
boiling that the queens die on it in the
space of a short time.

The real intent of the regulation, which
is to prevent the dissemination of bee dis-
ease, can be subserved by using invert
sugar in place of honey. See Invert
Sugar. This is a syrup having a good
many of the chemical characteristics of
honey, but it lacks some of the food ele-
ments of nature's product. However, it
makes a better candy and is safer. Of
course, invert sugar could not contain
disease of any kind, as it has not been in
contact with bees.

Invert sugar can usually be obtained of
any large candy-maker. A very good arti-
cle is sold under the name of nullomoline
by the Nullomoline Co., of New York.

Some queen-breeders have been very suc-
cessful in the use of fondant, such as is
used for filling the inside of ordinary

chocolate candy. Inasmuch as the ingredi-
ents do not involve the use of honey, some
may prefer it.

HOW TO MAKE FONDANT.

The ingredients are as follows: granu-
lated sugar 12 lbs.; glucose, such as the
candy-makers use, 1^/^ lbs.; water, 1^
quarts; cream of tartar, Vs teaspoonful.
The cream of tartar, water, and glucose
are put together in a kettle and heated.
As soon as the mixture comes to a boil,
the sugar is added little by little until it is
all incorporated. During the process of
adding the sugar the candy is continually
stirred. When the boiling point is reached-
again, the stirring is discontinued. When
the temperature reaches 238 degrees F. by
a candy-mixer's thermometer, the mixture
is removed from the stove and allowed to
cool. When it cools to 120 it is stirred
again until it begins to "cream." As soon
as it looks like paste or starch, it is ready
to use.

This candy has been used quite success-
fully as a winter food. It is put in shallow
trays, and placed over the top of a cluster
of bees. It has also been used for supplying
queen-cages.

hard candy for winter and spring
feeding; how to make it.

Into a dish of hot Avater on the stove is
slowly poared granulated sugar, which
should be stirred constantly. The syrup
should be very thick and the sugar all dis-
solved before boiling commences. If this
precaution is not observed, some of the un-
dissolved sugar is likely to burn, injuring
the flavor of the candy and almost surely
causing trouble with the bees later. If
one has a candy thermometer, he should
watch the temperature, and not let it go
above 275 to 280 degrees F. Tests should
frequently be made by dropping a very lit-
tle of the syrup into cold water (about 50
to 55 degrees F.). When the boiling has
continued long enough the drop of candy,
having been cooled in the water, should be
hard and brittle when taken out ; but when
placed in the mouth it should soften slight-
ly, and become tough. When this time has
arrived, the syrup should immediately be
poured on to paraffined or waxed paper on

166

CARPET GRASS

a table. The table should be perfectly
level, and around the outside of the paper
should be placed wooden sticks ^ inch
high to confine the syrup and prevent it
from running off. When the candy is
nearly hard, it may be creased or cut vrith
a heavy knife so that it can be broken up
into right-sized squares when hard.

The color of the candy when cold should
be about that of light basswood honey. If
it is darkened very much, it is scorched and
unfit for the bees. To prevent the scorch-
ing, the fire toward the last should be re-
duced so that the syrup will boil but
slowly.

When the candy is first made, it is hard
and glassy, and perfectly transparent ; but
after it stands for a little time it becomes
somewhat watery and crystalline; but this
is all the better so far as the bees are con-
cerned, for they are enabled to take it more
easily.

The thin cakes of candy being only ^
' inch thick may be placed over the frames
and under the regular cover, and in this
way a colonj?- may be saved that would
otherwise be lost. The feeding of syrup,
especially in the spring, is apt to cause
great excitement and possibly robbing, and
for this reason the candy is safer as it is
taken slowly.

Caution. — Whoever makes the candy
should clearly understand that if the mix-
ture is scorched, even the slightest, it will
make unfit food for spring or winter feed-
ing. When the syrup is cooked nearly
enough, there is great danger of burning,
and it is then that the greatest care should
be exercised.

CANE SUGtAR.— This is the common
name applied to the sugar-sucrose. Sucrose
is made from the sugar cane and also from
the sugar beet. When derived from the beet
it should go under the name of beet sugar.
Sucrose is found in pure honey in amounts
varying from nothing up to 8 per cent.
Only in a very few cases has pure honey
been found which showed the higher fig-
ures. The standards for pure honey allow
8 per cent to be present. New honey gen-
erally contains more sucrose than old
honey. There are present in honey before
heating some enzymes (unorganized fer-
ments) which have the power to invert the
sucrose. Hence on aging, if heat has not

been applied to kill this action, the per
cent of sucrose decreases. Sucrose on
hydrolysis or inversion forms equal parts
of dextrose and leviilose, these latter being
the predominant sugars of honey. See
Sugar; Invert Sugar; also Honey^
Analysis op.

CANS FOR HONEY.— See Extracted
Honey.

CARNIOLANS.— See Races of Bees.

CARPENTER BEES. — See Solitary
Bees.

CARPET GRASS {Lippia nodiflora (L.)
Michx. ) . — Other vernacular names are fog-
fruit and mat grass — a prostrate, creeping,
herbaceous perennial, only a few inches
high, which forms dense mats in damp soil
and on river banks. It is of great value in
preventing the erosion of sandy land and is
in consequence known as a "sand-binder."
In Florida it would be a boon for that
purpose alone. Stock will eat it; and it
holds up its head when everything else is
burned up by the sun. The flowers are
small, white, resembling those of the sweet-
scented garden verbena from China, which
belongs to the same genus. Both species
belong to the Verhenaceae, or Verbena
family. Common carpet grass is widely
distributed in the warmer regions of North
America, extending from Central America
and the West Indies to Florida, Georgia,
and Texas. It is very abundant in Sutter
County and in the Sacramento Valley, Cal-
ifornia, carpeting the slopes of the Sacra-
mento River, where it produces a large
amount of honey. It blooms from May
until September. The honey is white, of
the mildest flavor, and crystallizes with a
very fine grain. In Texas carpet grass
grows along rivers and small streams, but
is of little importance as a honey plant.

other species of carpet grass.

The carpet grasses, of which there are
about 100 species, belong chiefly to the
warmer regions of the Old and New
Worlds; but are most abundant in tropical
and subtropical America. They yield much
nectar in Central America and are also
valuable honey plants in the West Indies

CATCLAW

167

and the Bermudas. There are about nine
species in the United States distributed over
an area extending from New Jersey to
Nebraska and Kansas, southward to
Georgia and Texas, and west to Arizona
and California.

In 1900 Lippia rep ens Hort. was in-
troduced from Italy into California, where
it now covers thousands of acres. Because
of its thickly matted growth it is widely
used for covering lawns and tennis courts.
Only one or two cuttings are required dur-
ing the summer. It thrives in the poorest
soils, smothers weeds, requires but little
water, and looks as well as any grass; but

C'atclaw leaf, twig, and blossoms ; life-size.

during two or three months it turns brown
and ceases to grow, when its appearance is
less pleasing. A new growth appears in
early spring. The small flowers are visited

by many honeybees and probably the honey
does not differ from that of the common
carpet grass.

Lippia lanceolata Michx. grows in New
Jersey, Texas, Mexico, and California, and
is also valued as a honey plant.

CATCLAW {Acacia Greggii, Gray).—
Ejio\\=ii also as paradise flower and devil's
claws. The acacia trees are most abundant
in Australia and Africa; but 16 species
occur in the Southern States, chiefly in
Texas. Se\»eral species are valuable for
both honey and pollen: A. Greggii Gray
and A. Berlandiera Benth. are two of the
most important honey plants of Texas, and
yield immense quantities of excellent honey
that ranks with the best white honey of the
North. Several species of acacia are culti-
vated in California, and yield much honey.
While possibly it would not sell alongside
of our clovers, yet in localities where it is
produced it is praised very highly for table
use, no honey being classed higher except
that from the "huajilla." See Huajilla.

The catclaw is a bushy tree with low-
spreading branches, attaining a height of
anywhere from 15 to 20 feet. It derives its
name from the bushy and fuzzy blossoms
suggestive of the furry coat of a cat, and
the peculiar kind of claws or hooks, shaped
very much like the claw of a common house
eat. If one tries to push thru the bushes
or among the branches he will conclude
that, unless he "backs up," he may "re-
main hooked." Perhaps he will anyhow.

The illustration in the column opposite
shows a small twig, life size. The leaves
are small and in clusters while the blossoms
have a cottony or downy look. One of the
seed pods, after the blossoms have been cast
off, is shown at the upper left-hand corner
of the plate.

The tree comes into bloom about the first
of May, and jdelds honey for a considerable
length of time before going out of bloom.
In July there is a second crop.

Like the huajilla and mesquite it grows
in the semi-desert regions of Texas and
Arizona where it would be impossible to
carry on farming without irrigation. There
are vast areas in both States mentioned
that Avill probably never be used for any-
thing more useful to man than catclaw,
huajilla, and mesquite; so that the onward

168

CATNIP

march of civilization will not displace these
honey trees with more profitable farm
crops. We may reasonably conclude that
catclaw will remain one of the permanent
sources of honey supply.

We are not sure but it would pay to in-
troduce these valuable honey-bearing trees
in other semi-arid regions. It has been in-
troduced into Southern Europe, whence
large quantities of its flowers are exported
to France and England. It is there known
as mimosa.

and very likely he was not far from right.
But as there has never been any definite
report from a sufficient field of it to test it
alone, either as to quality or quantity of the
honey, there is almost as much doubt in re-
gard to it as there was at the time Quinby
made the statement many years ago. Sev-
eral have cultivated it in small patches, and
have reported that in a state of cultivation
it apparently yielded more honey than in
its wild state, for bees were found on it
almost constantly, during several months

Catnip.

CATNIP {Nepeta Cataria L.).— Often
called catmint. Flowers bilabiate, nearly
white spotted with purple. Moses Quinby
(see Quinby) once said that, if he were to
grow any plant extensively for the honey
it produces, that plant would be catnip;

in the year, but rarely one gets a full load.
It has been called the "bees' bar-room," as
they are so constantly hanging around it.
Yet no one is prepared to say positively
that it would pay to cultivate it for honey
onlv.

CLOVER

169

CAUCASIANS.— See Races of Bees.

CELLAR WINTERING.— See Winter-
IXG IX Cellars.

CELLS, QUEEN. — See Queens and
Queen-rearing.

CHUNK HONEY.— See "Bulk Comb
Honey," under head of Comb Honey.

CLIPPINa.— See Queens.

CLOVER (Trifolium).— No group of
plants yields more or better honey than the
clovers. About 250 species belong to the
genus TrifoUum; but only a few of them,
as ^v'hite clover, alsike clover, red clover,
and crimson clover, are of great import-
ance to bee culture. Under the generaJ
term "clover" alfalfa, sweet clover, sainfoin
clover, and pin clover are sometimes in-
cluded; but they belong to different genera,
and, in the case of pin clover also to a dif-
ferent family. So broad a license in the
use of the word "clover" is not admissible.
Clover, alfalfa, sweet clover, and sainfoin
all belong to the pulse family {Legumi-
nosae), a very extensive family, which con-
tains many other valuable honey plants.

Some 30 or 40 years ago a failure to ob-
tain a crop of clover honey was almost
unknown. In more recent years intensive
agriculture has tended to exclude white
clover from cultivated fields and to confine
it to the roadsides, hedgerows, and un-
ploughed pastures. Its place was taken
by red clover and alsike clover, but these
species in turn have lately begun to disap-
pear. Lands that formerly yielded clover
in abundance, now produce it only spar-
ingly, or not at all, and are called by the
farmers "clover-sick." The cause of this
difficulty was soon discovered to be an in-
sufficient amount of lime in the soil. The
clovers will not grow on an acid soil.
Alsike requires less lime than red clover,
but the time finally comes when the land
will not support alsike. When the land was
new, or before it was tilled, it contained a
larger amount of lime; but constant crop-
ping has largely exhausted the natural
supply. Hence the soil is "clover-sick," or
requires lime.

If sorrel is growing on the land, or blue
litmus paper placed in damp soil turns red,

it may be assumed safely that there is a
lack of lime. Beekeepers should carefully
inform themselves as to whether the clover
fields in their locality are deficient in lime
or not, and should endeavor to induce the
farmers to get in touch with the nearest
experiment station and seek advice in re-
gard to this matter. From 500 to 2,000 or
3,000 pounds of ground limerock may be
required.

What is sweeter than honey ?

The attention of farmers should also be
called to the part clover plays in increas-
ing the nitrogen in the soil. On the roots
of the clovers there are little nodules or
tubercles, from the size of a pin head to
that of a pea, in which there live multi-
tudes of bacteria. These bacteria are able
to fix the free nitrogen of the air in nitro-
genous compounds, which after the death
of the bacteria the clover plants are able
to obtain. The fixation of nitrogen is
aided by lime and humus in the soil, and
is retarded by an acid soil or one which
is compact and not well aerated. The
tubercules do not survive the winter, but
are formed anew each season.

Since alsike clover requires less lime
than red clover, the gradual decrease of
lime in the soil has in many localities led
to its substitution for the latter. While

170

CLOVER

A fine field of white clover in Iowa.

this has been a great advantage to bee-
keepers temporarily, it will not prove a
permanent one unless lime is applied,
since finally the soil will become so acid
that alsike will not grow in it. White
clover, likewise, is largely dependent on a
soil rich in lime, and it has been disappear-
ing not alone because of intensive agri-
culture, but also because of the increasing
acidity of the land. Years ago there was
no difficulty in getting annually a surplus
of honey from white clover. But in later
years white clover has failed again and
again, even when the season was favorable.
The chief cause has undoubtedly been the
need of more lime. Since, therefore, the
clovers are the main dependence of many
beekeepers for honey a special effort should
be made by them to extend the knowledge
that a well-limed soil is a necessity both
for growing the true clovers and also
alfalfa and sweet clover. Both by lectures
and the distribution of literature this in-
formation, which is so vitally important
for their success, should be made widely
known.

The inference must not be drawn, from
what has been said, that the land is too
acid in every case. There are certain sec-
tions in this country where it has been dis-
covered that the clovers will not grow well

altho there is an abundance of lime in the
soil.

WHITE CLOVER {Trifolium repens
L.). — In the Central and Eastern states no
other honey plant is so universally known
as white clover, and white-clover honey is
the honey par excellence — the honey with
which all other honeys are compared. It
is a delicious white honey of the finest
quality. While not so thick and heavy as
goldenrod nor so pronounced in flavor as
buckwheat or basswood, it yet possesses the
qualities which satisfy the largest number
of consumers and fills most perfectly the
demand for a table honey of the highest
grade. It is given the preference by most
purchasers, and the highest praise which
can be bestowed on any honey is to pro-
nounce it equal to that of white clover. As
a confectionery its appearance is most at-
tractive, while for medicinal purposes it is
unsurpassed.

In general in America where it is suffi-
ciently abundant white clover usually yields
excellent honey harvests, which are not far
from surpassing all records. In 1913, at
Marengo, 111., Dr. C. C. Miller obtained
from 72 colonies, spring count, 19,186 sec-
tions of chiefly white-clover honey, or an
average of 266.47 sections per colony. The
three best colonies yielded 390, 395, and

CLOVER

171

402 sections respectively. This phenomenal
surplus was largely due to a most favorable
season consisting of a succession of hot
humid days, altho the strain of bees and the
care they received were important factors.
The flow began about June 1 and continued
until the last of August, the bees then grad-
ually changing to sweet clover and hearts-
ease. During this long even flow there were
up to Sept. 1 only two rainy days. At
other times the rain came during the night,
the weather becoming clear again before the
bees were ready to begin work in the morn-

paths and roads, and is common in the
fields and pastui'es. Thei-e a;e in each
head or flower-cluster from 57 to 89 small
florets. At first all the florets stand erect,
but as the marginal ones are pollinated
they cease to secrete nectar and are bent
backward and do vvnward against the stem,.
By preventing useless visits this change
in position is beneficial to both flowers and
insects. When they expand the flowers are
white, but they often turn reddish after
they are reflexed. The calyx is only three
millimeters long so that not onlv honevbees,

White-clover blossom — first stage.

ing. In central Kentucky, in 1906, 115 col-
onies stored 12,000 pounds of white-clover
honey and increased to 240 colonies. From
the same apiary in the following year the
product was 30,000 pounds, while in 1908
drouth reduced the crop to 15,000 pounds.

The flowers of white clover are familiar
to every one since the plant finds a conge-
nial habitat in the vicinity of human dwell-
ings. It carpets the lawns, fringes the

but many other insects are able to reach the
nectar. Honeybees also often gather loads
of 3^ellow pollen, altho this is not abundant.

THE POLLINATION OF WHITE CLOVER.

There are five petals. The upper petal,
called the standard, is much the largest.
The two lower petals partly cohere to form
a sac termed, from its form, a carina or

172

CLOVER

keel. The two lateral petals, called the
alse, or wings, are attached to the keel, and
act as levers to depress it. The stamens
and pistil are completely inclosed in the
keel, and ordinarily are not visible. A bee
can not collect pollen from white clover as
it does from a rose, because there is none
in sight, and it is not directly accessible.
Bees never visit the flow^ers for the purpose
of gathering only pollen, and one has never
been observed trying to open the keel.

There are 10 anthers, each of which pro-
duces a small amount of pollen. The fila-

only its head rests on the flower from which
it is sucking nectar. When a bee pushes its
head beneath the standard, the keel and
wings are forced downward, the anthers
and stigma emerge, and a little pollen is
deposited on the under or inner side of the
head, which may be covered with a layer
of moist pollen. If a pointed pencil be
thrust into a mature flower, when it is
withdraw^n a little mass of pollen will be
found on the other side. As soon as the
bee moves to another flower the elastic pet-
als cause the anthers to return again with-

White-clover blossom — second

ments unite to form a tube, at the bottom
of which the nectar is secreted. But the
superior stamen is free, leaving two small
openings at the base of the staminal tube
thru which a bee may insert its tongue to
obtain the nectar.

It is manifest at a glance that the indi-
vidual flowers of a white-clover head are
far too small to hold a honeybee. The bee
clings with its legs to several flowers, and

in the keel. The collection of pollen is,
therefore, an incidental result over which
the bee has no control. While it is visit-
ing white-clover flowers, more or less pol-
len is necessarily rubbed on the under side
of the head; but a part of it is again
rubbed off on the stigmas of the flowers
subsequently visited, effecting cross-pollin-
ation, for the stigma stands slightly in
advance of the anthers. A part of thi«:

CLOVER

173

pollen may also be transferred to the pollen-
baskets, where it appears as little brown
balls varying from the size of a shot to an
almost inappreciable quantity.

The pollen grains, when examined under
a high magnifying power, appear oblong,
cylindrical, rounded at each end, with three
longitudinal slits or grooves on the sides,
and the bands or spaces between the slits
finely roughened with many shallow pits
or depressions. A knowledge of the form
of the pollen is essential in order that it
may be recognized with certainty either in

the hive or in the honey. The little balls of
pollen in the pollen-baskets appear brown
instead of yellow (the color of the pollen
in the anthers) because they are composed
of a moist compact mass of grains which
have been manipulated by the bees' legs.

According to Darwin, when insects were
excluded from white clover by a fine net
the clover was only one-tenth as produc-
tive as when they were freely admitted,

DISTRIBUTION OF WHITE CLOVER.

White clover is very widely distributed

in the north temperate zone of both hem-
ispheres. The factors controlling the secre-
tion of nectar are very imperfectly under-
stood. While in the United States and
England it is usually a good honey plant, in
France and Switzerland, in fact, thruout
continental Europe, one may travel for
several kilometers and not see a bee on it.
At Rouen, France, during one day of white-
clover bloom a hive on scales actually lost
300 grams in weight. In various localities
in the United States it is also reported to
be an almost total failure. At Plainfield,

N. J., altho the ground is often white with
the bloom a good flow is obtained only
aliout once in ten years. One beekeeper
says : "As an actual fact, the amount of
clover honey is not measured by the quan-
tity of bloom; for I have seen the fields
white with an abundance of it, but only a
fair crop. I can remember one year when
we liad a great scarcity of bloom, and yet
we had a good crop of clover honey. I
have also seen fields white with clover but
no honey." In the Southern and extreme
Western States white clover is of little im-

White-clovcr blossom — third stngc.

174

CLOVER

portance to the beekeeper, not so much be-
cause it does not secrete nectar as because
it is not sufficiently common. In many dis-
tricts the climate is too dry. The nectar
secretion also varies greatly from day to
day acording to weather conditions.

White clover is at its maximum as a
honey plant in what is known as the "white-
clover belt" — that is, in the blue-grass re-
gion of Kentucky, in Ohio, Pennsylvania,
New York, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri,
Iowa, southern Minnesota, and southern
Wisconsin, Iowa and southern Illinois be-
ing in the heart of the belt. Even here the
nectar yield is often very variable. In
some years it is enormous. In others no
surplus is stored. At Richmond, Ky., ac-
cording to Virgil Weaver, a normal year
comes only once in every five years, viz.,
1897, 1902, 1906, and 1910. Two full crops
obtained in succession are often followed
by several years when the yield is less sat-
isfactory. This difference is largely deter-
mined hy soil and climate. In wet clay
ground in regions where the winters are
severe the roots may be much broken and
drawn out upon the surface, or the plants
killed outright by repeated "lifting" caused
by the alternate thawing and freezing of
the soil. The destructive work of the frost,
however, is much lessened by the natural
mulch afforded by the dead vegetation
found in waste places and in meadows,
which have not been cropped too closely.
Snow also offers excellent protection, and,
when it covers the ground for the most of
the winter clover suffers little or no dam-
age. Winter-killing from freezing in well-
drained sandy soils or in warmer climates
is practically unknown.

In Kentucky, Iowa, and the surrounding
territory, where there are light soils, it
seems to be well established that there will
be a very small honey flow if the preceding
season has been very dry. If there is no
rain after July 1, the drouth destroys the
old plants of feeble vitality, checks the
growth of offshoots, prevents the germina-
tion of seedlings, and retards the formation
of an extensive root system with the result
that there are few blossoms and little nec-
tar the following season. This statement
does not call for discussion since all herba-
ceous plants growing in porous sandy soU
suffer, if there is a large decrease in the
normal rainfall. Altho the injury wrought

by the drouth does not become apparent
until the next season, it should not be at-
tributed to winter-killing, but to the correct
cause — the absence of sufficient moisture in
the soil. But if there is a good stand of
white clover in early spring, a drouth in
May or June, if copious rains follow, will
only retard the bloom and delay the har-
vest. I have seen clover parched by drouth
in June, says a beekeeper, and not a blos-
som in sight. Then came a succession of
soaking rains, and, presto! bloom and a
crop of honey. Similar results have been
described at London, Canada. An excep-
tionally dry fall after August 15 was fol-
lowed by a dry spring until the last of
May, when a ■ series of warm rains com-
m.enced which continued almost daily until
about the 20th of June. The effect was
marvelous. July found the fields and road-
sides a beautiful mass of white and alsike
clover, and the honey crop was the best that
memory can recall. A very cold spring
may also cause failure, even if there is a
normal rainfall. In 1907 in parts of New
York the average temperature of April,
May, and June was four degrees below the
respective means for these months in other
years, and there was no white-clover honey.

Cold or rainy weather during the honey
flow will both lessen the quantity of nectar
and prevent the bees from working on the
bloom ; for the best results there must be a
series of warm humid days. Finally, where
white clover has been grown indefinitely in
the sam.e fields the soil conditions may be-
come deleterious. Microscopic protozoa may
multiply until they destroy a large part of
the beneficial bacteria, or the soil may be-
come acid and require a liberal application
of lime. Such land is said to be "clover-
sick," as explained at the beginning of the
general article on Clover. Nearly all of
northeastern Ohio and the major part of
Pennsylvania show a deficiency of lime.
This is also true of Massachusetts where
veiy little white-clover honey is produced.
The remedy, of course, is to apply lime as
previously explained.

WHITE. CLOVER^ HOW PROPAGATED.

There is no more important or interest-
ing subject to the beekeepers of "the white-
clover belt" than the life history of white
clover and its problems. The plant is prop-

CLOVER

175

agated both by seeds and runners which
root at the nodes and finally become inde-
pendent stocks. As in the case of the straw-
berry, a single plant may in a favorable
season cover with its runners a circle of
ground one or two feet in diameter. If
these new plants winter uninjured they will
bloom the following season in the same
manner as strawberry runners. The older
plants, as is again true of the strawberry,
exhausted by multiplying both sexually and
vegetatively, are easily killed by drouth or
cold. When the ground is densely covered
with an old growth there will be little op-
portunity for runners to root or seed to
■germinate. Consequently there may come
years when there are few new plants to
bloom.

White clover seeded in the spring will
produce, if there is sufficient rain, a heavy
crop of bloom in July and a fair amount of
seed. Much depends upon locality. Clover
raised from seed is more valuable for nec-
tar the second season than during the first.

ALSIKE CLOVER {Trifolium hybridum
L.). — This species was called Jiyhridum
by Linnjeus since he supposed it to be a
hybrid between white and red clover, but
it is now believed to be a distinct species.
It was named alsike clover from the parish
of Alsike in Upland, Sweden, where it was
first discovered and where it grows abun-
dantly. It is now known as alsike or
Swedish clover in Scotland, England, Den-
mark, Germany, France, and America. It
was introduced into England in 1834 and
later into this country. It is a very hardy
perennial plant adapted to cultivation in a
cold climate.

POLLINATION.

The branching leafy stems of alsike clover
are 1 to 3 feet long, erect or ascending, not
creeping and rooting at the nodes like
white clover. The small fragrant flowers
are in heads and at first point upward and
are pink or reddish; but after pollination
they bend downward and turn brown (see
figure). The mechanism of the flower is
the same as that of white clover. (See
White Clover). The nectar is secreted
inside of the staminate tube, and is acces-
sible to short-tongued insects. ^ As the in-
dividual flowers are small only the head of
the honeybee rests on the flower, from

which it is sucking nectar, and comes in
contact with the pollen. Few honey plants
yield nectar in larger quantities.

ALSIKE clover AS A HONEY PLANT.

Alsike clover is far more hardy than
red clover and will grow on damp or wet
land on which the latter will not grow.
It is adapted to moist clay soils and sandy,
loam soils rich in humus, but it will not
thrive in dry sandy or gravelly land. Lime
is essential but less is required than by
either white or red clover. In Ontario,
Canada, it is regarded as the foremost
honey plant, and in many localities it is the
only source of honey in quantities. Hun-
dreds of acres are grown in this province
exclusively for seed; but there is probably
no region in this country, in which it pro-
duces larger yields than in that of the
Great Lakes. From Michigan southward
to Ohio there has been an immense increase
in the acreage. Within 10 years it has
been estimated that the area of alsike
clover under cultivation has increased ten
to twent3^-fold. In perhaps one-half of
the fields alsike is mixed with timothy, in
one-quarter with red clover, and in the re-
maining quarter alsike is grown by itself.
In Michigan and some other States there
would be no clover honey if it were not for
alsike, since white clover has disappeared
to a great extent. In the Eastern States
the culture of alsike has also spread very
rapidly ; for instance, in Lancaster County,
Pa., about 10 years ago the hay crop con-
sisted chiefly of alsike mixed with timothy;
to-day three-fourths of the hay is alsike, as
it is almost impossible to get a stand with
red clover. Beekeeping is greatly benefited
by the change, as there are practically no
other honey plants of importance in this
locality ; and beekeepers declare that if the
farmers should stop sowing alsike they
would be compelled to stop keeping bees.
Here the seed dealers are all encouraging
the sale of alsike seed to the exclusion of
that of red clover. In Kentucky and Ten-
nessee it is highly prized for hay and pas-
turage and its cultivation is steadily in-
creasing. In Tennessee it is replacing red
clover since there is a greater certainty of
getting a good, stand. While it will grow
with less lime in the soil than red clover,
it responds favorably to the addition of

176

CLOVER

lime both in growth and in the secretion of
nectar. In Virginia alsike is growing, too,
in favor with the farmers. There it endures
well adverse conditions of weather, and is
so much better adapted for grazing purposes
that it should be a constituent part of all
grazing mixtures. In the West alsike is very
successful in the irrigated valleys of the
Rocky Mountains and in the regions of the
Pacific Ocean.

It is generally conceded that alsike clover
yields nectar more freely, and is a more
reliable honey plant than white clover. An
acre of alsike has been estimated to be
worth two or three of white clover, but
this does not appear to hold true in all

localities. The honey is so similar that it
is doubtful if one can be distinguished from
the other. It has been observed over and
over again that apiaries in the immediate
vicinity of alsike clover will yield more
honey per colony than those having access
to only white clover even in great abun-
dance. A field of 20 acres of alsike will
take care of 50 colonies of bees very well,
providing it is supplemented by white

\

clover in the vicinity. The period of bloom
of alsike is also much longer than that of
white clover, lasting when pastured, nearly
all summer. While alsike, as a rule, does
not yield a heavy second crop, the late
bloom is of great value. During the first

CLOVER

177

3'ear it seldom makes a heavy growth, not
attaining its full luxuriance until the sec-
ond and third year.

The fact that alsike clover is replacing
the red species in so many localities is of
much importance to American beekeepers.
Consider how many localities would be lit-
erally transformed if red clover were re-
placed by alsike. Beekeepers should take
advantage of this steadj^ movement in the
right direction, and, in addition to preach-
ing the gospel of sowing alsike, should offer
to pay a part of the cost of the seed. At
Medina, Ohio, it has been the practice for
some years to furnish seed to farmers at
half price provided that the fields, where
it was sown, were within half a mile of one
of the bee-yards; while it has been sup-
plied free to those who would sow it only
a few rods away. As a result of this pol-
icy the acreage within half a mile of the
apiaries has been very greatly increased.
The amount of clover honey obtained has
become noticeably larger, and less feeding
of sugar in the fall has been found neces-
sary. After alsike has once been intro-
duced it is self-sowing, and springs up
where the other clovers fail to make a
satisfactory gTOwth. It is soon widely
scattered through the fields, improving the
quality of the hay and increasing the quan-
tit}' of honey. After a few years it will
not be necessary to supply the seed free,
for the farmers will have learned from ex-
perience that the crop is so valuable that
they will be willing to buy the seed for
themselves. Care should be taken to ascer-
tain that the land on which the seed is to
be sown is suitable for the growth of this
clover. The honey flow will be much pro-
longed if the alsike is sown with timothv
or some other forage crop, since w^hen sown
alone it is often cut two weeks before other
hay and before the larger part of the nec-
tar, which it is possible to obtain, has been
gathered.

THE CULTURE OF ALSIKE CLOVEH.

xi loamy soil containing sufficient lime,
phosphates, and vegetable matter or humus
is best adapted to growing'^alsike clover.
The ground should be thoroly ploughed,
turning under carefully all weeds and
grass. "The application of manures for
the clovers in any considerable amount is

unnecessary. If clovers are grown on
manui'es they will feed on the nitrogen in
the manure; they will not draw from the
ail' for that element. Growing clover on
manures, therefore, is not the best econ-
omy." Moreover, the grasses, such as tim-
othy and redtop, with which clover is usu-
ally sown, will make a vigorous growih
and crowd out the clover so that the hay
w^ill contain little of it. On eastern soils
400 to 600 poimds of a fertilizer, contain-
ing a moderate percentage of nitrogen and
phosphoric acid but rich in potash, may be
used. In the West less potash is needed.
All the clovers require lime, but alsike will
succeed with a less amount than the other
cultivated species. The bacteria, which live
on the roots and appropriate the nitrogen
from the air, will die in an acid soil. The
presence of sorrel indicates an acid condi-
tion; or. if a piece of blue litmus paper
placed in damp soil turns red. lime is re-
quired. It may be applied in various
forms, such as air-slacked lime or ground
limestone ; but the latter is advised as it
is equally etfijient and cheaper in price.
From 2,000 to 4,000 pounds to the acre
may be used to advantage. After the lime
has been distributed by hand or a manure
spreader, the soil should be thoroly har-
rowed and leveled.

SEEDIXG.

Alsike clover may be seeded with the
cereals, or with various kinds of g^"a>ses
and fodder plants, or alone. As when
fully groT^m it is liable to lodge and rot. it
is advisable to sow v^ith grass, a- redtop or
orchard grass on wet land, and timothy on
drier land. T\'hen used with cereals, it
may be sown either in the fall or early in.
the spring when the ground is soft a^id
wet. It niay be seeded with oat- altho bar-
ley is preferred, while with wheat it may
prove an entire failure. If a heav;\- crop
of grain is raised, the clover will suffer
from want of water and a poor stand will
be obtained. If the clover is the fii'st con-
sideration, the seeding of the nurse crop of
grain must be very light. From three to
four-fold as many pounds of clover can
be obtained when it is sown alone as with
oats.

Alsike clover seed is about half the size
of that of red clover, and it may be easily

178

CLOVER

separated from the latter by means of a
sieve with meshes of the proper size. It is
desirable that the seed should be tested, as
much inferior seed containing a great quan-
tity of weed seed is placed on the market.
When alsike is sown alone 12 to 16 pounds
to the acre are recommended. If, however,
it is sown with timothy or redtop, as ad-
vised above, from 2 to 5 pounds of alsike,
12 pounds of timothy, or 10 pounds of red-
top, may be used. These numbers are only
approximate and will vary according to
conditions. Red clover is sometimes seeded
with alsike, as it increases the crop the first
year or two and disappears later. It is
desirable that the seed should be lightly
covered with a smoothing harrow.

CURING ALSIKE FOR HAY.

In curing alsike for hay great care
should be taken to prevent the leaves and
smaller stems, which contain the larger
portion of the protein, from being lost;
and to protect it as much as possible from
exposure to rain or dew, or to the sun. It
should not be cut before it is in full bloom
and the blossoms are beginning to turn
brown ; but, if permitted to stand too long,
the stems will become woody. It is usually
cured in the windrow, avoiding any un-
necessary exposure to the sun, which causes
the leaves to bleach and become brittle. If
raked into windrows, or bunched, or placed
in the mow when wet with either dew or
rain, it will be injured. It should never
be stored in stacks outdoors, if this can be
avoided. As a forage plant it is equal or
superior to red clover or timothy, produc-
ing a large flow of very rich milk.

<;.','nii:iMXG the seed.

The seed is always saved from the first
crop of blossoms, and it should be allowed
to stand about two weeks longer than when
cut for hay. It should always be mowed
either early in the morning, or late in the
evening, when it is wet with dew, other-
wise the riper pods with the best seed will
fall off and be lost. After mowing it is
turned once or twice and housed as soon
as dry. It is thrashed with a clover-huUer
made expressly for clover seed, and then
cleaned with a fanning mill with appro-
priate sieves. In small quantities it may

be more satisfactorily thrashed with the
flail. Timothy seed is very nearly the
same size and for its removal a fanning
mill having a proper blast arrangement is
required. As the alsike weighs 60 pounds
to the bushel and timothy 45, there is no
great difficulty in doing this effectually.
On one estate in Sweden where 20 acres
were set apart for raising the seed, the
average annual production for five years
was 133 pounds per acre, while the pro-
duction one year was 200 pounds per acre.

IS ALSIKE POISONOUS TO WHITE-NOSED
HORSES ?

Occasionally complaint is made that al-
sike produces a form of skin disease in
white-nosed horses. In reply Dr. J. Aiken-
head says: "I have been practicing the
veterinary profession since 1874 — 18 years
in Ontario and since then in Maryland, and
I have never seen a case of poisoning from
alsike clover. I have been called to see
many cases supposed to be the result of
poisoning from alsike pasture fields, but
have had dozens of the same kind of cases
on pastures that never had alsike clover on
them. I have had many patients which,
when green food was cut for them, would
eat the alsike clover first, showing that
they preferred it to other kinds of grass.
I find from my experience that alsike
clover makes the best kind of pasture for
all kinds of stock, and ranks next to alfalfa
for hay."

RED CLOVER (Trifolium pratense L.).
— Red clover is pollinated chiefly by bum-
blebees, and is therefore called a bumblebee
flower. This reciprocal relation will be
made clear by a brief history of the intro-
duction of red clover into New Zealand.
There were neither bumblebees nor honey-
bees in those islands at the time of their
discovery; consequently, when the colonists
attempted to grow this ^^aluable fodder
plant it failed to produce seed. To remedy
this difficulty about 100 bumblebees, be-
longing to three different species, were im-
ported from Europe, and subsequently the
red-clover heads became fertile. It seems
to have been supposed that any bumblebee
would answer for this purpose, as one of
the species brought from Europe was Bom-
bus terrestris, which has too short a tongue,

CLOVER

179

and has formed the habit of biting holes in
the corolla tubes and robbing the flowers of
their nectar without rendering any service
in return. After the holes have once been
made, other insects, which are themselves
unable to puncture the corolla, use them to
abstract the nectar. Thus, so far as the red
clover is concerned, it would have been bet-
ter if this bumblebee had never been brought
to New Zealand. In the course of time this
fact was learned by experience; and as
recently as 1905 the New Zealand govern-
ment wrote to an experiment station in
Canada inquiring in regard to the bumble-
bees useful in pollinating red clover in that
country. As has been pointed out by Dr.
G-raenicher, two of the common and hardy
bumblebees (Bombus americanorum and B.
fervidus), which have tongues 14 millime-
ters long, would be well adapted for this
work. See Bumblebees.

In a favorable season, when there is an
abundant rainfall, and the flowers of the
red clover are fully developed, a bee can
not reach the nectar unless it has a tongue
9 millimeters long. As the tongue of the
Italian bee is only 6^ millimeters in length,
the nectar is then wholly inaccessible to it.
This has been the cause of much regret
among beekeepers, for these flowers not
only secrete nectar very freely but the nec-
taries are much less influenced by weather

Common red clover.

conditions than those of many other plants.
Repeated attempts have been made to de-
velop a permanent strain of red-clover bees ;

but all such attempts have proved unsuc-
cessful. It is no easy matter to lengthen
fche tongue of the honeybee 2% millimeters.
The production of a race of red clover with
shorter floral tubes has also received con-
sideration.

But the second crop of red clover usually
has shorter corolla tubes, and occasionally
in very dry seasons the tubes are so short
that large yields of honey are obtained.
The late G. M. Doolittle said that two or
three times in 30 years at Borodino, N. Y.,
the red clover has been a very valuable
source of honey; and that one year he ob-
tained fully 60 pounds to the colony on
the average. W. Z. Hutchinson stated
that he remembered one year when his bees
stored 500 pounds of pure red-clover honey,
as surplus, in the section honey-boxes. It
was when the second crop had been stunted
by drouth. The blacks stored none of the
honey, the hybrids stored a little, but the
bulk of the 500 pounds was furnished by
the pure Italians.

A remarkable illustration of the correla-
tion existing between the weather and the
length of the corolla tubes of the red clover
was observed by E. R. Root in 1906. There
was almost a drouth during the latter part
of the season at the north beeyard, two
miles north of Medina. Adjoining this
yard were several flelds of red clover, for
the farmers were furnished with seed of
red clover and alsike free of charge. Ow-
ing to the dry weather the corolla tubes of
the red-clover heads were shorter than usual,
and great numbers of bees were attracted
by the nectar which was now within their
reach. When one of the farmers began to
cut his red clover that season there came
near being a bad stinging-fracas; for when
the cutter-knives of the mower went thru
the fleld they stirred up the bees, with the
result that they attacked the horses and the
man on the mower. So greedily did the
bees work on that fleld that it looked as tho
they were not going to let anybody cut off
their honey supply. Other farmers in the
vicinity also had considerable trouble in
cutting their red clover because the heads
were so covered with bees.

Singularly enough, at Medina, and the
south beeyard, only two miles away, there
was plenty of rain. When he went over a
big field of rank clover at his south yard,
scarcely a bee could be found; while quite

Pcavinc, or uuunn.olh red clover; life si^e.

Cf.OVER

181

the reverse liad been true the whole season
on the fields at the north yard, where there
had been a drouth. The clover at the home
and south yard, by reason of the plentiful
rains, had attained a rank growth. The
corolla tubes were so long that the bees
could not get any nectar from them, and
consequently there were no bees on the
heads. Thus two beekeepers living only two
miles apart might have arrived at diamet-
rically opposite conclusions as to the value
of red clover as a honey plant.

PEAVINE OR MAMMOTH CLOVER
[Trifolium pratense perenne). — As the
English name indicates, this is the largest
variety of i-ed clover. It blooms principal-
ly in the months of August and Septem-
ber. It is an excellent forage plant to
plow under for the purpose of reclaiming
an exhausted soil. The flowers have the
same structure as those of red clover, and
probably yield nectar under similar condi-
tions.

•CRIMSON CLOVER {Trifolium incar-
natum L.). — Other English names are Ital-
ian clover and carnation clover. It is also
called annual clover, since if sown in the
fall it will form a stand before cold weather,
remain green thruout the winter, start again
very early in the spring, and mature its
seed before summer. It grows wild in
southern Europe and in a few more north-
ern localities; and is widely cultivated
for forage in Italy, Germany, France, and
Great Britain. It was introduced into
this country about 1822, and during the
last 30 years has been extensively culti-
vated in the sandy soils of the Middle and
Southern States. In the Northern States
it is usually killed by the severe winters.

CRIMSON CLOVER AS A HOXEY PLANT.

The sessile flowers are in oblong terminal
heads 1 to 2 inches long. A field of crim-
son clover in full bloom possesses great
beauty, and passers-by often stop to gather
and admire the flowers. On public occa-
sions huge bouquets of the brilliantly col-
ored blossoms form very striking and at-
tractive decorations. It is difficult for one
who has never seen an acre of crimson
clover to comprehend the beautiful display

presented b}' the broad expanse of deep
red flowers mingled with the vivid green
of the leaves. The structure of the flower
is very similar to that of red clover. The
corolla tube is 8 or more millimeters long;
and, as in the case of red clover, is adapted
to bumblebees, which are common visitors
to this species. It is likewise much more
productive when cross-pollinated than when
self-pollinated. At Medina, Ohio, almost
as many honej'bees have been observed on
the flowers as have been seen on buck-
wheat; and so eagerly did they seek the
nectar that as fields in full bloom were
ploughed under they still continued to fly
over the land. In view of the length of
the corolla tube it would seem to be impos-
sible for honeybees to obtain all of the nec-
tar under normal conditions. It is a special
advantage that it blooms earlier than the
other clovers, filling in the interval between
the bloom of the orchards and that of white
clover. The quality of the honey appears
to be very similar to that of red clover.

CULTURE OF CRIMSOX CLOVER.

Land should be selected for growing
crimson clover that is well drained, has
been previously cultivated and leveled, is
fairly fertile, contains sufficient lime, and
has been inoculated w^ith the proper bac-
teria. As the seedlings are tender and
easily destroyed, it is a good plan to test
the suitability of a locality by growing
first a small experimental plat. At the
time of seeding the soil should be well
settled, fine, and in a moist condition. If
crhnson clover follows a crop, as potatoes,
which has been well fertilized, the soil will
probably be sufficiently fertile; but other-
wise an application of barnyard manure
or about 400 pounds of acid phosphate is
desirable. If the soil is acid it should
be limed as described for the other clovers.
In sections Avhere crimson clover has been
grown previoush' , inoculation is usually not
required, but in a new section it is gener-
ally necessary. The beneficial effects of
inoculation were very clearly shown by ex-
periments performed at the Alabama State
Agricultural Experiment Station. When
the plants were inoculated 4,057 pounds
of crimson clover were obtained, but in the
absence of inoculation only 761 pounds. In
another test the inoculated plat yielded

182

CLOVER

Ciiuison clover.

6,100 pounds of cured hay per acre, while
the uninoculated was a total failure.

SEEDING.

Crimson clover is usually seeded at the
rate of 15 pounds to the acre, altho the

quantity used may vary from 12 to 20
pounds according to conditions. It may
be broadcasted by hand or drilled in; but
should not be covered deeper than one inch
in sandy soil and half an inch in clay soil.

CLOVER

183

Ten pounds of seed per acre, if e\ery seed
germinated, would produce 30 plants to the
square foot ; but in actual experience much
of the seed fails to appear above ground.
If seeded in early spring, blooming time
comes during hot dry weather, which Iviils
many of the young plants; sometimes, how-
ever, an excellent crop is obtained if the: e
is an abundance of rain and the tempera-
ture continues moderate well into the sum-
mer. South of the Ohio River crimson
clover may be sown from August to Octo-
ber, but north of this boundary it r.iust be
sown during July or August. It should be
stated that in the northern part of the
State of Ohio there have been many fail-
ures. One of our standard wi^iters on agri-
culture says that thousands of dollars have
been wasted by farmers in trying to grow
crimson clover; yet at Medina, Ohio, 4 or
5 acres each year have been seeded with
no failure. The reason for this success is
largely that the ground is thoroly under-
drained and highly enriched with barnyard
manure.

A fine stand of crimson clover has been
obtained by seeding the land immediately
after a crop of potatoes, which had been
planted comparatively early, had been re-
moved. Before sowing the clover the soil
was worked with cutaway and Acme har-
rows. Sown in August it wintered splen-
didly, in September fairly well, but later-
seeded plants were almost a total failure.
But it is seldom grown alone, usually be-
ing seeded with corn, wheat, rye or other
grains, and with buckwheat, cowpeas, tur-
nips, truck crops or cotton. When seeded
with wheat, rye, or winter oats, both the
clover and the grain may be cut at the
same time the following spring; and a
larger yield is thus obtained than if the
clover were sown alone, and it is also
prevented from lodging badly. A most
luxuriant growth of wheat and clover has
been obtained at Medina by April 25, the
wheat acting as a mulch during the winter.

SEEDIN-G CRIMSOif CLOVER WITH
BUCKWHEAT.

Crimson clover may be grown in laud
lightly seeded with buckwheat or cowpeas,
these crops affording protection from the
heat of the sun in midsummer. The buck-
wheat and clover come up together, but the
buckw^heat being the stronger grows more

rapidly, and the clover makes but little
showing until the buckwheat is harvested.
Then the crimson clover during the cool
moist weather of fall rapidly covers the
ground. Should frost kill the buckwheat,
the clover will rise above it in a very brief
period; while the dead buckwheat straw
makes an excellent mulch. The finest crop
of crimson clover ever obtained, at Medina
was sown in this way, and turned under
the following June for planting potatoes.

SEEDING CRIMSON CLO^^R WITH CORN.

Some of the best crops of crimson clover
at Medina have been secured by broad-
casting the seed among early corn at about
the time of the last cultivation. A rotary
seed-sower was used, the operator sitting
on horseback in order that the top of the
corn might not interfere with the distribu-
tion of the seed. The horse's ears should
be covered with small bags to prevent the
entrance of the flying seed. Probably half
of the crimson clover raised in this coun-
try is sown among corn. Westgate says:
"It is usually possible to make such a seed-
ing, obtain a good growth during the fall
and early spring, and mature a crop of
hay in time for breaking up the land for
another crop of corn. South of the lati-
tude of central Delaware it is even possible
to mature a crop of clover seed in time for
corn-planting. In this way it is possible
to grow a crop of corn each year, and at
the same time steadily increase the fertility
of the soil for a series of j'ears. Treated
in this manner each succeeding crop of
corn can ordinarily be materially increased.
Instances are reported where the yield of
corn has been gradually increased by this
means from 10 bushels per acre at the start
until as high as 70 bushels per acre was
.secured."

PLOUGHING UXDER TO IMPRO\'E THE SOIL.

It has been estimated by an experiment
station that a good stand of crimson clover
ploughed under while in bloom is equiva-
lent to 10 tons per acre of the best stable
manure. As it blooms so early, it may be
ploughed under for most crops. It is also
an excellent cover crop for orchards, and
is a good green feed for poultry in winter.
Were it not for the danger of winterkilling,
it would probably be much more widely
cultivated.

184

COMB FOUNDATION

THE QUALITY OF CRIMSON-CLOVER HONEY.

The quality of the honey from crimson
clover is said to rank fairly well with that
of any other clover. In fact, the honey
from any clover is all good. There is so
little crimson clover grown, comparatively,
that a strictly crimson-clover honey is un-
known in the market. What little is pro-
duced is probably mixed with other clovers.
In any case it would not impair the quality
of the honey from any other source.

On the culture of crimson clover see
"Crimson Clover: Growing the Crop," by
J. M. Westgate, Farmers' Bulletin 550.

COLOR OF HONEY.— See Honey and
ITS Colors.

COMB FOUNDATION.— The invention
of the movable frame by Langstroth; the
honey-extractor by Hruschka; the bellows
smoker by Quinby, and last, but not least,
comb foundation by Mehring, made it pos-
sible to keep bees on a commercial scale
never before attempted.

Comb foundation is just what its name
signifies. It is the base, midrib, or foun-
dation of honeycomb. If a piece of comb
be taken and sliced down on both sides
nearly to the bottom of the cells, there
will be found the foundation of the comb,
with initial cell walls, and hence the name.
The comb foundation of commerce is much
the same thing except that it is artificial,
made of pure beeswax, with walls enough
heavier so that the bees can use the sur-
plus in drawing out and extending the
cells into completed comb.

Comb foundation is made by passing a
thin sheet of pure beeswax between a set
of rolls or dies, the surfaces of which have
been stamped or engraved in such a way as
to give the imprint of the natural base of
the honeycomb itself. The invention or
discovery, rather, lay in the fact that the
bees would utilize this article made by
man, and change it into perfect comb in-
side of 24 or 48 hours when honey is com-
ing in at a good rate.

THE HISTORY OF THE INVENTION OF COMB
FOUNDATION.

To J. Mehring of Frankenthal, Germany,
is accorded the credit of having invented

comb foundation in 1857; but his product
was very crude, having only the indentation
of the bottoms of the cells with no cell
walls. In 1861 Samuel Wagner, the first
editor of the American Bee Journal, im-
proved the foundation of Mehring by add-
ing shallow cell walls. This, besides giving
the bees wax to build the cells, also
strengthened the sheet itself. Up to this
time the aiticle had been made between

Washburn foundation-mill.

engraved flat metal plates; but Wagner
was the first to conceive the idea of turning
out the product between a pair of suitably
engraved or stamped rolls operated on the
principle of a mangle or a common laundry
winger. But, evidently, he never developed
the principle.

FOUNDATION-ROLLS.

In 1866 the King brothers of New York,
and in 1874 Frederic Weiss, made founda-
tion-rolls; but, apparentlj^, the product
that they turned out from these rolls was
very crude. It was not until 1875 that A. I.
Root, in collaboration with a friend of his,
A. Washburn, a fine mechanic, brought out
a machine on the mangle principle that
turned out sheets good enough and rapidly
enough to be of comm.ercial importance.
This old original Washburn machine was
so nearly perfect that its product was the
equal of any made on any modern machine
today.

About this time, also, or perhaps a little
later, Frances Dunham and J. Vandevort
of New York built rolls that turned out an
excellent product. About the same time
J. E. Van Deusen, also of New York, b-.iilt

COMB FOUNDATION

185

a rnacliine that made foundation having flat
bases, and incorporated . in it fine wires.
While the flat bases were not natural, of
course, yet the purpose was to get a thinner
base and to use wire. The bees, it is true,
would reconstruct the bases, but they ap-
parently did not take to flat-bottomed
foundation as well as to the article having
natural bases, and it subsequently disap-
peared from the market.

In later years Charles Ohlm of Wiscon-
sin built a machine for engraving rolls
with natural bases by the use of cutting-
knives or gravers. This reduced the price
so that the machines are now within the
reach of all.

FLAT-PLATE FOUNDATION-MACHINES.

About the time that the Root-Washburn
comb-foundation rolls were being devel-
oped, the Given press using flat die-plates
was brought out. Some few preferred the

Given foundation-press.

product from that machine because, as they
said, the foundation could be made right
on the wires of a frame, and because the
bees could work the wax a little more
readily. The reason of this last point was
because no press could exert as great a

pressure as that given by a pair of rolls;
and the result was, there was a large waste
of wax in the bases. The foundation made
good combs, and the bees worked it readily;
but the individual sheets were too expen-
sive as compared with the product turned
out on rolls by the manufacturers, and so
the Given press disappeared from the mar-
ket. It now seems clear that no foundation-
press using flat plates can ever compete
with rolls, any more than a Washington
hand printing press can compete with a
cylinder press.

In the early 80's various flat-plate ma-
chines were brought out. Among the num-
ber was one using flat dies made of plaster
of Paris. By taking a perfect sheet of
comb foundation it was possible to take off

standard comb foundation rolls.

molds in plaster. But these molds would
not stand pressure, and therefore it was
necessary to pour melted wax over them
and close the dies. As soon as the wax
cooled, the dies were opened and the sheet
removed. But difficulty was experienced in
getting this cast foundation (for that is
just what it was) from the plaster moldb.
About this time, also, electrotype plates
were taken off from a perfect sheet of
foundation — a process that was compara-
tively simple, and one that any electrotype
founder could readily carry thru. Various
patterns of these copper-faced machines,
including the Given, appeared on the mar-
ket; but the only one that has survived is
the Rietsche press, made in Germany. A
good many thousands of these have been
sold; but the objection to this and to all
other presses is the waste of wax left in the
cell bases. None of the Rietsche presses or
flat-plate machines of any sort are sold in
the United States, and the only machines

186

COMB FOUNDATION

that have survived in this country, or in the
whole world, are the Root rolls built by
automatic machines employing the princi-
ple of the engraving knives of Charles
Ohlm.

WEED SHEETED FOUNDATION.

Up till 1895, practically all the sheeted
wax used in making comb foundation was
made by dipping a thin board into melted
wax and then into cold water. Two sheets
of wax of the size of the dipping board
were thus produced. The thickness of the
sheet was regulated by the number of dip-
pings. For thin foundation a single dip
was sufficient; for brood foundation, two
or three dips were required. But the ob-
jection to this was that the wax sheet
was thicker at the bottom than at the top.
This was overcome somewhat by reversing
the ends of the board when dipping.

Many efforts had been made to produce
wax sheets in continuous rolls; but it was
not till 1895 that E. B. Weed built a wax-
sheeting machine that would turn out wax
sheets any length desired, and of an ab-
solutely uniform thickness. The quality
and quantity of this product were such that
every manufacturer of comb foundation in
the world, with one or two exceptions, has
abandoned the old sheeting methods and
adopted the Weed process. Probably 95
per cent of all the comb foundation made
in the United States turned out by manu-
facturers is first sheeted on the Weed ma-
chine and then put thru embossing rolls
generally called "comb-foundation ma-
chines."

FOUNDATION MADE BY LARGE FACTORIES.

The art of making foundation is very
complicated, and its manufacture has now
gravitated into the hands of the large sup-
ply manufacturers who are able to turn out
a product which for quality and thinness
of base is far superior to that made by in-
dividual beekeepers. It is a trade in itself
to make foundation having thin bases ; and
an average beekeeper does not possess the
requisite skill to make foundation without
wasting wax and ruining the delicate die
faces of the comb-foundation rolls.

WHAT FOUNDATION HAS ACCOMPLISHED.

Before the economic uses of comb foun-
dation as now employed in modern api-

culture are discussed, it is proper to make
a statement of what can be accomplished
by the use of the invention. Its introduc-
tion has solved many difficult problems of
the earlier days. Our forefathers had dif-
ficulty, for example, in getting the bees to
build combs straight and all worker cells.
Before this invention, drones were reared
in enormous numbers because there was so
much drone comb. In modern apiculture
only a very few, and those the most select
for breeding, are reared. By the use of all-
worker foundation there will be but very
few drones in a hive. The rearing of so
many useless consumers not only involved a
serious drain on the resources of the col-
ony, but it took the labor of the nurse-bees.
The elimination of drones by the use of
comb foundation materially increases the
worker force in a colony, and this has made
it possible to increase the actual yield of
honey per colony proportionally. See Brood
AND Brood-rearing and Drones.

Mention is made of the fact that our
forefathers were unable to secure straight
combs in their movable frames. The combs,
besides having an excess of drone-cells,
were more or less wavy, and it was not a
little difficult to get the bees to build their
product on a straight line, and parallel
with and directly underneath the top-bar
of the frame. (See Frames, also Combs.)
V-shaped comb-guides, or narrow strips of
wood, the edges of which projected down-
ward, were used as a coaxer to get the bees
to build their combs parallel with the top-
bar. But every now and then they would
build them crosswise, zigzagwise, and every
other wise except the right way. The use
of even a narrow strip of foundation com-
pels the bees to start the comb on a center
medial line beneath the top-bar of the
frame; and when a full sheet is used, the
comb built from it is not only true and
straight, but it will be all worker, as before
explained.

the evolution of the section honey-box.

The old box hive of our fathers contained
combs built irregularly in small boxes hold-
ing from five to ten pounds, the ends of
these boxes being glassed. But such a pack-
age was too large for retail purposes. The
time came when there was a demand for a

COMB FOUNDATION

187

small package, or one holding about a
pound. Comb foundation made it possible
for the beekeeper to compel his bees to
build combs straight and even in little boxes
holding approximately a pound. Without
comb foundation, comb honey in sections
would be impossible; and therefore the in-
vention of foundation paved the way for
the one-pound honey section box thai;
sprang into use shortly after comb founda-
tion was introduced on a commercial scale
(See Comb Honey.)

FOUNDATION AND ITS ECONOMIC USES.

Having discussed the value of comb
foundation, it will now be in order to take
up its specific uses.

Comb foundation may be divided into
two general classes : That designed for the
brood-chamber and that for the supers, or
where the surplus honey is stored. Each of
these general classes is subdivided still fur-
ther, viz., "thin super," running 10 to 11
square feet to the pound; "extra thin," 12

Heavy and medium brood. Light brood.

Thin super. Extra-thin super.

to 13 for the supers or sections; "light
brood," used only in the brood-nest, run-
ning 8 to 9 feet ; "medium brood," for the
brood-nest, 7 to 8 feet. Thin super is
generally used for sections, and light brood
for the brood-frames.

The four illustrations used above repre-
sent the different grades. The medium had
what was called the round cell. This foun-
dation has been used for the brood-nest, be-
cause of its tendency to resist sag while the
bees are drawing it out into comb ; stronger,
because there is more wax in the corners of

the hexagons. It has been found that bees
wiU utilize all the wax in the walls, and
draw it out into cells. The more wax that can
be given to them in the wall, the quicker
they will draw it out into comb. The objec-
tion to the medium brood is the expense.

V7HAT V^EIGHT OF FOUNDATION TO USE.

The light brood is now generally used for
the brood-nest where frames are wired. As
will be seen by comparison of illustrations,
there is less of wax in the wall and less
strength to the sheet. On this account it is
not recommended that light brood founda-
tion be put into brood-frames that are not
wired, yet it is advisable that all brood-
frames be wired. The thin super has
lighter walls still than the light brood;
and the extra-thin super lighter walls still
and a thinner base.

The ordinary thin super is generally
preferred because the bees are less inclined
to gnaw it down; and when they do begin
work on it they draw it out more readily.
The extra-thin is preferred by some, when
full sheets are used, because it is believed
it makes less midrib.

It was formerly supposed that the heavier
grades of foundation used in sections would
cause the bees to build too heavy a midrib
in the combs; that such heavy midrib
would be very objectionable to the con-
sumer, in that it would give rise again to
the stories about manufactured comb honey.
(See Comb Honey.) But late experience
seems to indicate that the bees will gener-
ally thin down the heavier grades, and,
what is more, will accept the foundation
much more readily than the extra-thin
grades. But the real objection to heavy
foundation is the expense.

Owing to the tendency of foundation to
cause midrib in comb honey, some think
that using a starter would remove the ob-
jectionable feature. They argue that near-
ly all the comb would have to be natural,
and it would, therefore, be delicate and
friable like the old comb honey on the
farm. But it has been shown that in a
majority of cases, the natural-built comb
will be composed of store or drone cells,
the bees being able to build these larger,
heavier cells more readily. Some recent
tests seem to show that natural-built drone

188

COMB FOUNDATION

comb has as much or more wax to the,*;"
cubic inch than worker comb built f rom '
full sheets of thin worker foundation. If
the bees, on the other hand, would make
their natural comb all worker, the resultant
comb for delicacy and friableness would be
all that could be desired. Drone-comb cap-
pings do not have nearly the pleasing ap-
pearance of worker. If for no other rea-
son, full sheets of worker foundation should
be used.

With ordinary brood-frames, at least, or
shallow extracting-frames, it is quite im-
portant to use some sort of support for the
foundation; and unless these supports are
used, the wax stretches in drawing out into
comb. What is of still more importance,
the finished comb will have no stability in
the frame. When colonies are hauled over
rough roads to out-apiaries the frames get
some severe jolts. The super combs also
receive more or less rough handling at ex-
tracting time. They are often shaken to
remove the bees, and in the extractor are
subjected to severe centrifugal force which
throws the honey out of the cells. On ac-
count of all this it is very important to
have the comb when drawn from the foun-
dation held by means of horizontal wires
of a fine gauge, these wires being strung
across the frames before the foundation is
inserted.

VALUE OF WIRING BROOD-FRAMES.

Some beekeepers secure the foundation to
the top bar without using any stays or
wires to hold the sheet in place; but the

Method of drawing the wire preparatory to fastening.

great majority seem to prefer to have all
their frames wired — that is to say, strands
of No. 30 wire stretched vertically or hori-
zontally across the frame; these are then
imbedded into a sheet of foundation which
fills the frame. The combs, when drawn

'.|from the foundation, are firmly enough
anchored to stand the rough usage of the
extractor, and to stand shipment when
colonies are sent by express or freight or
hauled over rough roads to out-yards.

Most beekeepers say that the expense of
the wiring is so slight in comparison with
the great benefits secured that they could
not think of dispensing with it; and, what
is of considerable importance, during the
process ^f drawing ou^ the foundation the
wires tend to reduce materially the stretch-
ing of the wax ; and such stretching, unless
restrained by stays of some sort, results in
elongated cells in which the queen will lay
drone eggs or she will not lay at all. This
one item alone pays for the expense of wir-
ing.

HORIZONTAL METHOD OF WIRING.

The usual method of wiring has been
to pierce the end-bars with holes about two
inches apart, threading the wires thru these
holes back and forth, horizontally, as
shown in the illustration. The sheet of
wax is then laid on, and wires imbedded as
shown on the following pages.

The great objection to this kind of wir-
ing is that, even with heavy foundation, the
horizontal strands sag, allowing a slight
stretching of the wax. This causes about
two inches of the comb immediately below

:

Brood-frame horizontally wired.

the top-bar to stretch vertically just enough
so that the queen usually avoids them, the
space being filled with honey; or if the
queen does use these stretched cells, the re-
sult is drone brood instead of worker.

As to how soon such stretching occurs,
depends entirely upon weather conditions;
but after a hot summer and a heavy honey
fiow, by at least the end of the second or
third season, it will usually be found that
the two inches of comb just below the top-
bar has been stretched enough to complete-
ly ruin it for worker brood.

COMB FOtTNDATiON

189

DIAGONAL WIRING.

The ten-frame brood-chamber is none too
large for a good queen, even if the cells
were practically all worker-cells, but the re-
sult of the usual horizontal wiring, with the
stretching of the cells just under the top-
bar, has been to decrease the brood capacity
still more. For this reason, diagonal wir-
ing is now being used largely in California,
Iowa, South Dakota, and many other parts
of the United States, and, from the satis-
faction given, its use will doubtless con-
tinue to increase.

The style of wiring the author especially
recommends is four horizontal wires, wath
the diagonals, as shown in the diagram.
This manner of wiring requires no change
of the holes in the end-bars of the standard
frames; the four horizontal wires being
just the same as before with the addition of
a short wire attached at "A" and run over
the top wire in the middle "B" and then
down to the bottom hole "A" on the other
side.

Beekeepers of California use an extra
set of tacks at each of the lower holes,
frames being wired in the regular way;
and then, last of all a wire is run up over
the top wire and back, forming a diagonal.
This diagonal wiring should be drawn taut,

and when so drawn will cause the top hori-
zontal wire to be drawn down in the middle
as sho\vn in the cut. Now the portion of
the comb that is likely to sag is that within an
inch or two of "B" and "CC," but when the
foundation is imbedded, the intersections at
"CC" and "DD" are so welded together by
the wax that there is no possibility of sag-
ging. This plan of wiring will not prevent
the use of electricity when imbedding, if
one imbeds one wii-e at a time.

Such bracing as this offers an excellent
support for the two inches of comb under

the top-bar, with the result that good
worker brood will be within an inch, or
clear to the top bar, thus insuring any-
where from ten to twenty per cent more
brood to the frame.

There is another plan that is used quite
extensively and does almost as well. The

190

COMB FOUNDATION

two top wires, during the operation of im-
bedding, are pulled downward slightly out
of line. There is a little knack in doing
this, so that the pull will be slightly up-
ward instead of downward; and therefore
the horizontal- diagonal wiring is preferred
by many.

The beauty of the whole plan of diagonal
wiring is that without changing existing
supplies in a single particular, the bee-
keeper may, by inserting one extra wire,
increase his brood capacity anywhere from
ten to twenty per cent.

the wax. Tf too hot there will be too light a
coating of wax.

It must not be understood that the mere
use of these splints will under any and all
circumstances result in faultless combs built
securely down to the bottom-bar. It seems
to be the natural thing for bees to leave a
free passage under the comb, no matter
whether the thing that comes next below the
combs be the floor board of the hive or the
bottom-bar of the frames. So if a frame be
given when little storing is going on, the
bees will deliberately dig away the founda-
tion at the bottom; and even if it has been
built down, but the cells not very fully drawn
out, they will do more or less at gnawing a

In some cases wooden splints arc ^awed by bees.

THE WOOD-SPLINT PLAN.

Dr. C. C. Miller, of Marengo, 111., over-
came the difficulty of fastening vertical
wires to the top-bar by using wooden
splints instead of wires. These he secures
in the manner described in his "Fifty
Years among the Bees."

The splints should be about ^ inch square
and about 14 inch shorter than the inside
depth of the frame. A bunch of them should
be thrown into a square shallow tin pan that
contains hot beeswax. They will froth up
because of the moisture frying out of them.
When frothing ceases, and the splints are
saturated with wax, they are ready for use.
The frame of foundation is laid on the board
as before. "With a pair of pliers a splint is
lifted out of the wax (kept just hot enough
over a gasoline stove), and placed upon the
foundation so that the splint shall be per-
pendicular when the frame is hung in the
hive. As fast as a splint is laid in place, an
assistant immediately presses it down into the
foundation with the wetted edge of a board.
About 1% inches from each end -bar is placed
a splint, and between these two splints three
others at equal distance. When these are built
out they make beautiful combs, and the splints
do not seem to be at all in the way.

A little experience will enable one to judge,
when putting in the splints, how hot to keep

passage. To make a success the frames should
be given at a time when work goes on uninter-
ruptedly until full- depth ceils reach the
bottom-bar.

Under some conditions the bees will gnaw
around the wooden stays, as shown by the
illustration. This occurs more particularly
when bees have not much to do; and when
they run across anything which is fibrous
they will then show a disposition to re-
move it.

Thfe suggestion has been made that in no
case should the splints be allowed to pro-
ject beyond the edge of the foundation; or,
better still, the sheet should reach clear to
the bottom-bar.

But, there is no reason why the founda-
tion should not expand between the vertical
spliuts the same as it expands between the
vertical wires. While Dr. Miller says that
he has had no trouble of that sort, it is
because he uses foundation heavy enough
so that he overcomes this stretching or ex-
panding. As the wooden supports prevent
the sagging of the foundation or the comb
only after it is drawn out, and do not se-
cure the comb to the frame, it may be a
question whether it is not safer and more

COMB FOUNDATION

191

satisfactory all around to use four horizon-
tal wires, especially if one is going to do
very much extracting or intends to ship or
move bees to any extent. The splints only
prevent the sagging of the foundation while
being drawn out, but dui'ing moving or
extracting, do not hold the comb securely
like wires threaded thru the end bars as
shown on previous pages.

PAPER AS A BASE FOE FOUXDATIOX.

Other devices have been used, such as
paper imbedded in the center of the foun-
dation; but this is very objectionable be-
cause the bees soon discover that this is a
foreign substance, and proceed to tear it
out bit by bit, utterly ruining the foun-
dation. They do not alicays do this ; but
sooner or later thev will; when thev have

Gates, Apieultural Instructor, Amherst,
Mass., is a small soldering iron with a rine
gTOove just wide enough to ride over a 30-
gauge wire, such as is used for willing the

Spur wire imbedder.

frames. This little tool, after heating over
a common lamp, is drawn slowly over the
wires, one by one. As it passes over, it
heats the wire, causing it to imbed itself in

A. C. Miller's soldering iron with the point grooved so that it mar be used for imbedding wires.

nothing else to do they will begin to tear
out the paper, thinking, perhaps, that the
fiber is a part of the silken gallery of the
moth worm.

IMBEDDIXG THE WIEE.

Various methods of imbedding the wrre
have been used; but one of the simplest
is the spur wire-imbedder.

A sheet of foundation is laid on a board
of such size that it will just go inside of
the frame. A frame with wires stretched
across it is laid on top. The wide-toothed
spur imbedder, after being heated by being
placed over the top of a common lamp, is
drawn over the wires, the operator exert-
ing a slight pressure as he does so, causing
the wires to be imbedded in the foundation.
The hot teeth as they pass over the wii-e
cause a Little bridge of melted wax to form
across a wire. The sheet is, therefore, tied
at intervals between each of the teeth.

Another tool that has found favor with
quite a number, including A. C. Miller of
Providence, R. I., and Dr. Burton X.

the foimdation as it cools. The tool is
heated again, and applied to the other
^A-ires in like manner.

After all is said and done, the most sat-
isfactory method of imbedding wii^es in
comb foundation is by means of electricity ;
and if one has access to an electric-light
cii'cuit, as so many beekeepers now have,
the best way is to imbed all four wii'es at
once by attaching the current to the tacks
on the outside of one of the end-bars of
the frames, ai'ound which the ends of the
wires are wi-apped, the current then flow-
ing thru all the wires. Dry batteries may
be used for this purpose, but it takes eight
to a dozen batteries to heat all four wii-es
quickly, and even then it is a rather hard
strain on the batteries. For heating one
wii'e at a time it takes four cells. The
trouble with dry batteries for imbed-
ding is that they must be fresh to be effi-
cient, and after a little of this kind of
work they are no longer fresh.

Obviously with the straight electric -light
current, if that were attempted, the wires
would be heated redhot in an instant, or,

19^

COMB FOUNDATION

what is more likely, a fuse somewhere on
the circuit would be blown out. The cur-
rent must first be run thru a "resistance"
to reduce it, just as steam when run thru a
steam engine is exhausted, and of much
lower pressure thereafter. If one has an
electric flatiron to put on the circuit, that
furnishes about the right amount of re-
sistance. In that event the two wires that
go to the switch which turns the flatiron on
and oH, have just about the right amount
of current to do the imbedding nicely. If
there is no switch, the flatiron may be
hooked in on one of the wires, the current
going first thru the flatiron before it goes
thru the wires in the frames.

With no electrically heated flatiron avail-
able, a resistance coil can be made in a few
minutes' time. First, get about 400 feet of
No. 24 iron wire. The exact amount can
not be given, for the wire varies slightly in
size; furthermore, different operators may
prefer different currents to work with. The

BRASS SPRINGS'
TO MAKE CONTACT
ON THE ENDS OF THE
WIRE

Electrical imbedding device.

best plan is to get 400 feet of the wire and
then not use quite all of it, if more heat is
desired. In order to have the wire in con-
venient form to handle, wind it on a long
iron rod, or pipe, the outside diameter of
which is about V2 of an inch. Twist the
wire around one end of the pipe tightly, so
it will not slip; then have some one else
turn the pipe slowly, while you wind it on
evenly and tightly, with no space between
the coils. When it is all wound on, let the
wire loosen up, cut the end that was first
twisted on and slide the whole thing off the
pipe. Hang the coils on nails in the wall
or ceiling, being careful that the different

lengths of the wire do not touch each other.
The electricity after passing thru all these
coils of wire will be "tame" enough to be
handled by any one. These directions are
for the standard voltage, 110, found almost
universally. It makes no difference whether
it is direct current or alternating — one
works as well as the other.

To do the imbedding, take a board wider
than the frame and near one end screw two
pieces of sheet brass, which will stick up
about an inch. These are to be spaced the
right distance apart, so that if the end-bar
of the frame is pushed up against the piece
of brass, one tack, around which the end of
the wire is wrapped, will touch one brass
spring and the other tack the other. For
best results there should be a switch for
turning the current on and off.

The sheet of foundation should be on top
of the wires, instead of the wires on top of
the foundation. As soon as the current is
turned on with the left hand, a light wooden
roller, that will just fit inside the frame,
should be rapidly rolled across the wax,
pressing it down over the heated wires. If
one desires to deflect the upper two wires
out of line, that is, bend them down slight-
ly, two headless nails can be driven into the
board at the right point, and the upper two
wires drawn down around them before the
current is turned on, or before the sheet of
wax is laid on. These nails should not stick
up any higher than necessary to catch the
wires over them. A very slight notch can
be filed, almost at the top of the nails on
the under side, to prevent the wire from
slipping off easily.

Imbedding all four wires by means of
electricity, while not particularly easy for
the first few frames, is far more rapid than
any other method and capable of the very
finest work. A good operator that has im-
bedded a few hundred wires can do the
work so nicely that it is almost impossible
to detect which side of the foundation the
wire went in, the wire itself showing no
more on one side than on the other.

FASTENING FOUNDATION TO THE TOP-BARS
OF BROOD-FRAMES.

After the frames have been wired, but
before the wires are imbedded the founda-
tion is fastened to the top-bars, either with

COMB FOUNDATION

193

the Van Deusen wax-tube or double groove-
and-wedge plan shown next.

Some of the supply factories furnish
these kinds of top-bars now because some
beekeepers still prefer them. There is a
double groove, one of which is in the cen-
ter of the top-bar. In this groove is in-
serted the sheet of foundation, as at D.
The wedge-shaped strip of wood B is then

Corner-cut top-bar method of fastening foundation.

driven into the other groove as far as it
will go, crowding the central partition
firml}^ against the foundation. It is very
important that it be driven below the sur-
face of the wood, as otherwise it may work
out, allowing the foundation to fall out.
When the work is properly done it is thus
held firmly in place without any special
tools or fussing with melted wax.

Another top-bar known as the corner-
cut top-bar is used now in preference to
the other plan. The loose triangular strip,
when toe-nailed as shown in the illustration
just above, grips the foundation firmly.

There are a few who prefer the melted-
wax plan of fastening foundation. Where
the under side of the top-bar is plain with-
out grooves or molded edge, this is perhaps
the best. The best tool for depositing a hot
stream of wax along the edge of the foun-

dation is undoubtedly the Van Deusen wax-
tube fastener. It is simply a tube tapering
to a small hole at the apex. On one side

is bored another small hole which may be
opened or closed with the thumb. When
the tube is stood up in a cup of hot wax
the air will escape from the upper hole, and
the wax flow in at the other small hole at
the bottom. The thumb is closed over the
upper one, while the tool with the con-
tained wax is raised to the top bar. Then
the thumb is lifted from the upper hole
and the point slowly draAvn along the edge
of the foundation in contact with the top-
bar, leaving a fine stream of hot wax to
cement it.

FASTENING FOUNDATION IN SECTIONS.

Foundation starters, or preferably full
sheets, are used also in comb-honey sec-
tions. There are two different ways for
fastening the foundation to the sections, by
pressure and by melted wax. The pressure
method is little used now, because it takes
longer and the wax is not so firmly secured
to the sections. Moreover, it wastes foun-
dation.

By far the best plan of securing founda-
tion in sections is with melted wax, either
by the use of additional wax applied with
the Van Deusen wax tube or by the hot-
plate method which melts a small quantity
of the wax on the edge of the foundation.
If full sheets of foundation are used in-
stead of starters, the sheets if desired may
be fastened not only at the iop but two-
thirds the way down each side, provided
the wax tube method is used. It is not a
good plan to fasten the full length on each
side, as this would have a little more ten-
dency to cause the foundation to buckle.
On the other hand, if a full sheet is
fastened at the top only, the bees by clus-
tering on one side sometimes swing the
sheet away from the center of the section.

To do rapid work with the Van Deusen
wax tube, a rack should be made to hold
four sections at a time. On a board should
be nailed four blocks a little less than half
as thick as the section is wide and of a
, size that will just fit inside the section. The
blocks should be so spaced that four sec-

194

COMB FOUNDATION

tions slipped over them will be close to-
gether. A section-holder should be crowded
around the four sections, the foundation
placed in position, and the operator will
then be ready for the wax tube. If he
desires to apply the melted wax to the
sides of the foundation as well as the top,
the wax should be started on the side of
the section, allowed to run down to the
corner, then across the bottom or what is
really the top of the section, and then
two-thirds the way up the other side. Of
course, as the tube is moved along, the
rack should be turned accordingly, so that
the wax may run downhill, thus facilitat-
ing the work. As soon as one section is fin-
ished the tool is moved to the next, and
so on.

THE HOT-PLATE FASTENEB.

The hot-plate type of fastener, original-
ly devised by Arthur C. Miller, melts a
small amount of wax on the edge of the

Byard fastener.

foundation so that it adheres instantly to
the wood. This is used more than any
other method, principally on account of
the neatness and the strength of the work.^
Moreover, this method of fastening is the

most rapid of any plan. There are a num-
ber of these fasteners on the market, all of
which do good work. Some of them fold
the sections as well as fasten the founda-
tion. This is quite an advantage.

In most of these hot-plate fasteners the
heat is furnished by a small alcohol or
kerosene lamp placed directly under the
plate to be heated. This plan is sometimes

objectionable, owing to the difficulty of
maintaining a constant temperature. In
case of the kerosene lamp there is always
more or less soot which sometimes gets on
to the sections, spoiling their appearance.
In the Rauchfuss fastener this difficulty is
overcome by the use of an alcohol lamp,
which is much cleaner, altho the heat is
not quite as easily controlled.

The Root fastener is a small hand tool,
which is hung over the lamp to be heated.
To use it, a rack should be made to hold
four sections as described above, and the
section-holder slipped over them. Then
having put the foundation in place and,
while pressing lightly on the upper edge
with the fingers of the left hand, the oper-
ator should slide the hot blade under the
edge of the wax as it rests against the
wood. All surplus melted wax will be
wiped off on to the wood so that the foun-
dation will be most firmly attached. The
tool will remain hot long enough to fasten
all four starters.

The Root steam foundation-fastener has
a hot plate kept at a constant temperature
by means of steam. There is no trouble-
some lamp to work over, no soot, and, of
course, absolutely no danger of fire from
wax dropping into the lamp. Moreover,
the steam is also used for dampening the
sections, for this device is a folder as well
as a foundation-fastener, a most desirable
feature. Sections dampened by steam are
not easily broken and there is no danger

COMB FOUNDATION

195

Woodman combined folder and foun- Rauchfuss combined section folder Lewis foundation-fas-

dation-fastener. This tool is constructed and fastener. One of the simplest and tener. A simple and

of metal and does fine work. best combined tools on the market. rapid outfit.

that the wood may swell so that the section
when folded is diamond-shaped.

When the foot-treadle is pushed forward
the notched ends of the section are fii^mly
crowded together. The same movement
brings the steam-heated plate into position.
The starter is dropped into place and held
for an instant, until enough wax is melted
to hold it firmly. The same backward
movement of the foot that releases the
section causes the hot plate to move out of
the way so that the finished section with
its foundation is ready to be placed in the
super. It is impossible to remove founda-
tion so fastened without actually tearing
the sheet.

STARTERS VS. FULL SHEETS FOR SECTIONS.

In the illustrations under Comb Honey,,
showing the supers, only narrow sheets of
foundation (or starters) are shown in the
sections. The expert comb-honey producer
wiU never be content with a starter. He
will buy his foundation of such size that he
can cut it to suit his own individual no-
tions. Some comb-honey producers cut it
in sheets one-fourth of an inch narrower
and half an inch shorter than the inside of
the section. It is then fastened to the top
as shown previously, with any one of the
several styles of foundation-fasteners.
Others cut the sheets in the shape of a
letter V ; stiU others use half a sheet.

But the great majority of producers pre-
fer to use two pieces — a large one secured
to the top, and a strip about % inch wide
fastened to the bottom. The larger sheet is

The Root section- folder and steam foundation-fastener.
Steam is generated in the small boiler, rises thru the
tube and keeps the plate at a constant and uniform
temperature.

196

COMB FOUNDATION

When the foot is in the back position the hot plate
is out of the way — nothing to interfere with putting
the section in position ready to fold.

As the foot swings forward, the corners of the section
are forced together and at the same time the hot plate
slides into position ready for the starter or full sheet
of foundation to be applied.

The movement of the foot backward slowly with-
draws the hot plate. The wax is all wiped off on to
the section and the foundation is firmly " cemented "
in place.

Fifty or soventy-five sections may bo thoroly damp-
ened in a few seconds' time by allowing the steam to
blow thru the V grooves. Steam -dampened sections
almost never break, and the sections remain true and
square.

COMB FOUNDATION

197

The different methods of cutting foundation for the sections.

SO cut as to I'each within Yg or
the bottom starter when in place to allow
for stretching".

Fig. 1.

FiOng sheets of foundation laid in the box ready to cut.
(The distance between the saw cuts determines
the size of the starters.)

Fig. 2.

Box turned over for cutting. Use sharp thin knife wet
with soap suds, and cut on drawing stroke only.

Fig. 3

The box reversed to original position with foundation
cut to size ready to talce out.

During the subsequent process of draw-
ing out, the bees will make one complete
comb, which is fastened to the top and
bottom. Where only a starter or even one
large sheet is put into a section, the fin-
ished comb in some instances may be
fastened only at the top and part way
down on each side; but when the bottom
starter is used in connection with a large
sheet of foundation, there surely will be a
fastening at the bottom as well as at the
outer edges. The result is a comb fastened
to all four sides, one that is neater in its
general filling, and, in consequence, will
command a higher price; and last, but not
least, a section that will stand shipping. A
nice super of sections with combs not
fastened at the bottom is liable to arrive at
destination in bad condition — many of the
combs broken out; and it is, therefore,
always advisable to use a bottom starter.

A few beekeepers advise cutting the
foundation so it will just neatly fill the
section on all four sides. A section is then
slipped over a block a little less than half
its thickness so that when one of these just-
right-size sheets of foundation is laid on
the block, the foundation will be perfectly
centered in the section. With the Van
Deusen wax-tube shown on a previous
page the sheet is then secured to all four
sides by the stream of hot wax.

It has been found that very fine comb
honey can be secured by this plan, the re-
sulting sections having but few pop-holes.
However, there are two disadvantages. For
instance, some find it difficult to cut the
foundation just the right size and still do
the work rapidly. It can be seen at once
that there must be but little variation in the
size of the sheets. The best arrangement
for cutting the foundation is the miter-box.
This device can be quickly made by almost
any one, the construction being plain from
the illustrations. The box should be placed

198

COMB HONEY

on a table with the saw-cuts down as in
Fig. 1, and from five to twenty sheets of
foundation laid in, care to be taken to see
that the ends are even. Then the cleated
board should be put on top of the sheets
of foundation, and the box turned over so
that it rests on the cleats, as shown in Fig.
2. For cutting, a keen-edged butcher-knife
should be used. It need not be hot, if kept
well lubricated with soapy water. The
knife should be held at an angle as shown,
and moved rapidly but lightly back and
forth, cutting only on the drawing stroke.
If the saw-cuts are carefully spaced and
the whole box put together in a square
workmanlike manner, the sheets can be
quickly and accurately cut.

COMB HONEY.— While all honey in the
comb is what may be called "comb honey,"
yet the term as ordinarily ased refers to
small squares of comb, built into frames of
wood technically called section honey-boxes,
or "sections" for short; therefore all refer-
ences to comb honey, whether in the mar-
ket quotations or in the ordinary literature
relating to bees is understood to apply to
the article built in sections.

More recently, little chunks of sealed
comb honey about an inch and a half
square are being put up in paraffin paper,
the whole slipped into a neat little carton.
This is what is called the "individual corab-
honey service," and may be found in some
of our best restaurants, hotels, and dining-
cars.

In the Southern States there is another
article called chunk or "bulk comb honey."
The combs are built usually in shallow ex-
tracting-frames, and cut out in various-
sized chunks of a size that will fit tin buck-
ets or glass jars. The spaces between the
combs and around them are filled with a
good quality of extracted honey. They are
sealed or covered with the ordinary cover
of the tin bucket. Bulk comb honey is pro-
duced very largely, particularly in the
South, and where bulk honey is sold, very
little comb honey in sections is produced.
Bulk comb honey has the advantage that
it does not require as much skill to produce
it as the ordinary comb honey in sections;
neither is it necessary that every piece of
comb be as perfect as to capping, filling, or
shape. In localities where there is any sus-

picion of manufactured comb honey, bulk
comb honey is readily sold. Generally
speaking, its sale is confined to the South-
ern States — Texas and the Southwest, while
in the North, and practically all the rest of
the United States, comb honey is put up in
sections.

The time may come, however, when con-
sumers everywhere will learn to appreciate
bulk or chunk comb honey, especially after

they learn that it costs less to produce and
at the same time retains nearly all the fine
eating qualities of the article in sections.
It may also come to pass that cut comb
honey wrapped in paraffin paper, and fur-
ther protected with a neat carton, will take
the place of section comb honey. There is
no doubt that such honey will ship better
than comb honey built solid in sections.

The greatest objection to the use of bulk
comb honey in the Northern States is the
danger of the liquid portion granulating.
When this takes place the whole will have
to be melted up in a wax-extractor, even
tho the comb honey is not candied.

A few years ago, when the extractor was
first invented, it was supposed that nothing
but honey out of the comb would be sold
for the reason that it could be produced
more cheaply. But our best connoisseurs
now know that even our very best extracted
honey seldom has the fine delicate aroma of
honey that is held in the comb, just as
nature gives it to us. Comb honey holds
the flavor and the delicate aroma of the
individual flowers from which it was gath-
ered much better than after it is removed
from the comb. The flavors of honey, it is

COMB HOIS^Y, APPLIANCES FOR

199

said, are made up of ethel alcohols that are
very volatile. It follows that, when the
honey has been removed from its original
container, on exposure to air, it loses some
of its flavor, especially if it be heated to
prevent granulation. See Extracted
HoxEY^ BoTTLi^TG HoNEY^ and Granu-
lated Honey. If ever a majority of con-
sumers prefer comb honey, it will be be-
cause to them it has more flavor, and be-
cause, probably, the crushing of the delicate
cells in the mouth gives the eater a certain
degree of satisfaction because he has some-
thing to "chew." Extracted honey on the
other hand is swallowed, while comb honey
is masticated, or "chewed," as food should
be. Of course the little pellets of wax,
after the honey has been eaten, are gener-
ally expelled. To some this very accumu-
lation of wax in the mouth is an objection,
and many will be found who prefer ex-
tracted honey, because they prefer to have
something they can chew on bread and but-
ter and biscuit, without having wax mixed
with the food.

Unfortunately of late years, many honey-
dealers have refused to handle comb honey
because of the amount of breakage and
leakage and the tendency to granulate after
cold weather has set in. The result is that
the demand for extracted has increased
while the caU for comb honey has become
less and less. This is wrong. So long as it
is admitted that comb honey has a little
flner flavor than the same honey out of the
comb, beekeepers should cater to the de-
mands of all classes of consumers. When
it is remembered that comb honey, as a
rule, retails at twice the price of extracted,
it goes to show that there are thousands
and thousands of consumers who prefer
honey in that form, even if they have to
pay double price. It therefore behooves
the beekeeper to see that his shipping cases
and comb-honey carriers are properly con-
structed in the first place. (See Shipping
Cases for Comb Honey; also jMarketing
Honey.)

In the early 80's the statement was made
that comb honey could be manufactured — •
"combs made out of paraf&n, filled with
glucose, and capped over with appropriate
machinery." This canard went like wild-
fire over the country ; and even to this day
there are some who believe that honey in

sections is manufactured, because it is un-
like the honey they saw on the old farm.
Except in a very smaU way it is impossible
to make honeycomb as perfect and delicate
as the bees do. On a commercial basis it is
an utter impossibility. Dies could be made
that would press wax in a semi-melted con-
dition in the shape of a honeycomb. So
far, so good ; but it is utterly impossible to
make any dies that will free themselves
from the comb after it is pressed into shape
without tearing the comb to pieces. Any
mechanic or die-maker knows that the idea
is utterly absurd. Even if it were possible
to construct the combs, it would be impos-
sible to fill them with glucose, and equally
impossible to spread a film of wax over the
filled cells that would come anywhere near
imitating the appearance of comb produced
by the bees. Any consumer who has a sus-
picion that combs in sections are manufac-
tured, has only to look over a dozen or
more sections at any grocery. He will find
no two of them alike. If combs were built
from dies, they would appear all alike, like
the common rough-faced cement blocks
which are made in one mold. But a com-
parison of any two boxes of comb honey
will show that bees make each section dif-
ferent from all others. The attachments
at the sides of the sections vary as well as
the surfaces of the cappings.

It is hardly necessary to teU the reader
of this work that combs are not manufac-
tured; but sometimes he will meet prospec-
tive customers who wiU tell him in the
most brazen way that the product he is try-
ing to sell them is "manufactured." There-
fore he should be reinforced with arguments
and reasons to show them their mistake.
Nay, he can go even further, and say that the
authors of this work wiU pay ten thousand
dollars if they will furnish any proof show-
ing that such a thing as manufactured
comb honey is or ever was on the market
that even approximates the natural product.

COMB HONEY, APPLIANCES FOR.—

Years ago, all comb honey was produced in
glass boxes. These were about five mehe?
square, fifteen or sixteen inches long,
glassed on both ends. They were not alto-
gether an attractive package, and were
never put upon the market without being
more or less soiled with burr-combs and
propolis. As they held from 10 to 15

200

COMB HONEY, APPLIANCES FOR

pounds of honey each, they contained a
larger quantity than most families cared to
purchase at once. To obviate these and
other difficulties, what is popularly known

One-piece section honey-box.

as the "section honey-box" was invented,
holding little less than a pound.

It was what was wanted — a small pack-
age for comb honey. Thus was accom-
plished, not only the introduction of a
smaller package for comb honey, but one
attractive and readily marketable. The re-
tailer is at once able to supply his customer
with a small quantity of comb honey with-

out daubing, or fussing with plates. The
housewife, in turn, has only to lay the
package upon a plate, pass a common table
knife around the comb, to separate the
honey from the section proper, and the
honej^ is ready for the table, without drip.

DEVICES FOR HOLDING SECTIONS V7HILE BEING
FILLED ON THE HIVE.

Sections cannot very well be placed on
the hive without some sort of arrangement
to hold them. There are a score of different

sorts of wide frames, racks, trays, boxes,
clam.ps, all of which possess some special
features. It would be impracticable to
show all of them; but for the sake of
illustrating some principles it may be well
to mention some of those that have been
used most largely.

What was known as the double-tier wide
frame was perhaps the first device for hold-
ing sections in the hive. This consisted of
a frame of the same inside depth and
length as the ordinary brood-frame, but of
the sam^e width as the section, eight, sec-
tions to the frame. This was used very

Doolittle's single-tier wide frames.

largely for a while, but in the course of
time it was discovered that it had several
objectionable features. First, a whole hive-
f ul of them gave the bees too much capacity
to start on ; and, as a consequence, this dis-
couraged them from beginning work. Sec-
ond, they did not permit tiering up to
advantage.

The Doolittle surplus arrangement con-
sisted of a series of single-tier wide frames
having no projections to the top bars, altho
shallow wide frames have been made with
such projections. Both the double and
single-tier wide frames had the merit of
protecting the surfaces of the sections from
travel-stain and bee glue.

WHAT SIZE OF SECTION TO USE.

A few years ago there were a good many
varieties and sizes and styles of sections on

I

COMB HONEY, APPLIANCES FOR

201

the market. For instance, there were the
two-pound prize sections, the half-pound
sections, and three-quarter pound sections;
but at the present time everything has been
reduced down to practically three styles:
viz., the 4^ x 4^4 x 1% beeway sections,
the plain 4^/4 x 4^4 ^ 1%; and the
4 X 5 X 1% plain sections. All of these
three hold a scant pound of honey, section
included ; but under the federal net-weight
law (see Labels) and some State laws it is
not permissible to include the square of
wood around it and therefore the section
will be sold in weights from 10 ounces for
the lightest to 14 ounces for the heaviest.
While it might be desirable to have some-
thing holding an even pound, yet no two
sections will run exactly the same weight.
See Grading Comb Honev.

TALL VS. SQUAEE SECTIONS,

The standard section for a good mxany
years has been and is 4^ inch square ; but,
notwithstanding, during all this time, a
good many beekeepers, principally in New
York, have been using a section taller than
broad. The late Capt. J. E. Hetherington,
who had the reputation of being the most

Comparative size of tall and square sections of the
same weight.

extensive apiarist in the world, used a
section 3% x 5. Other beekeepers in New
York use them slightly larger or slightly
smaller, but of the same proportion. (See
Hives.)

Some of the reasons that have been
urged in favor of the tall sections are as
follows :

1. Weight for weight, and for the same
thickness of comb, a tall section presents a
bigger appearance than the average square
one. In the 4 x 5 x 1% tall plain section,
for example, we have about the same actual
weight as the 4^ x 4^ x 1^2 plain; and
yet, as will be seen by the engravings, the
former looks the larger. As a result the
tall box brings in some markets anywhere
from one to two cents more per pound,
but in other markets it brings no more.
If this were the only reason why the tall
box is preferred, we would say nothing
about it here; but there are other reasons
for this preference.

2. By long association we have come to
like the proportion of objects all about us
that are taller than broad. Doors and win-
dows of their present oblong shape are
much more pleasing than if square. Nearly
all packages of merchandise, such as drugs
and groceries, are oblong in shape — that is,
taller than broad. To cater further to this
taste, brought about by long association
with the common objects around us, the
tall section was introduced, and outside of
its relative appearance of bigness as com-
pared with the square box, very many con-
sider the tall one much more pleasing.

3. R. C. Aikin, one of the closest observ-
ers in all beedom, laid it down as a rule
that 'Hn comh-building the downward prog-
ress exceeds the sideivise in the proportion
of about three to two .... If, then,
comb construction goes on in this way, a
section as wide as deep will be finished
down the center before it is at the outer
edges." A tall section, then, more nearly
conforms to the natural instincts of the
bees.

4. A greater number of tall sections
holding approximately a pound can be
accommodated on a given hive surface.'

5. A tall section will stand shipping
better, because the perpendicular edges of
contact of the comb itself are greater than
in a square box. This is not theory, but
shipments of comb honey by the carload
prove this.

GLASSED SECTIONS.

Glassed sections were simply sections of
comb honey with squares of glass fitted in
between the projecting sides of the section.

202

COMB HONEY, APPLIANCES FOR

The glass was held either by glue, tin
points, or paper pasted over the top and
bottom of the section, and lapping over
upon the glass a little way. When the

section was sold to the retailer, the glass

I
\
\

An English glassed section.

was included in the price of the honey. Of
course, the producer could afford to sell
glass at the price of the honey per pound;
but under the federal net-weight law this
-is prohibited. On account of the fact that
the producer has to pay the cost of the
glass, glassed comb honey has practically
disappeared from the market.

PASTEBOARD CAETONS FOR ONE-POUND
SECTIONS OF COMB HONEY.

While sections with glass panels have
been practically eliminated from the mar-
ket, comb honey in paper cartons is becom-
ing more and more popular. In some cities
a definite ordinance requires that all food
packages be sealed to keep out insects,
and especially flies, that carry the germs of
disease. It is evident that legislation of
this kind will go from city to city and from
State to State. But suppose there is or will
be no legislation, the housewife sometimes
has trouble with a section of honey break-
ing and leaking over her groceries when
delivered. She will thereafter buy her comb
honey put up in neat cartons* that specify

* The paper cartons are comparatively cheap and can
be given away with the honey. The glass-panel scheme
protects the honey, but it is too expensive to furnish
with the honey.

the exact weight of the honey, not includ-
ing the section, as it is not allowable to sell
the section by weight, section and all.

Several attractive designs of cartoned
comb honey are now on the market; and
the fact that the demand for comb honey
in this shape is growing, even where there
is no legislation requiring sealed packages,
shows that not many years hence comb
honey will have to be put up in that form, •
if for no other reason than to shut out the
typhoid house fly.

Some beekeepers sell their honey in fold-
ing cartons, the top and bottom sliding into
slits provided. But such cartons do not
seal the package hermetically.

The publishers of this work have for
several years back put out a package sealed
with glue under the name of "Airline,"
such name being drawn from the name of
A. I. Root, the original author of this
work, and president of the company. Air-
line means beeline; and the fact that the
A. I. Root Co. is selling comb honey in
these sealed packages — tens of thousands
of dollars in value — shows that the demand

for comb honey put up in attractive form,
and sealed from the typhoid fly and other
insects, is on the increase.

For hints on marketing, see Extracted
HoNEY^ Bottling Honey^ Peddling Honey^
and particularly Marketing Honey_, found
in their alphabetical order.

COMB HONEY, APPLIANCES FOR

203

BEE-WAY SECTIONS WITH SOLID
SEPARATORS.

HILTOX T SirPER.

The T super at one time was one of the
most popular forms of section-crates, and
a few prefer it to anything else. It is so
named for the T tins that support the

sections. The tins are folded in the form
of a letter T inverted, such construction
making a very stiff and rigid support. This
appliance takes separators very nicely, the
separators resting on the T tins.

Some, like Dr. Miller, prefer to have the
T tins rest loosely on a little piece of strap
iron, or bent staple, both for convenience
in Ming the supers, and in emptying the
same after the sections are filled. But there
are others, like the late George E. Hilton
of Fremont, Mich., who objected to loose
pieces, and preferred the super with sta-
tionary tins, the tins being nailed to the
bottom inside edges of the super.

But the T super has its objections. If
the sections are inclined to be a little out
of square, or diamond-shaped, when folded,
they will not be squared up in the T super
unless an extra set of T tins or strips of
wood are used to fill up the gaps between

Hilton T super.

the rows on top. And, again, it is not
practicable to alternate the several rows

of sections. Sometimes, in a poor honey
flow, it is desii'able to move the center row
of sections to the outside, and the outside
to the center.

SUPERS WITH SECTIOX-HOLDERS FOR BEEWAY
SECTIOXS.

The dovetailed super with section-hold-
ers for beeway sections is the form of
super that has been, perhaps, used more
largely than any other. It is a sort of
compromise between the old-style wide
frames and the T super. It consists of a
series of section-holders that are open at
the top. Each holder is supported at the
end by a strip of tin nailed on the inner
edge of the ends of the super.

Four sections in each section-holder are
held snugly and squarely in position with
no spaces between the rows of sections as
in the case of the T super. When beeway
sections are used the bottom-bars of the
sections are scored out to correspond with

the beeways. Between the rows of sections
is dropped a wooden separator, as shown
at D.

SUPER SPRIXGS.

In the illustration of the Hilton super, it
win be noted that thumbscrews are used to
crowd a foUower up against the sections.
In the other form of T super a super
spring between the side of the super and
the follower performs the same office. In-
deed, this spring is used nowadays in near-
ly all modern section-supers.

There is no denying the fact that in any
form of surplus arrangement the sections
and separators should be squeezed together
to reduce accumulations of propolis. The
objection to thumbscrews or wedges is that

204

COMB HONEY, xVPPLIANCES FOR

if the sections in a super become swelled
by dampness, the rigid screw or wedge be-
comes stuck and this sticking makes it hard
to remove the sections. If the joints of the
sections have been moistened to prevent
breakage when the sections are folded,
when the super is put on the hive there is
a slight shrinkage. This shrinkage makes
more trouble than swelling, for the con-
tents of the super become so loose that the
wooden wedges fall down, leaving the sec-
tions very loose in the super. Of course,
the bees improve the opportunity to crowd
a lot of propolis into all the cracks.

To remedy all this trouble the steel super
spring has come as a boon. Its pressure is
constant. It adapts itself to any swelling
that may occur, and equally adapts itself to
any shrinking, so as to press the parts
together at all times enough to prevent the
bees from crowding in propolis.

Super-springs.

In the illustration it will be seen at B, B,
B, that a spring is crowded vertically be-
tween the side of the super and post of
the fence. When a follower is used, two
springs (one at each end) are crowded
vertically or diagonally between the side of
the super and the follower. Some use only
a single spring at the middle of the
follower.

SEPARATORS.

In connection with appliances for hold-
ing sections in the hive, there is a little
device known as the separator, or fence.
These separators are put in alternation,
one in a place between the several rows of
sections. Each separator consists of a strip
of wood or metal a little less in width than
the height of the sections, and in length

equal to four sections standing side by
side, or the separator may be a fence made
of the same size, but consisting of horizon-
tal strips. The purpose of the separator
or fence is to prevent the bees from build-
ing their comb from one section to an-
other. Without them the sections or combs

Separator.

would be irregular in weight and unmar-
ketable. Some will be too lean, while oth-
ers will be so fat that their surfaces will
be abraded by coming in contact with other
sections, when they are put in a shipping
case for marketing.

Many of our commission houses and
honey-buyers today positively refuse to take
unseparatored comb honey at any price.
A few will take it at greatly reduced prices.
The average honey-producer who thinks he
can dispense with separators will probably
have to make up his mind to sell for less
money or sell to his neighbors.

Since the net-weight law went into effect
(see Labels; also Grading Comb Honey)
unseparatored comb honey cannot be
graded satisfactorily. The law has in effect
made the use of separators imperative.

THE FENCE AND PLAIN-SECTION
SYSTEM.

The sections and section-supers shown
heretofore have been mostly of the beeway
type. Brood-frames, when in the hive, must
be placed a bee-space apart; so also must
the sections. Almost the first honey-boxes

Fence.

that were introduced had the bee-space cut
out of the top and bottom of the sections
themselves, so that they could be placed
directly in contact with each other or the

COMB HONEY, APPLIANCES FOR

205

Shipping cases with b

separator. This kind of section continued
almost up to 1897, when there was intro-
duced a section without beeways, having
plain straight edges all around. This had
been used for some 10 or 12 years pre-
viously by various beekeepers who found it
to be in everj way satisfactory. But plain
sections (even width all around, without
beeways) necessitate some scheme for hold-
ing them a bee-space apart while on the

hive. Accordingly, a separating fence
was devised, having transverse cleats at
regular intervals on both sides, binding the
series of slats together — cleats so spaced as
to come opposite the uprights in the sec-
tions. It will be seen at once that the fence
system provides for a narrower section, and
yet this same section holds as much honey
as one % inch wider, because the extra
width is taken up by the thickness of the
cleats on the fences, as shown at A A A in
previous cut or what would be in the old
section two beeways of j\ inch each. In
the cuts shown below there are specimens

ay and plain sections.

of beeway sections and no-beeway, the last
being generally termed plain sections. It
will be seen that the plain save quite a lit-
tle wood, and consequently take somewhat
less room in shipping eases. In other words,
the twelve and twenty-four pound shipping
cases can be made somewhat smaller, be-
cause it is not necessary to have each comb
bee-spaced apart in the marketing cases,
the same as while on the hive. Moreover,
the plain straight edges of plain sections
offer special advantages in the matter of
scraping. There are no insets, often rough-
ly cut (as in beeway sections), to work into
and around with a scraping-knife. A single
sweep of the knife on each of the four
edges will remove the propolis, or, better
still, if the blade of the knife is long
enough, one can scrape two edges at a time.

Beeway and no-beeway sections.

Weight for weight, and of the same filling,
a comb in a plain section looks prettier
than one having beeways. The illustration
at top of page shows beeway sections in
one shipping case, and plain sections in
the other. (Plain sections in upper case.)
But there is one more point to be taken

206

COMB HONEY, TO PRODUCE

into consideration. The fences are made
up of a series of slats having a scant bee-
space between each slat; and as the cross-
cleats, or posts, are V2 inch shorter than
the length of the section, the beeway is very
much wider. Instead of being a narrow
opening thru the top as in the old section,
the opening is clear across the top, and part
way down and up each of the sides. This
gives the bees much freer communication,
and, in consequence, has a tendency to re-
duce the size of the corner holes in each
section. Then there is that factor, namely,
horizontal openings between each of the
slats. This allows free communication from
one section to another, not only crosswise
but lengthwise of the super. On account of
this a good many have already testified that
fhej secured much better and more perfect
filling of combs in plain sections than in
the old style with solid separators ; that the
bees enter plain sections sooner, and that
in some markets better prices are secured.
There are others who say they can see no
difference.

Under the same conditions the plain sec-
tions will be filled no better than the bee-
way. If there is any difference in the
filling, it is because the one offers special
advantages in the way of freer communica-
tion; for in the ordinary old-style, with
solid separators, each section, so to speak,
is shut off in a little box by itself, and it
has been proven that bees are disinclined
to work in little compartments almost com-
pletely shut off from the rest. Open-corner
sections, divided off by means of slatted
separators, without cleats, should and
would be filled just as well as plain sections
divided off by fences; for the conditions
will be precisely the same, because the bee-
ways, made part and parcel of these sec-
tions, exactly correspond to the beeways
(cleats) on the fences. But one would lose
many of the advantages of plain sections,
if he were to adopt the open-corner boxes.
They would not look, with even filling, as
pretty as plain sections.

SUPERS FOR PLAIN SECTIONS.

In the main, supers for plain sections
differ very little from the section-holder
super already shown and described for the
old-style sections. The section-holders
themselves are the same width as the sec-

tions. Between each row of sections in a
section-holder is placed a fence, the end-
post of the fence resting upon the strip of
tin nailed on the bottom inside edge of the
end of the super. An additional fence is
inserted on the outside of each outside row
of sections, because it was demonstrated by
S. T. Pettit that a perforated divider, or

what is exactly the same thing in principle,
the fence, when placed between the outside
rows and the super sides, will result in
having those outside rows of sections filled,

in many instances, as well as those in the
center. The reason of this is, that it places
a wall of bees on each side of the fence,
between the comb honey and the super
side; and these walls of bees, so to speak,
help to conserve the heat so they can draw
out the comb and complete the sections on
the outside as well as in the center.

COMB HONEY, TO PRODUCE.— In

order to secure comb honey the colonies
must be ver^^ strong — that is to say, the
hives must be fairly boiling over with bees
— so strong, indeed, that some of the colo-
nies will be inclined to swarm as soon as
the honey flow starts. But of this, men-
tion -^dll be made later on.

In the early part of the season it may
be an advantage, if one brood-nest is

COMB HONEY, TO PRODUCE

207

crowded, to use a second story and breed in
that also. As soon as the harvest begins
this upper story is lifted off, and a super
of sections is put on instead. The hatching-
brood of the two stories in the mean time
is put in the lower hive, and the rest of
the brood given to colonies that can take
care of it. This procedure is practiced by
some of our best beekeepers because it
insures powerful colonies that will go into
the supers.

There is not much use in trying to pro-
duce comb honey, if the colonies are only
two-thirds or one-half strength. In order
to bring all of these up to honey-gathering
pitch the reader should turn to the general
subject of BuTLDTNG UP Colonies found in
its alphabetical order. Be sure that the
directions that are given are carefully fol-
lowed. Assuming that this has been or will
be done, it is also important that there
should be the proper proportion of bees of
flying age — that is, fielders. A colony, for
example, might have enough bees, but an
insufficiency of bees old enough to go to
the fields. Many a beginner fails right
here. The bees should not be younger than
10 days or two weeks. It will, therefore,
require that eggs that have been laid to
produce bees for the field should be laid
from a month to six weeks ahead of the
expected harvest.

If it is not practicable to build up the
colonies by uniting, or if it is desirable to
run for both comb honey and extracted,
the medium colonies may be left as they
are, and run for extracted honey, and
those of proper strength run for comb
honey. The weak colonies — that is, those
of two- and three-frame size — should be
united to the medium-strength colonies;
for even in the production of extracted,
more honey, relatively, will be secured per
1000 bees from a strong colony than from
a comparatively small or medium force.

The medium colonies can be built to
proper comb-honey pitch without uniting,
provided the weather conditions are such
that the bulk of the eggs can be laid from
a month to six weeks ahead of the harvest.
If that is not possible, it will be necessary,
perhaps, to unite.

Colonies that are very strong in the
spring will build up faster, relatively, than
the weaker ones; and these can sometimes
supply frames of hatching brood and bees

to the stocks that are below par, as ex-
plained at the outset.

In order that the colonies may build up
properly in early spring, they should be
Avell housed — preferably in double-walled
hives. If they are in winter packing-cases,
as described under Winteetng Outdoors^
leave the packing on until settled warm
weather has arrived. Cool or frosty nights
will quickly penetrate the walls of hives
having only a single-board thickness. This
necessarily cuts down the brood-rearing,
and consequently reduces the amount of
honey, either comb or extracted, that will
be secured.

There should also be a liberal supply of
stores in the hives the previous fall, not
only to prevent starvation, but to make
brood-rearing possible. If the supply is
scant, the amount of brood and bees in the
brood-nest will be correspondingly small,
and then it may be necessary to resort to
stimulative feeding. (See FeedhsTG to
Stimulate.) But experience has shown
over and over again that the feeding
should be done in the fall if possible. If
it is done in the early spring it has a
tendency to over-stimulate. It forces the
bees out of the hive on cool days when they
ought to be inside; and, therefore, it is
highly important that all colonies be liber-
ally supplied with stores, either natural or
artificial, in late fall.

Having gotten our colonies up to comb-
honey pitch, it will be found that some of
them, as soon as the harvest opens, will be
inclined to swarm. This may be shown by
the building of initial queen-cells or clus-
tering out in front of the entrance. Cells
should be cut out every 8 days; and while
this practice does not entirely stop swarm-
ing it goes a long way toward checking
and preventing it entirely in most of the
colonies. There will be some other stocks
that will make no effort to swarm at all.
These should be carefully noted, and queens
from them be used for breeding. The
swarming nuisance can be very materially
reduced by breeding from the queen whose
colonies keep on storing honey without
swarming. This is the practice of Dr. C.
C. Miller, one of the best comb-honey
producers in the United States.

Just as the harvest opens or a little be-
fore, as may be shown by the combs whiten-
ing and bulging near the top, the hive

208

COMB HONEY, TO PRODUCE

should be lifted up on four blocks as illus-
trated and described under the head of
Swarming,, Prevention of. It has been
proven that the giving of a large amount
of bottom ventilation in this way will check
swarming to a very great extent. This
ventilation should be supplied a little be-
fore the harvest opens, to prevent queen-
cells in colonies that are not inclined to
swarm, and discourage the building of such
cells in colonies that show a disposition to
swarm.

Swarming may also be discouraged by
the use of a super of shallow extracting-
combs, and, after the bees are started in
this, substituting a super of sections. Ex-
tracting-combs may also be put in the side
of a comb-honey super, as explained fur-
ther on, or partially built sections from
the previous season, called bait sections,
may be used. A couple of these placed in
the center of each super on the hives will
do much to discourage swarming and get
the bees up into the super.

The reader may find it necessary and
advantageous to practice artificial swarm-
ing; but he should not do this unless
initial queen-cells have been started. (See
Artificial Swarming, especially the
brushed or shake-swarming plan.) This is
-usually very effective, but it involves a
large amount of work.

Where one is at home, or can be near his
comb-honey-producing bees, the preventive
measures already described are advised;
but, if for any reason the producer must
be away from his bees thru the middle
hours of the day or if he operates out-
yards, it is advisable to shake the swarm
so that the work can be performed at the
convenience of the apiarist. The shake-
swarm plan has been used to a limited
extent, altho it should be said that the
majority of comb-honey producers, where
they can do so, allow the first swarm to
come off naturally, hive it on empty combs
on the old stand, carrying the parent col-
ony to another stand, or allowing it to
stand beside the new hive, but with the
entrance at right angles. The comb-honey
super, if there was one on the old hive, is
given to the swarm. As soon as most of
the brood hatches, the pa^'ent colony is re-
moved, when the flying bees join the swarm.
This keeps down increase, and at the same
time boosts the swarm so that it produces

a large crop if the season hangs on long
enough. For particulars regarding any or
all of these methods, see Swarming, Pre-
vention op; also Artificial Swarming.

In all the foregoing, it is assumed that
the main harvest of nectar comes on at the
time expected. Sometimes clover or other
sources furnishing the main crop will be
out in abundance, and yet not yield a drop
of nectar. At other times there will not
be much clover in sight, and the bees will
gather a large amount of honey.

When the season is poor, it is better to
run for extracted, and that is why the
author advocates the production of both
comb and extracted honey at the same time.
Either the Barber or the Townsend plan
will commend itself at such times. If the
season starts in well, and the colonies are
strong, practically all comb honey can be
produced if desired. But we would advo-
cate the use of bait sections to start the
bees going above. More about this will be
said further on.

At this point the reader will do well to
turn back to Building up Colonies^ found
in its alphabetical place. Many stocks in
the spring will be somewhat weak, and
some will be of medium strength. Neither
of these two classes will be fit for the
production of comb honey. For how to han-
dle them, see Building up Colonies.

W^HEN AND HOW TO PUT ON SUPERS.

If the colony is in one story and the bees
begin to come in from the field, while the
combs are whitened near the tops, and the
frames fairly well filled with brood and
honey, supers should be put on. If one has
supers containing half-depth extracting-
combs, he should put these on first, even if
he desires to produce comb honey, for the
bees wall enter them much more readily,
and begin storing above. Then when they
are once well started the extracting super
should be raised and under it should be
placed a comb-honey super containing sec-
tions filled with full sheets of foundation.

The usual practice is to put the comb-
honey super on at the start; but Italians
especially are loath to enter the sections.
If they once get into the hahit of going
above, they will keep it up, even if the
super is changed. The extracting-super
can remain on top of the same hive on

COMB HONEY, TO PRODUCE

209

which it was put in the first place, but it
would be better to put . it on some other
colony to give it the "upstair fever," after
which it should be replaced by a comb-
honey super. After a little there will be
some filled extracting-supers as well as
those of comb. By proceeding on this plan
one will find that he can produce just about
as much comb honey as if he had put the
comb-honey supers on in the fii^st place,
with the additional advantage that the ex-
tracted honey obtained is just so much
clear gain.

Two correspondents sent to Gleanings in
Bee Culture theii' method of using extract-
ing-combs to bait the bees above. One uses
a whole super of shallow extracting-combs,
and the other uses both sections and ex-
tracting-combs in the same super. Both
are given here. The first mentioned writes :

I have been, for several years, very much
interested in trying and comparing different
methods of handling bees for honeycomb.
I have been in the business for eight years,
and have had fair success. For the first
five years I tried a different method each
year. Three years ago I tried an experiment
that succeeded so well I have followed it up,
and have in a measure overcome the two
greatest difS.culties that I had to contend
with — loafing and swarming. We use the
eight-frame Dovetailed hives with section-
holders for 414 X 4% sections. Our bees
would always begin to loaf or hang out on
the front of the hives when we put on the
sections, and most of them would do but
little in the sections until they had lost
several days, and then would swarm, thus
losing several days of the first alfalfa bloom.

I had 60 colonies of Italians in my out-
apiary, and in trying my experiment I tried
to be fair. I took 30 supers of half-depth
extracting-frames full of comb from the
home apiary, and put them on 30 hives in
the out-apiary at the same time that T put
sections on the other 30 hives. In four or
five days the extracting-combs were full of
new honey, and the bees excited and busy
at their work, while most of those having
sections were loafing, and some had swarmed.

I raised the combs by putting a super of
sections between them and the brood-nest.
At the end of two weeks from putting on
the combs those sections under the combs
were better filled than those on the hives
that had no combs. As soon as the combs
were sealed, I put them away to extract,
having that amount of honey extra, and the
bees started nicely in their work. I had
only about a third as many swarms from
those hives as from the ones with sections
and no combs.

I hked the plan so well that last year I
had enough of those little combs built to
furnish a super of them to every colony that
was to be run for section honey.

I tried the plan again this year, and from
75 colonies at the out-apiary I had 8000 fine
white marketable sections, about 500 lbs. of
unfinished and imperfect sections, 1500 lbs.
of extracted honey, and 60 lbs. of beeswax,
and two barrels of vinegar.

Mancos, Colo. Mrs, A. J. Barber.

Other correspondents to Gleanings in Bee
Culture have reported good results from
following the same methods. It is partic-
ularly applicable where both comb and ex-
tracted are called for.

E. D. Townsend of Northstar, Mich., the
other correspondent, goes one step fui-ther
than the Barber plan by producing comb
and extracted honey in the same super.
Instead of putting on a case of extracting-
combs, and afterward substituting therefor
one containing sections, he has a special
super which contains both extracting-
combs and sections.

The illustration given here shows a comb-
honey super containing 4x5 sections. This
is equipped precisely the same as any other
super for sections except that it has ex-
tracting-combs with closed-end frames on
each outside. When a super of this kind is
placed on a hive the bees immediately
occupy the drawn comb at the sides of the
super and begin their storing. The combs
already drawn out are very inviting places
in which the bees can begin storing honey.
Having made a nice start in the two
side extracting-combs they work toward
the center — that is to say, they begin to
draw out the fuU sheets of foundation in
4x5 sections next to the combs, and store
in them. When work is once in fuU prog-
ress in the side sections of the super, the
center ones will take care of themselves
with the result that every section i-s finished
about the same time, and of about equal
fuUness. When the super is completed, the
two extracting-combs will be fiUed and
capped as well as the section honey-boxes.
The former can be extracted and used again.

It will be seen that the extracting-combs
serve the purpose of excellent baits; and
Mr. Townsend draws attention to the fact
that, when such baits are placed at the sides
instead, of in the center, they cause an even
filling of the entii'e super; whereas by the
old plan of putting bait combs in the mid-

210

COMB HONEY, TO PRODUCE

T super containing two extracting-frames with wide end-bars, so that they take up the same amount of room as

a section-holder.

die of the super the storing begins around
the baits, gradually working from the cen-
ter to the outside. This naturally brings
about a better filling of the center sections,
lea\dng those toward the sides at a much
later stage of comb-building and filling.
The result of this is that the center sections
will be filled in advance of the outside ones ;
and by the time these latter are filled, all
the former will be travel-stained, and may
induce swarming in the mean time.

When Mr. Townsend first began this
scheme of comb and extracted honey pro-
duction from the same super he had in
mind only baiting the bees up into the sec-
tions; but he incidentally discovered that,
inasmuch as the bees would enter such
supers without hesitation, he thereby almost
entirely overcame swarming.

Comb-honey producers well know that
the ordinary section-super placed on a hive
is very often not readily entered by the
bees. The series of little compartments
(the sections) cause the bees to sulk, and
before they actually enter the super they
may swarm in disgust.

It is well known, also, that after bees are
once started going above, there is less in-

clination on their part to swarm. Mr.
Townsend finds that the two side extract-
ing-combs that he puts in every comb-super
start the bees into the super about as read-
ily as they would if containing extracting-
combs only. The whole effect of this pro-
cedure is such that swarming is reduced to
a minimum — almost brought under control.

For the local markets, the side extracting-
combs can be cut out and sold for chunk
honey at about the same price as that in the
sections; so that there need be practically
no loss; or when there is a call for liquid
honey it can be extracted.

The deep super, already described, with
its 4 X 5 sections and section-holders, is
well suited to carry out the Townsend plan.

Even the shallower supers using 4^x4^
sections can be similarly arranged.

Jay Smith of Vincennes, Ind., among
many others who have been using the
Townsend plan with good success, writes :

I have been using Mr. Townsend 's plan of -
putting extracting-combs at the outride of
the sections, and feel that in this Mr. Town-
send has given the bee fraternity a most
valuable kink. In the engraving will be
seen a super just set on the hive. The bees

COMB HONEY, TO PRODUCE

211

The work well started in the extracting- combs at the side of the comb-honey super. Note that the row of sections
just back of the extracting-frame is well along and that the second row back is started.

immediately took possession to clean it up.
They will at once go to work and store honey
in the comb. The other picture shows the
w^ork as it progresses. The outside extract-
ing-frame is partly capped. The comb-honey
section next to it has honey in it, while the
third has work just commenced. After the
bees begin in the center ones, they will
push the work there a little faster, with
the result that the entire super is finished at
once and can be set aside for market without
sorting.

I am running 80 colonies on this plan
this year, and I have never had a single
case of loafing, and the bees work with all
the energy they possess. When I read of
some who let the hive-body get clogged with
honey, and the bees cluster out, and they
''shake" energy into them, I thought the
beekeeper was the one who needed shaking
instead of the bees. With the above system
I usually have about six per cent of swarms.
This was the worst year for swarms I ever
had, and the per cent of swarms was ten.

BAIT SECTIONS.

Some beekeepers, however, while admit-
ting the excellence of the plans given for
those who want part of their crop in ex-
tracted honey, say that there is no need to
use extracting-frames to start the bees at
work in supers, since the same thing can

be accomplished by means of what are
called "bait sections," thus securing the
entire crop in sections.

A bait section is one which has been
partly filled with honey, which honey is

One of Jay Smith's hives, showinsr extractincr-combs at
the side of the super, a la Towusend.

afterward emptied out by the bees, gener-
ally in the fall. It is thus a section con-
taining drawn comb, but having no honey
in it, is to all intents and purposes an
extracting-eomb on a small scale. Bait

212

COMB HONEY, TO PRODUCE *

sections thus prepared are kept over win-
ter, to be used at the beginning of the next
honey harvest.

If a single bait section is put in the
middle of the first super that is given to a
colony, it is claimed that the bees will
begin work in it as promptly as they will
begin work in an extr acting-comb. Some
use more than a single bait in a super, but
there may be no great advantage in this,
and the number of baits should be limited
as much as possible, for when a section is
thus filled the second time it is not so
beautiful as one filled the first time. A
bait section is not needed in any super
after the first.

One serious objection to bait sections is
their tendency to granulate early; and on
account of this they should never be put
into a shipping case with other sections of
comb honey. They are never as nice, and
should always be sold around home as soon
as possible after they are taken off the
hive.

Some producers have made the serious
mistake of putting their bait sections when
completed in with other sections and send-
ing them in one case to the city market.
As these baits granulate very quickly, the
city dealer is quick to discover it, and he
will, therefore, conclude that the whole case
of sections is just as bad.

WHAT TO DO V7HEN THE BEES REFUSE TO
ENTER THE SECTIONS.

There have already been given some
general suggestions that should enable the
producer to get the bees up into the supers.
One is, to give the bees a super of empty
extracting-combs ; and then when they
have once started in them, place a super
of sections between it and the hive. The
other is, to use the extracting-combs as well
as sections in the same super, a la Town-
send; and still another is, to use bait sec-
tions. When all of these devices fail, it
may indicate that the weather is too cold,
even tho there is plenty of bloom, or the
colony is not strong enough to go into the
supers. We sometimes find it an advantage
to run our colonies two-story during the
breeding season, then remove the upper
story, and put on a super of sections as
explained elsewhere. If the weather is cool
or chilly or colony not strong enough, no

amount of "baiting" will get the bees above.
The weather conditions must be right, and
honey must be coming in at a fairly good
pace, even if the colony is strong enough,
before the bees will go above. But when
they are once started they will keep it up
as long as an3i;hing is coming in.

If some colonies are storing in the
supers, and others are not, it indicates that
the w^eather conditions must be right; and
the presumption is that the laggards are
not strong enough to go above. If they
have plenty of bees, it is sometimes advis-
able to give those that will not work in the
supers a super from some other hive in
which the bees have already started build-
ing comb and storing honey. In other
cases, we would use either baits or empty
combs on the sides. We would also make
sure that the bees in hot weather are not
driven out of the supers by the direct rays
of the sun. In some localities, at least,
shade must be provided, so that the bees
will be protected during the middle hours
of the day. See Apiary, and especially
"Shade-boards."

If the bees of a strong colony hang out
in front of the entrance, while the bees of
other colonies are storing honey, perhaps
enlarging the entrance or putting the hive
up on four blocks, as shown and illustrated
under Swarming, may serve the purpose of
getting the bees inside at work in the
supers.

It sometimes happens that the brood-nest
is not filled with brood and honey. Until
that takes place, there will not be much
work done in the supers unless the colony
is very strong or honey coming in rapidly.

TIERING UP.

If honey is coming in at a good rate,
one may expect (if the bees have started
above) that the super, or case of sections,
will soon be filled about half full of honey
— with the sections in different stages of
completion. When the super is about half
filled with honey, raise it up and place
another empty super under it. About the
time this reaches the condition of about
half completion, raise both supers and put
under it another empty one. This process
of "tiering up," or " storif ying," as it is
called by the English, may be continued

COMB HOXEY, TO PRODUCE

213

until it is three, four, or more high, de-
pending upon the length of the honey flow
and the amount of nectar coming in daily.
In the mean time the ripening process of
the honey in the fii'st super continues. In
most localities it is not practicable to tier
up more than two supers.

CAUTIOX.

Care must be exercised in tiering up, or
a lot of unfinished sections will be the re-
sult. When the honey flow is di'awing to a
close, and it is discovered that there is an
e\ident decrease in the amount of nectar
coming in, no more empty supers should
be given. The bees should complete what
they have on hand, which they will do if
one is fortunate enough in his calculations
as to when the nectar flow will end. If
uncertain whether another super is needed
or not toward the close of the harvest, it is
often advisable to put another super on
top. The bees are not likely to commence
on this till they really need it. It is im-
possible to give specific rules on tiering
up; but with the assistance of the forego-
ing one is to exercise his own discretion.

WHEN AND HOW TO TAKE OFF SECTIONS.

Usually it is not practicable to wait till
every section in a super is completed; that
is, until every ceU is capped over. Those
sections most liable to be imfinished wiU be
in the two outside rows, and these the bees
will be long in completing. If the honey
flow is over we would not wait for them to
be completed, but would take the whole
suj)er oft at once. The longer it remains
on the hive, the more travel-stained the
honey will become, and the more it wiU be
soiled with propolis. However, if one
desires a really flne, delicious article of
comb honey, one more pleasing to the
tongue than to the eye, and is not particu-
lar about the white marketable appearance
of the cappings, the super should be left
on the hive for a month. Most beekeepers
agree that comb honey left on the hive
acquii'es a cei-tain richness of flavor not
found in honey just capped over. Altho
such honey is reaUy better, it is not so
marketable because the cappings in the
mean time become more or less travel-
stained.

If one is producing very much comb
honey, he can scarcely afford to get along

without a scale hive. See Scale Hr'e,,
found in alphabetical order.

HOW TO GET BEES OUT OF THE SECTIONS
WITHOUT BEE-ESCAPES.

There is one danger in leading honey on
till after the honey flow. As soon as the
hive is opened, the bees, especially hybrids,
possibly may uncap and carry some of the
honey down. TThether it is left on the hive
or whether it is removed as soon as capped,
the methods of taking off and getting the
bees out will be much the same. Some
supers may not be filled with honej', altho
a glance at the top may show nice white
capped combs. If capped below, it may be
removed.

If the honey flow has stopped or is taper-
iQg off, to avoid the possibility of robbing
it is much safer, after smoking the bees
out as far as possible, to give the super a
vigorous shaking in front of the hive ; then
with the bee-brush clean off the bottom and
top of the super ; this will clean out nearly
all the bees. The super should then be
placed inside of a building. "What few
remain ^vlU desert, fly to the window
screens, and get out thru the bee-escapes.

The Whitnev bee-escape case for clearing the bees from
honey-comb supers.

A much better plan is to shake out most
of the bees as before described, stand the
supers on end, and then set over a case
with bee-escapes on top, like that shown
in the engraving above. This is used by
TV. M. Whitney of Lake Geneva, Wis.

214

COMB HONEY, TO PRODUCE

Method of inserting the escape-board.

By far the most satisfactory arrange-
ment for getting bees out of supers is the
double-end Porter bee-escape. This is
mounted in a board, cleated at the ends
and sides, in such a way as to provide a

Porter double-end bee-escape.

bee-space on one side, so that it can be
placed between the supers and the brood-
nest beneath. But care should be taken
that it be placed right side up — that is,

will stand at an angle of nearly 45 degrees.
With the free hand set down the smoker
and pick up the escape-board, which should
be leaning conveniently against the leg.
Slide this on top of the hive as far as it
will go, beespace side up. Let the super
down gently on the escape-board, and, last
of all, bring the escape-board and super
into alignment with the hive. This method
eliminates hard lifting, saves time, prevents
angering the bees, and avoids killing them.

The best time to put on Porter escapes
is always in the morning. The field bees in
the supers will leave to go to the field dur-
ing the day and, of course, can not get
back. If 30 or 40 of the escapes are put
on, the next morning about nine o'clock
there will be 30 or 40 supers ready to
come off, with but few bees in them. If
there are three or four bees left, or a dozen,
they will usually take wing as soon as the
super is uncovered.

the side up as shown in the illustration.
If the device be put on in the morning,
practically all the bees will be out of the
super by the next morning.

One method of putting on one of these
escape-boards is as follows: With a hive-
tool, screw-driver, putty-knife, or pry,
loosen the super so that propolis connec-
tions will be broken. With one hand tilt
up the super at one end enough to make a
gap, and with the other hand take the
smoker and blow in two or three whiffs of
smoke to drive the bees back. Lift the end
of the super up a little further so that it

SCRAPING SECTIONS.

In order to make sections present a clean
and marketable appearance all the propolis
should be scraped off. Some and perhaps
most beekeepers prefer for this purpose a
common case knife, and others a sharp
jackknife. Sometimes the edge of a scrap-
ing-knife is ground square, and the scrap-
ing is done with a corner of the knife.
But the general practice seems to favor
the ordinary edge. Others, including Dr.
C. C. Miller and Allan Latham, prefer to
use No. 2 sandpaper. A sheet of it is laid
flat on the table; and the section, edges
down, is rubbed back and forth on the
rough surface. If the day is not too warm.

COMB HONEY, TO PRODUCE

215

A comer of a section of honey enlarged to show the dust of wood and propoKs scattered over the surface of
the cappings. This trouble is caused by carelessness in cleaning the propolis from the wood.

nor the propolis soft, the sandpaper will
do faster work than a knife. But the edges
of the sections are a little roughened, and
more or less fine dust at times gets on the
surface of the comb. Sometimes a dealer
on receiving such honey objects to this
dust, thinking it to be the excrement of the
moth worm. (See cut.) The objection is
also made that the sandpaper fills up with
bee glue, and that is true. But sandpaper
is cheap, says Mr. Latham. When one
sheet is filled, another can be used, and
so on.

"WTien one has a large amount of comb
honey the work can be done with sand-
paper more expeditiously by fastening it
on a revolving cylinder or on the flat sur-
face of a revolving disk operated by foot
power or a small motor. Where one has a
gasoline engine for a large power-diiven
honey-extractor, he can use that as a motor
power.

It was stated that rubbing the section
on a flat sheet of sandpaper by hand leaves
the edges rough, and dust on the surface
of the comb. The above illustration, which
is enlarged to illustrate the details,
shows how the fine dust lodges on the

comb and how the edges of the sections
are roughened, leaving hairs or fibers of
wood clinging to the edges. The author's
experience is, however, that a power-driven
cylinder or disk on account of the high
speed, does not scratch the sections nor
leave the surfaces of the comb covered
with dust.

BOOilHOVTER KXIFE-SCEAPIXG TABLE.

Frank Boomhower of Gallupville, N. Y.,
has a section-scraping table like the one

Knife-scraping table.

shown herewith. As will be seen, two
scrapers can work at a time, the sides of

216

COMB HONEY, TO PRODUCE

the box or tray being cut away in such a
way as to allow a knife to scrape down
clear past the edge of the section. Each
section, as it is scraped, is put into the
shipping case.

Those with only a few sections will not
be likely to have such a table, and some
large producers might prefer not to use it.
Any ordinary table may be used for the
work, or a board on the lap will answer.
It is easier to do the work sitting. A block
2 inches thick, more or less, and 4 inches
square, the size not being important, lies
on the table, or on the board on the lap.
When the section is placed upon this block,
projecting over one side, it allows free play
for the knife. If the super is of such
character that the sections may be taken
out en masse, the work may be greatly
shortened cleaning all the tops at one
operation, and the bottoms in the same
way. Indeed, no matter what the super,
one may shorten the work in this way:
Make a rim, or box without top or bottom,
whose depth is an inch or less than the
height of the sections to be cleaned, and an
inch or so wider and longer than the super-
ful of sections. Have two boards as large
as or a little larger than the rim mentioned.
Lay a board on the table, set the rim on the
board, and then fill the rim with sections.
Put into one end a thin board as a fol-
lower and wedge it up. Do the same at one
side. Now, with a cabinet-maker's scraper
or some other tool scrape the propolis off
the entire surface. Follow this up with
No. 2 sandpaper. Now lay the other board
on top of the sections. Turn the whole
thing upside down. Take the top board oil
the sections. Loosen the wedges as much
as necessary to let the rim drop down on
the board and then wedge tight again.
Scrape and sandpaper as before. The sec-
tions may now be taken out and finished on
the little blocks as before mentioned. It is
a convenience to have a large table and a
number of boards. Each board may be slid
along on the table out of the way, or it may
be piled up on another boardf ul of sections.

Both scraping and sandpapering will
work better when it is so cool that the glue
is brittle. Indeed, sandpaper will not work
on soft glue.

UNFINISHED SECTIONS.

r The more carefully the apiary is manip-
ulated in the matter of working for comb

honey, the fewer will be the number of
unfinished sections; but such are not al-
ways the result of improper working of
the colonies. With the best of care a sud-
den stoppage of the honey flow will leave
the beekeeper with a lot of these sections;
and such cessation of the nectar supply, no
one can foresee in some localities. In the
alfalfa regions and other places, it can be
foretold within a few days when the honey
will stop ; it is then possible so to arrange
the supply of sections on the hives as to
leave very few of them unfinished when the
season does finally close.

HOW DR. MILLER PREVENTS AN OVERSUPPLY
OF UNFINISHED SECTIONS.

Dr. C. C. Miller takes off his supers as
soon as a majority of the sections in the
super are finished. The latter are set
aside to be scraped and cased for market,
while those unfinished are set back into the
supers — the supers to go back on the hives
immediately, and that is before the honey
-flow stops. By proceeding thus, he man-
ages to have few unfinished sections at the
end of the season. Those that are returned
to the hive he fittingly styles "go-backs."
These, as fast as they accumulate in the
honey-room, are put into the regular hive-
supers. Part of these go-back supers may
be placed on colonies that show a special
aptitude* for finishing up v/ork already
begun in sections, and a part may be placed
on the regular colonies already at work on
their own sections. The great advantage
of this plan is that it allows the sections to
be taken off before all in the super are
finished, consequently before any of the
central ones have lost their virgin white-
ness.

Such a plan of procedure is possible only
in localities where the honey flow lasts
sufficiently long, not only to fill two-thirds
of the sections full in the supers, but
enough longer to finish out supers of go-
backs placed on hives afterward. Bees can
be made to finish partly filled sections even
when the natural honey fiow has ceased
altogether by feeding back a thinned honey.
See Feeding Back.

In any case, some unfinished sections

* Some colonies are better at finishing up work
already begun than at starting it from the raw
foundation.

COMB HONEY, TO PRODUCE

217

will be on band at the close of the season;
for if the surplus be all stored in sections
it is not possible to give the exact number
of sections that will be finished.

WHAT TO DO V^^ITH UNFINISHED SECTIONS.

Some prefer to dispose of unfinished
sections by selling them around home for
less money, or using them exclusively for
home consumption. The honey, for eating
purposes, is just as good; and it is the
practice, in many beekeepers' families, to
consume all such sections if they can, re-
serving those that are marketable and well
finished to be sold.

Some beekeepers consider them very val-
uable for baits ; that is, they place some of
these at the center or side of a super to
bait the bees above, as already explained.
Others place them in stacked-up supers a
few rods from the apiary, leaving a very
small entrance at the bottom of the pile,
large enough for one or two bees to pass
at a time. By this slow method of rob-
bing, the bees will empty out the honey and
carry it to the hives much more cheaply
than the beekeeper himself can afford to do
it by means of the extractor. While this
slow robbing may cause a little disturbance
in the yard at the time, it does no particu-
lar harm. But mark this : Never give the
bees a wide entrance at the bottom. It
should be only wide enough to allow one or
two bees to pass at a time. This is known
as the Miller plan, having been, we believe,
originated by Dr. C. C. Miller. Taking
everything into consideration it is the safer
one to follow; but where one is an expert
beekeeper, and has a large lot of unfinished
sections for the bees to empty out, a plan
originated by the late B. Taylor is perhaps
better. Dr. Miller, who uses the plan, thus
speaks of it:

For a number of years I have used the
Taylor plan at the close of every season.
All sections that are less than half -filled are
put in supers in the shop cellar, and the
doors kept closed till the whole business is
over, and all that are to be emptied are in
the cellar. The supers stand on end so as to
be all open, or piled in piles crossing each
other. When no more are to be taken into
the cellar I open the door and say to the
bees, ' ' Go in. ' ' They go in, I assure you.
The air is black with bees at the door, and
they do more or less sailing about in the
vicinity. Sometimes they do a little tearing

of the sections, but not much. There is too
large a surface for them to cover. Grad-
ually they give up the job as the supply
ceases, but the supers are not taken away
till a week or two after the bees have stopped
working on them. They might as well be
put in the open air, only they are safe from
rain in the cellar. Please remember that this
is what I do at the end of every harvest
after the flow has stopped.

As a matter of fact, I use the Taylor
oftener than the Miller plan. It depends on
the number of sections to be emptied in
proportion to the number of bees. Whether
little or much is to be emptied, I am not
afraid of a rampage. I will set a super of
sections on top of a hive and let the bees
rob it out, and there will be no rampage.
But I will be exceedingly careful not to take
away the super until all honey is cleaned
out, and until at least 24 hours after the
bees have stopped trying to find any more
honey there. Take away the super while the
bees are at work at it, and wholesale destruc-
tion would follow.

Since foul brood has become so generally
distributed over the United States, there
would be great danger of spreading it
among the bees if beekeepers should prac-
tice the plan above described. Certainly
it would not be advisable, in case any of
the neighbors had disease among their bees;
nor could it be recommended if foul brood
ever had been among the bees within the
last year or so. There would be danger
that some colonies had the germs of the
disease ; and altho they showed no evidence
of it during the preceding season they
might spread disease thruout the entire
apiary. For this reason it is advisable to
use almost any other plan than to let the
bees rob out the supers.

GRANULATED COMB HONEY; WHAT TO DO
V7ITH IT.

If dealers are not suspicious regarding
comb honey nor have had their heads filled
with stories of artificial comb honey, they
can probably sell granulated comb honey
at very near the same price as that which is
still in the liquid form; for granulated
honey in the comb is fine for table use.
Some explanation should be made, how-
ever, to the effect that the honey going
" back to sugar " does not indicate at all
that the bees were fed sugar syrup, and
that nearly all kinds of pure honey will
granulate in time. See Granulated Hon-
ey.

The Jews, in .their religious festivals,

218

COMB HONEY, TO PRODUCE

The Peterson capping-melter and wax-separator here recommended for liquefying
candied honey. Altho designed for melting cappings as explained under Extracted
Honey, it may be used as a liquefier if a screen is put across the open end to prevent
the solid portions from sliding out. As soon as the honey is melted, it runs out, away
from the heat.

at certain seasons of the year, use consid-
erable granulated comb honey. The honey
and wax make up the right combination for
their purpose, and very often granulated
comb honey can be sold to the Jews at fair
prices.

If it is impossible to sell granulated comb
honey at a reasonable figure, it may be
melted up in a capping-melter, and the
liquid honey and wax saved and sold sepa-
rately. If there is any great amount of
honey to melt up in this way a large cap-
ping-melter should be used, for it is im-
portant to have a good-sized heating sur-
face so that the melted honey and wax may
be separated as soon as possible. If a small
melter is used and overloaded, much of the
honey is likely to be confined in close con-
tact with the heated surface for some time ;
and this, in connection with the wax, im-
parts to it a flavor that, while not disagree-
able, distinguishes it from honey not so
treated. On this account the outlet of the
melter must not be allowed to dam up so as
to confine the honey.

A framework on which a wide board
may be secured directly over the melter,
should be made to fit the top of the melter.

Use a sharp butcher-knife or steam un-
capping-knife to cut the comb out of the

section, then strike the notched or dove-
tailed corner of the section, causing it to
fly open allowing three sides of the section
to lie flat on the board. Beginning at the
right-hand end, move the edge of the knife
with a scraping motion toward the left,
holding the section in the left hand by the
fourth side, which should be at right angles
to the other three sides lying fiat on the
board. Then use the other edge of the
knife; and, beginning at the top of the
fourth side, cut down to the board, thus
removing quickly all the wax adhering to
the wood. With a little practice the honey
may be cut out of the sections very rapidly
— perhaps faster than the melter can han-
dle it; but in the intervals the heaps of
scraped sections may be removed, and new
cases of honey set in readiness on the
bench.

The mixture of melted honey and wax,
as it comes from the melter, should pass
directly into a separator made on the prin-
ciple of the Aikin separator. The large
cut shows the whole melter, separator, etc.
At the end of the day, or when the work is
finished, the honey should be drawn off as
close as possible to the wax, so that the
smallest amount will be left to cool with it.
The reason for this is that any honey is

COMBS

219

given a slightly waxy flavor if allowed to
cool under wax. As soon as tlie honey is
drawn off, and while it is still warm, it
should be strained thru a cheese-cloth, so
that it will be ready for market.

HOW TO KEEP COMB HONEY AND AT THE
SAME TIME PREVENT IT FROM
GRANULATING,

It is sometimes desirable to keep comb
honey for a better market, or hold it so we
may have a supply the year round. To
keep it with unimpaired flavor it must
not be subjected to dampness. If water
condenses on the surface of the comb, the
honey is soon diluted, and then it sours.
On this account the honey should never be
put into a cellar or other damp room.
Better put it upstairs ; and that there may
be a free circulation of air, without admit-
ting bees or flies, the windows should be
covered with painted wire cloth. The
author is accustomed to keep comb honey
the year round, and rarely does it de-
teriorate in the least. The same plan will,
in the main, apply to keeping extracted
honey. During damp and rainy weather,
the doors and windows of the honey-room
or honey-house should be closed and opened
again when the air is dry.

Comb honey should under no circum-
stances be stored where it is likely to
freeze, as freezing contracts the wax so as
to break the combs and let the honey run.
It should be kept as nearly as possible
between 80 and 90 degrees F. It should
never go down to the freezing point at any
time; or, rather, it should never go be-
low 70, if it is possible to avoid it. Varia-
tions of temperature have a strong tend-
ency to make honey granulate; and noth-
ing ruins comb honey quicker than this.

Perhaps one in a small way might be
able to keep a room hot by the use of a
hard-coal stove, from which a regular heat
will be given off. In some instances one
might use furnace heat. This latter would,
perhaps, be advantageous in that it would
provide for ventilation and thus hasten the
evaporation of any unripe or thin honey.
Where natural gas is available and cheap
enough, gas stoves will furnish a more reg-
ular heat than anything else. But certain
it is, there must be some sort of automatic
regulation of the heat. While the heater

can be controlled to a certain extent, it
seems more feasible to let the surplus heat
escape.

THE TEMPERATURE TO ARREST GRANULATION
AFTER IT BEGINS.

The publishers of this work made some
experiments to see how hot they could keep
the room and not have the combs melt
down. They found that the temperature
must not go higher than 103° F. While
this may seem excessively high, yet, if the
honey begins to granulate the only way to
arrest the process is to bring the tempera-
ture up to 103°, and maintain it there.
Aye, there is the difficulty. They accom-
plished it by putting steam coils in the
room with sufficient radiation so that the
temperature could be held between 101°
and 103°. If it goes above the high point,
an automatic regulator, something on the
plan of an incubator-valve, allows the heat
to escape. As the temperature drops, this
valve closes.

They kept some 2000 lbs. of honey in
this room for two months. Some of the
honey had already begun to granulate, and
it was their hope that they could not only
arrest the granulation but bring the gran-
ulation back to a liquid condition. In this
last they were disappointed, but they suc-
ceeded admirably in stopping the process
that would have soon ruined this whole lot
of honey.

They are not sure but a temperature of
100° F. might do as well, and possibly such
a degree would be safer for the average
person to use, because, if the thermometer
shows higher than 103°, there is great dan-
ger that the combs will be overheated, sag,
and set the honey to leaking. It should be
stated that a temperature of 100° F., while
it will stop granulation will cause the
honey to become very thick and waxy.
This is objectionable to some of the trade.

COMBS. — Under Honeycomb^ further
on, comb is discussed as a container to hold
the honey gathered by the bees, its general
structure, how the bees build it without
artificial aid, and the so-called artificial
comb, which does not exist, and never did.
Under Comb Foundation is described par-
ticularly how combs are built by the use of
artificial aids; under Manipulation of

220

COMBS

Colonies^ how combs or frames are han-
dled; and under this head will be dis-
cussed the economic and comparative value
of good and poor combs when used in
brood-frames.

In the olden days, before foundation was
Imown, there was a much larger proportion
of inferior and bad combs than there is
today when, in a well-regulated apiary,
they are built almost entirely from full
sheets of foundation. (See Comb Foun-
dation.) By this foundation and by self-
spacing frames, it is possible to have every
comb in the hive a good one — all of them
uniform, with little or no drone comb, and
as flat as a board, containing very few
drone-cells.

The beekeeper who has good modern
hives well painted, and yet who has the
average natural-built or poor combs, will
lose a large pait of the value of his in-
vestment. The rearing of drones means a
big waste to the colony ; and while one can,
as will be explained further on, make the
bees build all-worker combs without any
artificial aids, the problem is far easier if
he uses full sheets of foundation well
wired, as explained and illustrated in
Comb Foundation^ subhead "Fastening
Foundation to Top-bars of Brood-frames."

There is not a better asset in the bee-
yard than a full quota of nice, perfect
combs. If one has only just enough to fill
the hives at the approach of the honey
flow, he will lose a large amount of honey
if he is producing extracted, by not having
an extra supply on hand. Inserting frames
containing full sheets of foundation wiU
help out some in an emergency. While the
bees may draw these out into combs, it
absorbs a large force of bees that might
otherwise be occupied in the field gathering
honey. Nor is this all. The beekeeper
who has a large stock of good straight
combs on hand can control swarming to a
great extent as weU as secure a larger
crop of honey. (See Swarming.) In the
production of extracted honey there should
be at least two, if not three or four, extra
supers of drawn combs in reserve. These
should be kept carefully stored in empty
supers or hive bodies bee- and moth-tight,
awaiting the harvest.

Some years ago, when we were operating
our outyards for extracted honey, we man-

aged without any swarming until we ran
out of drawn combs. The only thing we
could give the bees was full sheets of foun-
dation in brood-frames. As soon as we
supplied them with these, swarming com-
menced. They acted as if they were dis-
gusted because they had to stop and build
combs, and then they proceeded to swarm.
While we could have extracted the filled
combs already on the hives and returned
them, such combs were not entirely sealed,
and, of course, the honey was not thoroly
ripened. As explained under Extracted
Honey, the quality of the honey is, as a
rule, very greatly improved by leaving it
on the hives until every cell is sealed, and
many times it is better to leave it on a
week or two after they are sealed.

The novice will see, then, the importance
of having a large stock of empty combs on
hand. If one does not have the combs, how
can he get them? This can be done by
giving the bees frames of foundation in the
fall, when they are gathering an inferior
honey. They may then be extracted and
held in reserve until the following season,
until the main crop of white table honey
comes on. Of course, one can have the
combs drawn out during the main honey
fl.ow; but that will probably mean some
swarming and a decrease in the crop. The
swarming nuisance can be materially re-
duced by alternating the frames containing
brood with frames of full sheets of foun-
dation. Bees will quickly draw out the
combs, and the queen will enter them. This
will usually check swarming; but it maj'
mean increasing the force of bees that will
come on at a time of year when they will
be of little use to the colony but will sim-
ply be consumers. This production of a
larger force of consumers may be a detri-
ment just after the main honey flow, but it
is a decided advantage in the fall, since
young bees at that time of the year will
insure much safer wintering.

THE ECONOMIC WASTE FROM THE USE OF
POOR COMBS.

At the outset we spoke of the economic
difference between good and poor combs.
The accompanying illustration will give
one an idea of what constitutes a good
comb, a medium one, and a poor one.
First of all, the combs should be well wired

COMBS

221

1, perfect ; 2, good ; 3, medium ; 4, poor combs.

222

COMBS

The upper frame, by mistake, contained no foundation, altho it was wired. Note the drone-cells. The lower
frame contained a full sheet of foundation, and every cell is worker.

to stand rapid handling, moving full colo-
nies from one yard to another, and more or
less rough usage in and out of the extrac-
tor. (See Comb Foundation and Ex-
tractors.) When the honey is thick the
extractor must be revolved at full speed;
and unless the combs are well wired they
are liable to break out of the frames.

It is essential, also, that the comb be
well fastened to the end-bars, and built
clear down to the bottom-bar. No. 1 is an
illustration of a fairly good comb. No. 2
is fair. No. 3 is a poor one, and both 2
and 3 are defective in that they are only
partially attached to the end-bars. In a

year or two perhaps, especially during a
good honey flow, the combs may be ex-
tended and attached to the end-bars. If
the flow is an extra heavy one the bees
may build them down in contact with the
bottom-bars as shown in No. 1. If the
comb is attached only to the top-bar as in
No. 2 there will be a bee-space next
the end-bars and the bottom-bars — just the
nicest place for a queen to hide when one
desires to locate her.

Attachments to the bottom-bars can be
made very quickly by turning a super
upside down, and leaving it so for a week
or two, or even twenty days, during which

COOTRACTION

223

the bees will probably build the comb
upward and attach to the bottom-bar, which
is now at the top. (See Reversing.) No.
4, while fairly well fastened, is very bad
on account of the presence of so much
drone comb. It may be used for the pro-
duction of extracted honey; but the objec-
tion to it is that the queen, unless exclud-
ing zinc is used, will go on it and fill it with
drone eggs. Extracted honey can be pro-
duced in it as well as in all- worker comb,
but the average beekeeper will do well to
cut out any comb like No. 4 and melt it.
The ideally perfect comb is one that is
i attached to all four sides of the frame, and
which has no holes like No. 2. In a good
honey flow these holes will be filled up, but
probably with drone-cells; and the pres-
ence of these is as bad as the holes them-
selves.

There are about 132 square inches in the
surface of standard Langstroth comb, and
this will make the average comb contain
approximately 6500 worker-cells on the
two surfaces, provided the comb is per-
fect. If the combs are like No. 4, it will
be seen there is a big loss in the breeding
capacity for worker brood. One may,
therefore, have a ten-frame hive and still
have only fifty or sixty per cent capacity
for worker brood. It is one thing to have
good hives, and it is another thing to have
good combs; but better yet a combination
of the two.

HOW TO MAKE BEES BUILD ALL- WORKER COMB
WHEN ONLY STARTERS ARE USED.

Where one cannot afford the expense of
full sheets of foundation it is well to know
how to make the bees eliminate all drone
combs. E. D. Townsend, of Northstar,
Mich., tells in Gleanings in Bee Culture
how this may be accomplished.

The secret seems to be in having just the
right number of workers and just the right
amount of honey coming in, so that the bees
will draw out the combs no faster than the
queen can occupy them with brood. As long
as this condition lasts we should expect the
bees to build worker combs. From this we
see that, in order to get good results in
comb-building from a natural swarm, this
colony should be of just the right size, and
there should be a honey flow of three or four
pounds a day.

We will suppose a large swarm is hived
during a period when honey is coming in

freely. At this time there is too much honey
coming in for the best results in comb -build-
ing in the brood-nest, if the whole force of
workers is compelled to do all their work in
the brood-nest. The remedy is to put most
of the workers at work in the supers. Most
beginners fail in doing this; but the princi-
ple is to make the surplus receptacles more
inviting to the workers than the brood-nest,
and the bees will immediately go up into the
supers on being hived. Our comb-honey super
with extracting-combs at the sides makes an
ideal arrangement for this very thing.

It is plain to see that, if most of the honey
being carried in is placed in the sections,
where it should be, the queen will not be
hurried to keep pace with the workers, con-
sequently nearly all worker comb will be
built. The brood-nest should be filled with
comb during the first 23 days after the
swarm is hived, for the queen must keep up
with the workers and lay in nearly every
cell as fast as it is drawn out, or the bees
will begin to store honey in the cells. When
this condition arrives, the bees, on the sup-
position that the queen has reached her limit,
and that the rest of the combs will be used
for storing honey, begin to build the storage
size or the drone-cells in the brood-nest. Thi-^
is likely to occur in about 23 days after the
swarm is hived; for .by this time the brood
is beginning to hatch out in that part of the
hive where the laying began. From this time
on the queen has nearly all she can do to keep
the cells filled with eggs where the young bees
are hatching. This means that the comb-
building part of the hive is neglected, and
that the bees build store or drone comb to n.
great extent until the hive is filled.

There are artificial ways of handling bees
so that they will build good worker combs.
I refer to the plan of shaking the bees into
an empty hive, in the same way that a swarm
is hived. If a colony is divided into nuclei
of, say, two or three combs each, and each
nucleus given a young queen reared the same
year, such little colonies will build very nice
worker combs; but the beginner will not be
interested in this artificial way of making
increase, for he should stick to the natural-
swarming plan for his increase until such
time as he has had experience and made
a success of getting a crop of honey. In
fact, there are many things to be learned
before a beginner should take up artificial
ways of maMng increase.

CONTRACTION. — Along in the 80's
contraction of the brood-nest during the
summer seemed to be all the rage. It was
argued that most colonies, Italians especial-
ly, after they had put a little honey in the
brood-nest, would be disinclined to go
above into the supers; and to force them
above, some beekeepers took out three or
four of the brood-frames below and con-
tracted the brood-nest and then placed su-

224

COTTON

pers on top. This was very pretty in the-
ory, and in practice it did force things. It
forced the bees into the supers, but more
often forced swarming.

Another set of contractionists argued in
favor of hiving swarms in a contracted
brood-chamber. They did not believe in
contracting the brood-nest in an established
colony; and, therefore, when they con-
tracted at all they did so only during
swarming time. This form of contraction
is certainly better than the other; but, as
the years go by, less and less is heard about
contraction and more and more about ex-
pansion— how to get stocks strong — big,
rousing, powerful colonies. (See Comb
Honey to Produce; also Building up
Colonies.) An eight-frame brood-nest is
usually small enough. Indeed, a ten-
frame may be none too big. See Hives^
Dimensions of^ elsewhere, for the further
consideration of this subject.

For contraction during the winter see
Wintering Outdoors..

CORAL-BERRY. — See Buckbush.

COTTON {Gossypium herbaceum L.). —
It is but a few years, comparatively, since
cotton came into prominence as a honey
plant. Years ago cotton honey was hardly
known, probably because the honey that
bees obtained from cotton was attributed
to some other source. But more recently,
especially when grown in rich alluvial soil,
in valleys and river bottoms where the
growth is luxuriant, cotton is generally rec-
ognized as one of the most valuable of
honey plants. In the United States the
cultivation of cotton is confined chiefly to
"the cotton belt," which includes the States
of North and South Carolina, Georgia,
Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkan-
sas, Louisiana and Texas, altho thousands
of bales are produced in other States. In
this vast area there grow annually millions
of acres of cotton offering a bee pasture,
which in extent and richness can be equaled
by few other economic plants.

The cotton plant possesses both floral
and extra-floral nectaries. The floral nec-
taries attract various insects, as bees,
wasps, and butterflies, which effect cross-
pollination. The flve sepals form a cup-
like calyx, around the base of which on the

inner side there is a narrow band of papil-
liform cells which secrete nectar. Just
above the nectary there is a fringe or fence
of long stiff hairs, which exclude small in-
sects and the wet; but the larger bees are
able easily to thrust their longer tongues
thru this belt of hairs. On the first day
after expanding the flowers are pure white
or tinged with red, changing on the second
day to dark red.

The extra-floral nectaries are of two
kinds, one occurring on the involucral
bracts and the other on the under side of
the leaves. Below the flower there are
three leaf -like heart-shaped bracts, each of
which has at its base on both the inner and
outer side a round nectary. In some varie-
ties of cotton the outer involucral glands
are wanting. The leaf nectaries are on the
under side of the leaves on, the center rib
and may vary in number from one to three.
In form they are oval or arrow-shaped.
Besides bees the extra-floral glands attract I
many ants and are also visited by humming |
birds. The leaf nectaries seem to be most i
active at the time the leaf reaches full i
maturity. When atmospheric conditions ;
are just right nectar will collect on these
glands in such large drops that one can
readily taste it, and a bee can obtain a load
in a very few visits. At such times honey-
bees neglect the blossoms, and the honey
comes in very rapidly.

The honey flow may last from July until
long after the first frosts, yielding in some
localities as much surplus as all other
sources combined. Often a hundred pounds
or more per colony is stored in favorable
seasons. Even after the first frosts, if there
is pleasant weather, the bees may continue
for two weeks longer to work upon the
plants and make a large increase in the
honey crop.

The surplus obtained depends largely
upon locality, the soil, the season, and at-
mospheric conditions. There are many
factors which influence the nectar flow and
cause it to vary in different places and at
different times. Cotton yields best when
the atmosphere is warm and damp. On
poor soil or sandy land it does not secrete
nectar plentifully, and in some cases not at
all. In an average season a good yield may
be expected from cotton in the black-land
districts and in the river valleys. Under

CUCUMBER

225

favorable conditions it is not excelled by
any other nectar-yielding plant in the cot-
ton belt.

The yield is most abundant in the early
morning, and decreases toward the middle
of the day as the atmosphere becomes drier.
In the afternoon, unless the season is very
dry and hot, the yield begins to increase
again. During cloudy days or when the
atmosphere is damp, nectar is secreted
abundantly thruout the entire day. The
flow has also been observed to increase to-
ward the close of the season.

Cotton honey is very light in color and
mild in flavor when thoroly ripened, and it
compares favorably with the very best
grades of honey. Honey from upland cot-
ton or that grown on poorer soil has a
light-amber color. When first gathered
cotton honey has a flavor very characteris-
tic of the sap of the cotton plant itself, but
this disappears as the honey ripens. Dur-
ing a heavy flow there is a strong odor in
the apiary like that produced by bruising
cotton leaves.

At Trenton, Texas, in 1909, during a
very long drouth a very fine and pure
grade of cotton honey was obtained from
cotton growing on rich bottom land. It
was so thick that it was almost impossible
to extract it, and entirely out of the ques-
tion to strain it thru even a single thick-
ness of cheese-cloth. It was light in color,
mild in flavor, and very heavy, and com-
pared well with, even the famous huajilla
honey. Ordinarily cotton honey granulates
easily, and in the granulated form is almost
pure white and very fine-grained.

Cotton furnishes the clothing of the
larger part of the human race, and the
manufacture of the white fibrous hair on
the seeds into cotton cloth is one of the
most ancient as well as one of the most
important of human industries. Fortu-
nately cotton plants grow in nearly all
subtropical and in many temperate regions
of the world. They were cultivated in
India 500 years before the Christian era,
and the Spanish discoverers of America
found cotton garments among the natives
of Mexico and Peru. Unlike all other fibers
cotton can at once, even with the fingers,
be spun into yarn without any preliminary
preparation. The number of species has
been placed all the way from five to fifty;
8

but conservative authority admits of only
seven valid species, the other forms being
regarded as varietal. Barbadoes, or sea-
island cotton [Gossypium Barbadense L.)
is cultivated in Georgia, South Carolina,
and Florida, but is of comparatively little
importance as a honey plant.

CRIMSON CLOVER.— See Clover.

CROSS BEES.— See Anger of Bees.

CROSSES OF BEES.— See Hybrids.

CUCUMBER {Cucumis sativus L.).— In
the vicinity of pickle factories large areas
are devoted to growing cucumbers. Two
factories at Marengo, 111., are supplied by
600 acres which yield from 75,000 to
100,000 bushels of pickles annually. The
fields vary in size from half an acre to
three or four acres, and the ground is
completely covered by the large heart-
shaped leaves. The total number of acres
cultivated for cucumbers thruout the coun-
try must be very large. As many as 300,000
cucumbers have been produced on a single
acre, but this is more than double the
average crop.

In the absence of bees cucumber blos-
soms, whether in the field or hothouse,
remain barren. The stamens and pistils
are in different fiowers on the same vine,
the staminate flowers being more abundant
on the main stems and the pistillate on the
lateral branches. The former are some-
times incorrectly called "male" and the
latter "female" blossoms. The nectar is
secreted in the bottom of a cup formed by
the fusion of the floral leaves at base. In
the staminate flowers this cup is covered by
the fleshy expanded stamens, and access to
the nectar is gained thru three narrow
lateral passages between the anthers. When
an insect inserts its tongue in one of these
passages both sides of its head are dusted
with pollen. In the pistillate flowers the
pistil rises from the center of the cup. The
staminate flowers are the larger and open
first.

In order that the pistillate flower may
be fruitful, pollen from the staminate
flowers must be brought to the stigmas;
and in the fields this work is chiefly per-
formed by honeybees, other insects than

226

CUCUMBER

Cucumber.

Staminate flower on the left, pistillate flower on the right.

bees being of little importance. A market
gardener in Manitoba states that during
three years he was unable, without colonies
of the domestic bee, to obtain more than a
dozen cucumbers, and in the case of these
exceptions the flowers were pollinated by
hand. He purchased a colony of bees, later
increasing them to eleven colonies. That
year cucumbers to the value of $55 were
sold. It may be regarded as an axiom in
cucumber growing: No bees, no fruit.

Cucumbers raised under glass must either
be pollinated by hand or by hives of bees
placed at each end of the hothouse. In
Massachusetts cucumbers are grown very
extensively in hothouses, and more than
2000 colonies of bees are required annually
to pollinate the blossoms. A single grower
is reported to have 40 acres under glass.
Many colonies are also required for the
same purpose in New Jersey. Pollination
was formerly effected by hand, but the
bees have proved most efficient pollinators,
and enormous crops of cucumbers are ob-

tained. Unfortunately, they often beat
against the glass in their efforts to escape
into the open until they fall exhausted to
the floor and die by hundreds. Many also
perish from lack of sufficient stores, so
that, as a matter of course, new colonies ,
are required each year. j

The honey obtained from cucumber bios- |
soms is pale yellow or amber, and has at i
first a rather strong flavor, apparently ;
suggestive of the fruit; but this probably '
largely disappears in time. In localities j
where there are pickle factories beekeepers ,
find the cucumber a valuable addition to .
the honey flora. Sufficient honey for win- ■
tering is often secured besides a small ;
surplus. I

The cucumber has been in cultivation in t
India for over 3000 years and was known to
the Greeks and Romans. According to De
CandoUe it was one of the fruits of Egypt
regretted by the Israelites in the desert.

CYPRIAN BEES.— See Italians.

D

DANDELION {Taraxieum officinale
Weber). — Other English names are lion's
tooth, blowball, yellow gowan, and priest's
crown. It is widely distributed over Europe,
Asia, North America, the Arctic regions,
and in many other parts of the civilized
world. At Medina, as is shown in the
photograph, and in many other localities
the flowers are in some years so abundant
I that the fields and lawns are an almost
unbroken sheet of golden yellow. The
effect is most cheerful and pleasing, and in
its season there is no other wild flower that
can vie with the dandelion for ornamental
purposes on a large scale. Coming as it
does in early spring, preceding fruit bloom,
it is a most valuable plant for bees. Some
seasons it furnishes not a little honey, and
besides it affords a large amount of pollen
at a time when bees require a rich, nitro-
genous food for brood-rearing.

The dandelion belongs to the Compositae,
and is related to the hawkweed and chicory.
The head or capitulum consists of from 100
to 200 florets. The corolla of each floret is
strap-shaped, but at base unites to form a
short tube which holds the nectar. At
night and in damp weather the head closes
so that there is little visible except a
protecting whorl of green bracts. The
pollen and nectar are thus completely
sheltered from dew and rain. In fair
weather the hour of opening in the morn-
ing varies from 6 to 8 or 9 o'clock, and the
time of closing from 2 till sunset, according
to the month and latiude. The flowers open
much later in September than in midsum-
mer, and in northern regions than in the
United States. The dandelion often blooms
a second time in the fall, but much less
freely than in spring.

As the nectar and pollen are readily
accessible a great variety of insects are
attracted, and more than 100 different
species of bees and flies have been observed
seeking the flower food of this species.
The supply of nectar some seasons is
abundant. The pollen is plentiful and a
special source of attraction. The grains

are large, many-sided, and spinous, and so
firmly do they hold together that bees can
carry large packets of them.

In many widely separated localities a
surplus of dandelion honey is not infre-
quently obtained, and occasionally it is
placed on the market. A beekeeper in
central Illinois reports that about 10
pounds of dandelion honey per colony Avas
one season stored in the supers. In Colo-
rado it is common for the -hives to be filled
with dandelion honey, and a few beekeep-
ers have offered the extracted honey for
sale. Finished sections can also be pro-
duced. But most of the dandelion honey
gathered is consumed in the hives before
alfalfa begins to blossom. In many loca-
tions it is more highly prized than fruit
bloom. In Vermont, hive after hive is
filled with dandelion honey; and, with the
exception of the clovers, it ranks with the
best honey plants of this section. Altho
it does not possess a fine flavor, it is used
as a breakfast honey. On many farms
in Ontario and Quebec dandelion produces
more boney in early spring than any other
plant. A strong colony will store in the
super from 30 to 40 pounds. On May 29,
1916, the warmest day of the month, the
temperature at noon being 75 degrees,
there was, says Sladen, a gain of nine
pounds and twelve ounces for the 24 hours,
by a colony on scales at the Experiment
Farm, Ottawa, mainly from dandelion.
This plant is also said to yield a surplus at
Fort William. It is apparently rapidly
spreading, both in Canada and the United
States, and becoming yearly of more im-
portance to bee culture.

The dandelion is also a valuable honey
plant in Europe, and is listed in the honey
floras of Spain, Holland, Austria, Ger-
many, and Norway. In Holland, in May
the meadows are often literally covered
with a golden carpet of dandelion bloom.
In southern Germany it is abundant, and
furnishes the flrst honey of the season. It
is of a deep-yellow color, and crystallizes,

228

DANDELION

A part of a fielrl of dandelion in full bloom at Medina. This, and other fields like it near Medina, furnish
considerable honey and pollen in early spring — just when they can do the most good. We do not find that the
plant hurts the hay or pastures in the least.

after extracting, in a week or two. Very
little of it is left in the hive at the begin-
ning of winter, which is fortunate, since it
is too hard to be easily eaten by the bees.

The flow from dandelion in May lasts for
about two weeks, and is increased by a
succession of warm days. The honey varies
in color from bright yellow to a deep
amber — a little darker than that of golden-
rod. Comb built when bees are working
on dandelion is a beautiful shade of light
yellow, even the older comb becoming yel-
lowish. When newly gathered the honey
has the strong odor and flavor of the dan-

delion flower; but when fully ripened it
has an agreeable taste, altho persons accus-
tomed to a mild honey might consider it
too strong. If the brood-chamber is crowded
with it, it is likely to be carried up into
the super, injuring the quality of the sur-
plus. It is thick and viscous, and crystal-
lizes with a coarse grain in a short time.
It would seem as tho a variety of this
species might be obtained which would
yield nectar freely over a wide area.

There are several species of dandelion
which, like the honeybee, possess the power
of reproduction by parthenogenesis. The

DANDELION

229

A large specimen of dandelion blossom, buds, and leaves- — life size. The blossom here shown is larger than the
average. The usual size is about two inches across.

upper half of the unopened heads of T.
vulgare, T. intermedium, T. ohovalum, and
of several other species, has been cut off
with a razor, and all the anthers and stig--
mas removed before they had ripened, so
that fertilization was impossible, yet the
plants developed perfect fruits.

The dandelion has both beauty and util-
ity, and an attempt to exterminate it, even
if this were possible, would be a grave mis-

take. "Of the attractiveness of the bloom
there can be no doubt. Attentively consid-
ered it will be seen that it is a model of
symmetry." It is of no injury in the hay
fields, and as a pasture feed it increases the
flow of milk and improves its quality. Tons
of the leaves, both wild and cultivated, are
boiled as "greens" and afford a most pala-
tab.^e and wholesome food — to be had for
the gathering. Large quantities are also

230

DEVELOPMENT OF BEES

salted for winter use. The roots serve as a
tolerable substitute for co:ffee, and are re-
puted to be of medicinal value in cases of
disordered liver. The seeds are eaten by
poultry, and even the flowers are occasion-
ally utilized.

But more than one futile crusade has
been organized against the dandelion based
on the complaint that it is a pestiferous
weed in lawns, which is true. A rich soil
and a dense turf will do much to eradicate
or exclude it ; but happily nature has made
its wholesale extermination difficult. Con-
trary to general belief, it can be killed in
most cases if it be cut off level with the
ground. If this is not effective a drop of
kerosene applied with a spring-top oil-can
will do it. If the dandelion is not invul-
nerable, it is invincible. Says A. I. Root:
"This plant has been called only a pest,
but it is one of God's greatest and most
precious gifts in making our northern Ohio
clay soil 'a land flowing with milk and
honey,' and both at the same time."

DAISY.— See Astees.

DEVELOPMENT OF BEES.— The lit-
erature on the development of the honeybee
available to the beekeeper is scant. This is
especially true as regards the development
in the egg (embryology) and the metamor-
phosis. The origin of drones from unfer-
tilized eggs has been much discussed in the
journals devoted to beekeeping, but such
discussion has, as a rule, contributed but
little to our knowledge of the facts. This
condition of affairs is somewhat surprising,
considering the attention which has been
given to the anatomy of the honeybee, and
also to the development in the egg. The
facts concerning this development are well
known, having been described by the fol-
lowing investigators: Butschli (Germany)
in 1870, Kowalevsky (Russia) in 1871, and
Grassi (Italy) in 1884. The metamorphosis
was described in detail by Anglas (France)
in 1900.

Before taking up a description of the
development of the bee, a few words should
be said in regard to what the student of
plant or animal life knows as a cell. This
word has several meanings, but is used here
in a restricted and special sense. All plants
and animals are, without exception, com-
posed of one or more cells. The cell is the

unit of structure, as the brick is the unit
of structure of the chimney, or the soldier
of the army. Cells are commonly micro-
scopic in size, so that it requires many
millions of them to make up even so small
an animal as a bee. A group of typical
tissue cells is shown in Fig. 1. A ceU may
be defined as "a mass of protoplasm (liv-
ing material) containing a nucleus." Both
nucleus and protoplasm are interdependent ;
neither is capable of continued existence
without the other. The nucleus (N) is a
body usually more or less rounded in form,
containing within it a substance commonly
believed to be the bearer of the hereditary
qualities of the individual and of the race.
Every cell is to a certain extent indepen-
dent, carrying on its own vital functions,
such as the assimilation of nourishment and

Fig. 1. — Group of tissue cells from the skin of a
young salamander (greatly magnified) . _ N, nucleus.
Two cells are shown in process of division, and are
indicated by their lighter shade.

the elimination of waste. In addition, in
the higher organisms, it usually has a spe-
cial function ; for example, the special func-
tion of the liver cell is to secrete bile, that
of the nerve cell to transmit nerve impulses.
All the cells in an organism are, however,
so co-ordinated that the sum total of their
activities is a unified whole, that is, an in-
dividual, capable, under the proper condi-
tions, of maintaining itself and contribut-
ing to the reproduction of its kind. One
propertj^ of the protoplasm and nucleus of
a typical cell is the power of multiplying
by self -division. This division always pro-

DEVELOPMENT OF BEES

231

duces daughter cells, each receiving a part
of the parent cell. In Fig. 1 two cells are
in process of division.

On beginning its development every egg
is essentially a single cell. In addition to
the protoplasm and nucleus of a typical
cell, the egg contains also a certain amount
of non-living material, yolk^ which serves
as a store of food for the developing em-
bryo. Before it can begin development, the
unfertilized egg or female cell must usually
be first united with a much smaller and
more condensed cell, the spermatozoon, or
male cell. This cell supplies the male half of
the inherited characters and also stimulates
the egg into development. This phenomenon
is fertilization. In certain cases eggs may
develop without- the stimulus of the sper-
matozoon, and they therefore inherit their
characters only thru the mother; this is
parthenogenesis.

The development of the egg or cell formed
by the union of the male and female cells
consists in its repeated division, by which
many ceUs, united together, are formed ; the
shifting and rearrangement of these to form
organs and tissues ; the gradual appearance
of differences between the cells forming the
various tissues and organs, so that the cells
become changed or modified in accordance
with the function which they are to assume.

The egg of the honeybee is shaped some-
what like a banana and is about 6-100 of
an inch long. One end is slightly larger
than the other, the egg adhering to the bot-
tom of the cell by the smaller end. The
embryo is always formed on the longer or
convex side of the egg, its lower or ventral
surface directed outward, the head at the
larger end. The egg is in appearance pearlj'-
white, and slightly translucent. It is cov-
ered externally by a very thin but tough
membrane whose surface is covered by a
delicate network of ridges. The egg of the
bee contains a relatively large quantity of
yolk, the protoplasm being comparatively
small in amount. On this account cell
division is restricted to the interior of the
egg, the cells thus formed later rising to its
surface to form a layer from which all the
parts of the future larva are formed.

The fiLrst conspicuous evidence of the
future embryo is the appearance, during
the second half of the second day, of a
bandlike thickening on the long side of the
egg (Fig. 2). On this thickening, at the

larger end of the egg the appendages begin
to appear as rounded protuberances, the
antennae (Ant) and the mouth parts (man-
dibles and maxillae, Md. IMx, 2Mx) being
the first to appear. Behind them are the
rudiments of the three pairs of legs (L 1,
L 2, L 3). At about the same time the
rudiments of the stigmata and tracheal sys-
tem appear as a single row of pits on each
side (Sp). The rudiments of the silk or
spinning glands (SlkG) also appear as pits
just behind the second maxillae. On tLe
upper or dorsal side of the head are also
seen two pairs of swellings (Br) which
constitute the rudiments of the brain. At
this stage therefore nearly all of the im-
portant organs of the larva are outlined.
The changes leading to the completed larva
are illustrated by Figs. 2c and 2d. In Fig.
2c a number of important changes are seen
to have taken place. The bandlike embryo
has widened, growing toward the dorsal
or concave side of the egg. The mouth
(Mth) and anus (An) appear as deep pits
at the two opposite ends of the embryo.
They join with cell masses on the interior to
form the alimentary canal, the parts form-
ing the fore and hind intestines, the cell
masses the mid intestine (Fig. 3, Mint).
The mouth parts have changed little, but the
upper lip (Lm) is now represented by a
flap-like outgrowth. The Malpighian tu-
bules, MT, the excretory organs of the
larva, have arisen as outgrowths of the hind
intestine. The pits constituting the tra-
cheal invaginations have enlarged to form
sacs, and each of these in turn sends out
three hollow outgrowths, one of which ex-
tends forward and one backward, to meet
those of the neighboring segments, and one
extends downward to join the correspond-
ing branch in the same segment on the
opposite side (Fig 2, Tr). The pit-like
rudiments of the silk-glands (Slk-Gl) have
grown backward to form long tubes. The
rings or segments of the body are now
marked off by constrictions, as they are in
the larva. In Fig. 2d the development in
the egg is practically completed. The im-
portant changes to be noted are: The dis-
appearance of the rudiments of the anten-
nas and legs, the joining together of the
second maxillae to form the lower lip; the
completion of the tracheal loops (Tr), and
the development of the nervous system.
The embryo has by this time completely

232

DEVELOPMENT OF BEES

2Mx
SIkGI

Md
iMx

Lb(2Mx)

Fig. 2.- — ^Three stages to the developmpnt of the egg (greatly magnified). The earliest stage at which the
rudiments of the appendages are seen is represented by a and b; a, egg seen from the ventral (lower) side; b,
from the right side ; c, later stage, showing the development of the mouth parts, silk glands, etc. ; d, embryo
just prior to hatching, the development within the egg being completed ; An, anus ; Ant, antenna ; Br, brain ;
IL, 2L, 3L, thoracic legs; Lb, labium (lower lip); Lm, labrum (upper lip); Md, mandible; MT, malpighian
tubules ; IMx, 2Mx, first and second maxillse ; SlkGl, silk gland ; Sp, rudiment of spiracle ; Tr, trachea ; VNG,
ventral nerve cord.

surrounded the egg, closing up the gap on
the back as seen in Fig. 2b. The embryo
next breaks the egg shell and becomes a
larva, the development in the egg having
lasted a trifle over three days.

It is interesting to note that cleavage and
in general what may be called "the prepa-
ration of the materials," from which the
parts of the embryo are formed, consumes
from 42 to 44 hours, or over half of the
entire period of development. After this
the embryo develops very rapidly, as shown
by the three embryos represented in Fig. 2.
The embryo represented by Fig. 2, a and
is about 45 hours old; Fig. 2c, about 56
hours old; while that shown by Fig. 2d is
completely developed.

The yolk, which forms the greater part
of the egg, remains in the interior of the
egg, the embryo being formed on the exte-
rior and then gradually surrounding the
yolk, the lateral edges of the embryo finally
uniting in the dorsal mid-line. The yolk
meanwhile is being used up by the growth
processes and undergoes considerable
shrinkage. Toward the end of developm'ent
it becomes enclosed in the mid-intestine and
is finally digested there.

In respect to their later development

insects are usually divided into two classes
— those with a complete metamorphosis and
those with an incomplete metamorphosis.
The honeybee is an excellent illustration of
the first class, while the grasshopper is an
illustration of the second. When the young
grasshopper hatches from the egg it is
clearly recognizable as a grasshopper and
would never be mistaken for another in-
sect, since it resembles the adult in every
important particular except that its wings
are only short pad-like structures. More-
over, its food and habits of life are those
of the adult, and it faces the same difficul-
ties and dangers. Its development into the
adult is simple; it is little more than an
increase in size. The honeybee, on hatch-
ing from the egg, is, however, quite a dif-
ferent creature from the adult, being with-
out organs of locomotion (legs), touch
(antennas), or sight (eyes). Moreover, its
integument is thin and not hardened as in
the adult. The larval stage in insects with
complete metamorphosis is a short cut in
development, by which the young insect is
enabled to obtain food more advantageous-
ly and to grow more rapidly, and, in the
case of the bee, is also protected from ene-
mies. The bee larva is especially adapted
by nature for rapidly disgesting and assim-

DEVELOPMENT OF BEES

233

ilating food. As Fig. 3 shows, its mid-intes-
tine or stomach occupies the greater portion
of the body of the larvas. As one beekeeper
expressed it, " a larva is all stomach."
For this reason and because of the rich and
easily digested food supplied hy the worker
bees, and also because the young or larval
bee is not required to use up any energy in
escaping enemies or in obtaining food, all
its energies being bent on eating and grow-
ing, it is enabled to complete its growth in
a short space of time. This is accomplished
in the case of the worker bee in a little less
than five days. When the larva is first
hatched it lies bent in the form of the letter
C on the bottom of the cell. As it increases
in size it becomes more tightly curled until,
when about three days old or a trifle older,

Fig. 3. — Diagram of a longitudinal section thru a
larva. Flnt, fore intestine ; Hint, hind intestine ,
Mint, mid intestine ; VNC, ventral nerve cord.

it is so large that it covers the bottom of
the cell with its back against the wall of the
cell and its two ends close together. It
should be noted that a larva of this age is
actually much larger than those commonly
supposed by beekeepers to be three days
old and is much too large to be used in
queen-rearing. Notwithstanding its cramped
position the larva does not alter its position
in the cell, but remains curled on the bot-
tom. Since the walls of the cell prevent
further expansion in that dircetion the lar-
va grows in the only other direction possi-
ble— that is, toward the mouth of the cell.
When a larva is nearly full grown it fits the
cell like a tight plug, and if it could be
frozen or otherwise fi:xed in this position,
when taken out it would present a veritable

cast of the lower half of the cell, reproduc-
ing its rounded bottom and its six flat sides.
In fact, during the fourth and fifth days,
the larva fits the cell so snugly that its
removal is scarcely possible without severe
damage to either larva or cell. It is thus
evident that, during the later stages of
growth, the larva is greatly distorted. When
removed from the ceU, however, it presents
the appearance shown in Fig. 4c, and it is
scarcely conceivable that such a plump-look-
ing creature could ever have occupied such
narrow quarters. During the first three
days of the larval stage of the worker bee,
and during all of the larval stage of the
queen, it is fed a highly nitrogenous food
produced by the nurse bees. The origin of
this food, whether it is a secretion from
special glands of the nurse bees, or is re-
gurgitated from their stomachs, is not at
present known. After the first three days,
however, the worker bees are fed honey and
pollen. When the larva has attained its
full size, which in the case of the worker
bee occurs after about five days, it is sealed
up in its cell by the worker bees, which
place a thin cap of porous wax and pollen

Fig. 4. — Four stages in the development of the
honey bee, a, egg ; b, young larva : c, old larva ; d,
pupa.

over the mouth of the cell. Next the entire
interior of the cell is lined with a delicate
but tough silken cocoon spun by the larva
and secreted by special glands which be-
come active at this time — the silk-glands
(Fig. 2, c and SlkGl). To accomplish
this task the larva has to turn lengthwise
of the cell at least twice. At the time of
spinning the cocoon a connection between
the raid and hind intestines (Fig. 3, Mint,

234

DISEASES OF BEES

Hint) becomes established, and the dark-
colored residue of the food digested during
the feeding period is evacuated on the bot-
tom of the cell, usually in its angles. Soon
after the spinning of the cocoon, which
consumes about one day's time, the larva
gradually becomes motionless, lying ex-
tended on its back, with its head toward the
mouth of the cell. The larva now becomes
a semipupa or pronymph. Its form is
much like that of an old larva, but its color
seems paler and less glistening. If touched
a semipupa seems soft and pulpy, and if
an attempt is made to remove it from the
cell it will be found very delicate and easily
ruptured. After about three days in this
stage, or four days after capping, the semi-
pupa moults its larval skin and becomes a
pupa, with the form and all the parts of an
adult bee (Fig. 4d). These — legs, antennse,
etc. — have been developing rapidly during
the semipupal stage, but were covered and
therefore hidden from view by the larval
skin. On the eleventh day after hatching,
the eyes begin to turn from white to pink,
which color later turns to reddish brown
and finally, on the sixteenth day, to black;
the thorax at the same time becomes a light
yellowish brown. On the nineteenth day
after hatching the development is complete,
the young bee sheds its pupal skin and
gnaws its way out of the cell. The duration
of the larval and pupal stages in the devel-
opment of queens and drones is different
from those of the worker. ( See Bee Meta-
morphoses, in "Beekeepers' Dictionary," in
the back part of this work.)

It is evident that, during the period after
the larva is sealed up in the cell, the devel-
opmental changes which it undergoes must
be active and radical indeed in order to
bring forth a creature as different from the
larva as is the adult bee. The following is
only a brief sketch of these complex proc-
esses. In general they involve a tearing
down and rebuilding of many of the tissues
of the bee as well as the coming into activ-
ity of portions of the larva which have been
dormant ever since it left the egg, or even
before this time. To the former category
belongs in particular the alimentary tract,
which is literally torn down and cast away,
being replaced by new cells. To the latter
category belong the legs, wings, and eyes,
which are developed from groups of cells
whose activities have been held in abeyance

during the larval period. These are formed
from growth centers of the body wall which
are formed before the larva hatches from
the egg, but which are quiescent during the
growing period of the larva. After the
larva is sealed up these rudiments are roused
into activity. The legs and wings are
formed in pockets of the body wall, and,
after the moult of the propupal skin, are
pushed out by blood pressure from the
interior, as the fingers of a glove may be
pushed out by blowing into them. The
muscles of the larva are partly torn down
and replaced by new muscles, and partly
persist as the muscles of the adult. The
changes undergone by the nervous system
and the trachea are much less radical. All
these changes consume energy, which is
shown by the fact that there is a consider-
able loss of weight during the pupal period.
This energy is stored up in the larva largely
in the form of fat contained in the fat-
body which surrounds the mid-intestine.

DISEASES OF BEES.— A few years
ago it was believed that bees were freer
from disease than perhaps any other class
of animated nature, for the reason that in-
dividual members of the colonies were so
constantly giving way to the younger ones.
But this has been shown to be, to some ex-
tent at least, a mistake; for apparently
there are at least three or four distinct dis-
eases with which the beekeeper has to eon-
tend; and it is well for the beginner to
have an idea, at least, of what they are
like; for the time to cure a disease of a
contagious character is to take it at the
start, or, better still, take precautionary
measures such as will prevent its making
even a beginning.

ROW TO AVOID DISEASE.

Contagious diseases spread very rapidly
among bees, just as they make rapid head-
way in crowded centers of the human fam-
ily. Unfortunately, bees are disposed to
rob from each other during a dearth of
honey; and, if the germs of disease or
infection reside in the honey, they may be
scattered over the entire apiary in a few
days. Any infected colony is naturally
weakened and discouraged, and as a result
the bees do not make the defense that they
would under normal conditions. During a

DISEASES OF BEES

235

dearth of honey the healthy bees all over
the yard are quite disposed to rob the
weak or the sick ones, so that the infection
is scattered right and left.

One of the best precautions against dis-
ease is good food, and keeping all colonies
strong. A healthy human being is much
more able to resist the germs of infection
than one who is "all run down." A per-
son, for instance, is not likely to come
down with typhoid fever unless his system
is greatly reduced.

TWO CLASSES OF DISEASE.

The diseases with which the beekeeper
has to contend may be divided into two
classes — ^those that affect the mature flying
bees, and those that attack the brood. The
latter are considered under Foul Brood.

Among the diseases that attack the ma-
ture bees may be mentioned " spring dwin-
dling." This, perhaps, should hardly be
considered a disease, but it is a malady
with which one has to deal. Still another
trouble is dysentery. This in some cases
may be a germinal disease; and in most
cases assumes the nature of ordinary diar-
rhea.

BEE PARALYSIS.

This is a disease that is much more prev-
alent and virulent in warm than in cold
climates. Almost every apiarist in the
North has noticed at times one or two colo-
nies in his apiary that show bees affected
with it. Yet it seldom spreads or makes
any great trouble; but, unfortunately, this
is not true in some parts of the South and
West. In the South it is known to affect
whole apiaries, and seems to be contagious.
It may be Isle of Wight disease, described
later.

symptoms.

In the early stages an occasional bee will
be found to be running from the entrance,
with the abdomen greatly swollen, and in
other respects the bee has a black, greasy
appearance. While these sick bees may
be scattered thru the hive, they will sooner
or later work their way toward the en-
trance, evidently desiring to rid the colony
of their miserable presence. The other bees
also seem to regard them as no longer nec-

essary to the future prosperity of the col-
ony. In fact, they will tug and puU at
them about as they would a dead bee until
they succeed in getting them out in the
grass, where the poor bees seem willing to
go and die alone.

Another sjTaptom is, that the bees often
show a^ shaking or trembling motion. Along
with this is an effort to scratch and tug at
their bodies with their legs as if there was
an itching or irritation. The other bees
tug and pull at the affected bees, apparent-
ly trying to get them out of the hive.

TREATMENT AND CURE.

In most cases, destroying the queen of the
infected colony, and introducing another
from a healthy stock, effects a cure. This
would seem to indicate that paralysis is
constitutional, coming from the queen ; but
in the South, where the disease is much
more prevalent and destructive, destroying
the queen seems to have but little effect.
Spraying the combs with a solution of salt
and water, or of carbolic acid and water,
has been recommended; but these do little
or no good. One writer recommends re-
moving the diseased stock from its stand,
and putting in its place a strong healthy
one. The affected colony is then removed
to the stand formerly occupied by the
healthy bees. He reports that he tried this
in many cases and found that an absolute
cure followed in every instance. The ra-
tionale of the treatment seems to be that
the bees of the ordinary colony haviag bee
paralysis are too much discouraged to re-
move the sick : as a consequence, the source
of infection — that is, the swoUen, shiny
bees — are allowed to crawl thru the hive at
will. But when the colonies are transposed,
the healthy vigorous bees of the sound
stock carry the diseased bees entirely away
from the hive. The sick and the dying re-
moved, the colony recovers.

The late 0. 0. Poppleton of Florida had
a large experience. One plan that he used
is as follows :

He sprinkled sulphur over the affected
bees and combs, but not until all the brood
in the diseased colony had been removed
and put into a strong healthy one ; for Mr.
Poppleton said that sulphur kills all un-
sealed brood and eggs but no harm re-
sults from putting the brood among healthy

23G

DISEASES OF BEES

bees, as he found the source of the malady
is not in the brood or combs; for he
repeatedly put combs from colonies af-
fected with paraij^sis into healthy ones and
never (but once) did the disease develop
in any such colony, and that was a year
afterward.

At first, said Mr. Poppleton, the disease
seems to get worse instead of better. The
colony will dwindle, but in two weeks there
will be a decided improvement, and finally
the colony will be cured and will stay
cured. In many cases, he thought, it might
be necessary to repeat the application of
the sulphur about 10 days after the first
time. This makes sure that every bee has
received a curative quantity of the sulphur,
even if it were not in the hive at the first
dose.*

While the foregoing plan worked well,
yet, because it is attended with a rapid
reduction of the strength of the colony so
treated, and because the disease has a ten-
dency to run in certain strains that are
very susceptible to it, Mr. Poppleton thought
that, in the long run, it might be better
to use the following plan: Form as many
nuclei from strong healthy stocks as there
are sick colonies to be treated. As soon as
the nuclei have young laying queens, give
to each, as fast as they can take care
of them, one or two frames of the oldest
capped brood from each of the paralytic
colonies, and thereafter till all the brood
of such colonies is used up. The diseased
bees and queen next destroy with sul-
phur fumes, fumigating the hives at the
same time.

BEE PAEALYSIS IN AUSTRALIA*, DEVELOPING
A STRAIN OF BEES IMMUNE TO IT.

As already mentioned, bee paralysis seems
to be more virulent in hot climates than in
cold ones; and it also appears that some
strains of bees are less immune to it than
others. F. R. Beuhne of Tooberac, Austra-
lia, one of the most extensive beekeepers
of that country, has had a very large
experience with it. In some parts it is
very destructive. But Mr. Beuhne has it
well under control by developing and prop-
agating a strain of vigorous leather-colored
Italians. The yellow strains he does not
find to be very resistant to the disease. It

* Always clr.st the sulphur on in the ovcnin;?.

appears that, by paj-ing careful attention
to breeding, the tendency to contract this
disease may be almost entirely eliminated,
and Mr. Beuhne has succeeded. On one
occasion he had shipped into his locality
50 colonies, and almost immediately every
one of them became badly affected. By
killing off the queens and introducing his
own stock he cured the disease.

Repeated tests have shown that paralysis
is never transmitted by the brood or combs,
but that it is carried by the dead or sick
bees. It is, therefore, important, in giving
the combs to the nuclei, that there be no
dead bees in the cells.

ISLE OF WIGHT DISEASE.

This is a condition that was first de-
scribed from the Isle of Wight, south of
Great Britain, in 1904. It continued from
year to year until it came very near
wiping out all the bees on the island. It
was feared that it might get on the main-
land of England, and in 1907 it did make
a start there. At first but little attention
was paid to it; but the beekeepers of the
British Isles learned that it was something
very serious — much more so than European
or American foul brood.

SYMPTOMS AND DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN
ISLE OF WIGHT DISEASE AND BEE
PARALYSIS.

The symptoms are very similar to those
of bee paralysis, and it may be a modified
form of that disease. It is both endemic
and epidemic. A careful reading of the
reports in the British Bee Journal for the
last 10 years seems to indicate the symp-
toms as follows:

A few bees will be crawling out of the
hives the same as when attacked by bee
paralysis, crawling up spears of grass ; and
if they can fly at all, it is but a few feet.
In some cases the abdomens are distended
by fecal accumulations. In other and most
cases there is no distention. Sometimes the
smaller or the larger wings in some speci-
mens seem to be out of joint. In bee
paralysis the wings appear normal, but
show a tremulous motion; but very little
of this tremulous condition has been seen
in the Isle of Wight disease. The bees
somet'.mes lose the use of one or more pair

DISEASES OF BEES

237

of legs or drag their hind legs, tho the oth-
ers may be more or less vigorous. The bees
with Isle of "Wight disease become listless,
and cluster in bunches around the entrance
of the hive. In bee paralysis there may be
somewhat sunilar clustering; but the bees
are more scattered. The affected bees of
the Isle of TVight disease, from reports,
are rarely black and shiny as in the other
disease. In fact, in many cases they seem
to be quite normal in their appearance, dif- '
fering only in theii' behavior. As the dis-
ease advances, the crawling bees will di-ag
their distended abdomens on the ground,
seeming not to have the power to carry
them as they ordinarily do, owing to their
inability to take the cleansing flight. As
it progresses further, every bee in the hive
will be involved, and finally the cluster will
be reduced to just a very few in the hive
centering around the queen. The queen
seems to be the last one affected.

The intestines of some of the infected
bees are said by some wi'iters to contain
a large amount of imdigested pollen. When
this disease is contracted, the bees, it is
stated, seem to have an unusual fondness
for nitrogenous food, even gorging them-
selves with pollen of all kinds without col-
lecting any in their pollen-baskets. This is
doubtless what causes the abdomens of
some of the bees to be swollen. So dis-
tended at times are they that it appears to
interfere with the proper action of the
breathing spiracles.

Sometimes, more especially in early
spring, the affected bees seem to lose con-
trol of the muscles of the bowel and dis-
charge a liquid looking very much like that
of ordinary dysentery. Whether this is
one of the sjmiptoms of Isle of Wight dis-
ease, or whether it is another disease, or
just common dysentery that attacks the
colony weakened by the malady, does not
seem to be clearly shown.

Dr. Zander of Germany found in the
chyle stomach of affected bees that soiled
theii' hives and combs with the discharges
of fecal matter a nosema which he called
Nosema apis. Referring to this, an elab-
orate report on the Isle of Wight disease
published in Great Britain in the Journal
of the Board of Agri culture , Vol. XIX,
Xo. 2, May, 1912, says :

Since no method of cultivating Nosema apis
outside the body of the bee has yet been de-
vised, spores of Xosema, obtained from the
bodies of diseased bees, were used. It is
shown that the disease can be produced in
healthy bees by feeding with syrup or honey
containing spores, by contaminating their
food with infected excrement, by allowing
them to feed on candy previously used by
infected beeS; by placing bees dead of the
disease in the cages occupied by healthy bees,
and by confining healthy bees in cages in
which diseased bees had traveled. By ob-
servations on infected stocks kept in captiv-
ity the variations in the symptoms were
studied. Some of the experiments seemed to
indicate that partially immune stocks exist,
vrhich can be caused to suffer from the dis-
ease only vrith difficulty, but which may har-
bor the parasite and act as centers of infec-
tion for susceptible stocks.

A Xosema is often found in other in-
sects, and is said to be quite destructive,
especially to silkworms. As Xosema apis
is a member of the gi'oup named Mieros-
poridia the term Microsporidiosis has been
suggested to denote the cases due to in-
fection with Xosema apis.

The later researches of Drs. Graham-
Smith, Maiden, Fautham & Porter, all of
Cambridge, have confirmed the findings of
Dr. Zander, and agree that the so-called
Isle of Wight disease is caused by the pres-
ence in the walls of the chyle-stomach and
intestines of the bee of vast niunbers of
the microscopic aninial parasite or proto-
zoon Xosema apis. More recently the dis-
ease has been investigated by Dr. J. Ren-
nie and J. Anderson. They believe Xose-
ma apis is not the cause but that the real
trouble has not yet been found. Joseph
Tinsley does not believe Xosema apis is the
cause but reports masses of bacteria in the
stomach contents and in the excrement.
This he believes of significance.

As in the case of bee paralysis, the Isle
of Wight disease seems to be much, worse
during a wet and foggy season than dur-
ing a warm dry one. Similarly a moist
climate is more favorable to its propaga-
tion than a dry one.

HAS THERE BEEX AXY ISLE OF WIGHT

DISEASE IX a:merica?

A malady very similar to the condition
described in the Isle of Wight disease has
been found in several portions of the
Fnited States. Whether it is bee paralysis,

238

DISEASES OF BEES

whether it is the Isle of Wight disease, or
whether they are one and the same thing,
at this writing is not known. In 1915
(which was unusually wet) there was a
scourge of bee disease in this country, par-
ticularly around Portland, Ore. Many of
the symptoms were the same as those de-
scribed for the Isle of Wight disease and
bee paralysis. In the disease reported
from the Northwest, it was stated that the
brood itself was sometimes involved. But
if the colony becomes listless it is apparent
that the brood would be neglected, and
therefore die of starvation.

A condition similar in many respects
was noticed down in the Mississippi Val-
ley, in parts of Texas, California, and in
some of the West Indies in 1915, and in the
'90's in Florida; but as soon as settled
warm, dry weather came on it disappeared.

Again in 1917 there was an outbreak in
this country of something that seemed to
tally in almost every respect with the
symptoms reported for the Isle of Wight
disease in Great Britain. We examined a
number of apiaries where these outbreaks
occurred. In a few cases whole colonies
were depleted of bees. In other cases the
OAvners of the apiaries reported that if the
decimation continued there would not be a
bee left in any hive; but fortunately the
disease, whatever it was, after reaching a
certain height would suddenly disappear,
and hence it has been called the "disap-
pearing disease." The name seems to be
appropriate because the bees disappear as
the disease itself disappears or the colonies
dwindle down. During the last few years
this disease has in many places materially
cut down the honey crop and in some cases
has wiped out entire apiaries. In 1919, Her-
man Ahlers of Oregon reported a loss of
400 colonies from this cause.

The malady usually shows itself just at
the beginning of a honey flow. The symp-
toms are almost exactly like those reported
for the Isle of Wight disease, with perhaps
the single exception that in the early stages
the bees run about on the ground near the
entrances trying to fly, and rushing as if
they were in a mad race. Some of the
bees have the wings out of joint. In front
of the entrance there are numbers of dead
bees with dozens of live ones rushing about
in great distress as if trying to get away
from something. In the more advanced

stages the bees seem logy, and otherwise
act as in the Isle of Wight disease. In
1916 C. H. Bocock of New Market, Eng-
land, who had made a special study of the
Isle of Wight disease in his country, was
sent to the United States by the Board of
Agriculture. He examined a number of
apiaries where it showed up, and reported
that it seemed to be identical with the Isle
of Wight disease in England, altho only in
a mild form.

The disappearing or Isle of Wight dis-
ease in this country seems to be more viru-
lent during wet seasons than during dry
ones. As the climate in Great Britain is
much more humid than that of the United
States, it is possible that climatic condi-
tions may prevent the disease, whatever it
is, from being very serious in this country.

It is, perhaps, premature at this time to
come to any definite conclusions. In the
first place, we do not know that our disap-
pearing disease is the Isle of Wight dis-
ease; neither do we know whether Nosema
apis is the exciting cause or even a con-
tributing cause.

In this connection it should be stated
that Mr. Bocock found Nosema apis in
specimens of bees affected with the disap-
pearing disease; but, as already pointed
out, Nosema apis has been found in per-
fectly healthy individuals. This rather
leads to the presumption that Nosema apis
is only a contributing cause in connection
with some other microbe.

SOME STRAINS MORE RESISTANT THAN
OTHERS.

In the United States, Italian bees and
their crosses are predominant among our
most successful apiarists; and since the
Italians are found to be more resistant to
European foul brood, the best beekeepers
are introducing them as rapidly as possible,
especially if they have hybrids. In Great
Britain black bees are predominant; and
as this race is not nearly so resistant to
European foul brood, it is to be presumed
it is a more easy prey to this peculiar
malady than a vigorous strain of leather-
colored Italians. Indeed, there are some
reports in the British Bee Journal showing
that the leather-colored Italians are more
resistant to the Isle of Wight disease than
the ordinary blacks. It is equally true

DRIFTING

239

tliat some strains of Italians, as with bee
paralysis, have appeared to be much more
resistant to the disease in Oregon than
other strains of Italians. It is hoped that
immune strains can be found for the Isle
of Wight disease in Great Britain.

THE MAY DISEASE.

In Europe, especially in Germany and
France, there has been reported a disease
not unlike the Isle of Wight trouble, ex-
cept that it is never seen after early
summer. In France it has been caUed
mal de mai; in Great Britain, "May dis-
ease"; in Germany Maikrankheit. They
all refer, of course, to the same condition;
but apparently the symptoms of this dis-
ease are not the same as those of the Isle
of Wight disease. It comes on in May and
June, and then disappears. It is more in
the nature of dysentery, and warm weather
seems to abate it. It is probable that it is
not the same condition as described for the
destructive Isle of Wight disease.

TEEATMENT OF ISLE OF WIGHT DISEASE.

The best authorities in Great Britain
seem to feel that the only thing they can do
is to destroy bees and combs, and disinfect
the hives and everything connected with
the bees. The dead bees in the grass and
hives, some believe, are also a source of
infection. This may or may not be true.
Some even go so far as to say that every
colony should be burned in the yard, and
that other hives, even several miles away,
should receive like treatment.

Experiments have been carried out to
test the efficacy of various medicaments;
but up to the present without success, and
medicated syrup has hitherto proved value-
less. The danger of the spread of the
disease is from what have been termed
"parasite-carriers" — ^that is, bees in which
the parasite is present without causing the
disease.

The weather conditions in the United
States are probably such that the Isle of
Wight disease would not make very much
headway here; stiU, it is best to take no
chances. There should be no importation
of any bees into this country from any of
the British Isles or from any other terri-
tory where it finds lodgment.

See also Fovh Brood.

DISTANCES BEES FLY.— See Flight
of Bees.

DIVIDING.— Under the head of Arti-
ficial Swarming^ Increase^ Nucleus^ and
Swarming^ are shown various methods of
dividing. But dividing, as it is ordinarily
understood, has to do with the operation of
increasing the number of colonies or stocks
by taking part of the frames and adhering
bees, with or without a queen, and putting
them in another hive on another stand.
Generally speaking, dividing is unscientific
and wasteful, while artificial swarming or
division on the plans described under Nu-
cleus and Increase are scientific and prof-
itable, because they are worked in such a
way as to secure a honey crop as well as an
increase in the number of bees or colonies.
Dividing may be performed so as to ruin
all chances of a honey crop, and in addition
leave the apiary with a lot of weak nuclei
in a totally unfit condition to go into winter
quarters, for it is an axiom in beekeeping
that one good, strong colony will secure
more honey than that same colony unintel-
ligently split into halves and put on two
different stands.

DOMESTIC ECONOMY OF THE
HIVE. — See Bee Behavior^ Brood and
Brood-rearing; also Development op
Bees.

DRIFTING.— This is a word that has
been coined by beekeepers referring to
an aggregation of bees in the air that have
by mistake gone into the wrong hive.
Young bees in their playspells (referred
to under "Playspells of Young Bees," and
under Robbing), not having thoroly
learned the location of their homes, will
drift to a hive or hives where many bees
are flying strongest, and go in just as if it
were their regular home. Even the old
bees, when all the hives are set out of the
cellar, will very frequently drift into the
wrong hive. The colonies that are making
the biggest hubbub in front of the entrance
will attract flying bees from their weaker
neighbors.

Drifting also takes place when a large
number of similar hives are placed in one
row. When the conditions at each entrance
are practically the same, the bees become
more or less confused. Sometimes drift-

240

DRONES

ing- under conditions like this results in
robbing ; and if there is any disease in any
hive it will be carried all along the row.
Under the head of Apiary is emphasized
the importance of so placing the hives in a
yard that each colony of bees can recognize
its own entrance. The hives should face
ditferent points of the compass, and stand
near some distinguishing object. Shrubs
or bushes of different sizes, a tree, a stump
here and a building there, all serve the
purpose of giving each hive a location and
an identity all its own.

When the hives are placed in pairs there
is not much danger of the bees of the weaker
colonies drifting into the stronger ones,
for the bees seem to know the difference
between right and left in going back home ;
but they do not readily distinguish their
own individual entrance when the hives are
painted the same color, and when each hive
looks exactly like other hives in the row.

The arrangement of the hives in the
publishers' Cuban apiary, as illustrated
under Apiaries, is very bad, and decidedly
conducive to drifting. The hives would not
have been so placed except that the apiarist
was very much cramped for room. It would
have been far better if he had reversed the
entrances and placed the hives, some zig-
zagwise and some square with the world.

Many of those using the quadruple win-
ter packing cases, having two entrances on
the side, report considerable drifting and
great variation in the size of colonies in
the spring. Those having quadruple cases
with one entrance at each side avoid this
trouble.

Drifting when taking bees out of the
cellar can be avoided somewhat if the direc-
tions are followed under Wintering in
Cellars, subhead ''Time of Day to Take
Bees Out." Drifting can be avoided when
locating bees at outyards by moving them
toward night, and placing them on their
stands when it is too late for them to fly,
being careful to place the hives so that
each colon}^ will easily distinguish its own
hive. Next morning tbe}^ will mark their
entrances.

WHY ARE NOT DRIFTING BEES STUNG LIKE
ROBBERS.

The novice will, perhaps, ask the question
why, when bee§ drift into the wrong hive.

they are not instantly killed by the guards
at the entrance, the same as happens in a
case of robbing. When bees drift, as al-
ready explained, it is because a new condi-
tion has been created, or because the young
bees when at play have not yet thoroly
learned their location. When, therefore,
they go by mistake into the hive, they enter
as tho it were their own hive. Robber bees
(see Robbing) show by their actions that
they are afraid of being grabbed by the
guards of the hive they propose invading.
Their guilty actions, seeking by stealth or
quick dodging to get into the hive, betray
them at once. On the other hand, the
drifting bees show no such actions, and of
course go right into the hive as if they
belonged there.

In the case of bees just out of the cellar
or a lot of bees moved to an outyard, the
conditions are entirely different. When they
rush out into the air, many bees scarcely
know whence they came, and the result is
they will return to the entrance of the
strongest flyers, or where the greatest dem-
onstration is being made in front of the
entrance, and so go in without arousing
suspicion.

When bees are out for a playspeU there
will be a big hubbub in front of the hive
whence they came. Other young bees in
the air, or in near-by hives, attracted by
their antics in the air, are quite inclined to
join in the fun, for fun it evidently is.
When the frolic is over, nothing can be
more natural than for the whole bunch of
them to go into the hive whether they
belong there or not. If the hives are
properly located, there will be very little
drifting as a result of playspells.

DRONES. — These are the male bees of
the colony. They are large noisy fellows
that do a great amount of buzzing, but
never sting anybody, for the very good rea-
son that they have no sting. The beekeeper
who has learned to recognize them, both by
sight and sound, never pays any attention
to their noise, but visitors are many times
frightened by their loud buzzing.

If our colonies are prosperous, we may
flnd eggs in the drone comb of some of the
best hives as early as March, but not, as a
general thing, until April. The drone-cells
can be told from the worker at a glance
by the size. (See Honeycomb; also Brood

DRONES

241

AXD Beood-rearing^ large cut.) Whenever
eggs are seen in the large cells, it may be
assumed they are drone eggs. It is not
meant by this that the eggs that produce
drones look any different from any other
eggs that the queen lays, for in looks they
are precisely the same. They are almost the

Drone bee enlarged four times.

same in every respect, for the only differ-
ence is that the eggs that produce the
worker-bees have been impregnated, while
the others have not ; but more of this anon.
The egg, like those producing workers,
remains brooded over by the bees until it is
about three days old, and then by one of
nature's w^onderful transformations it is
gone, and a tiny worm appears, a mere
speck in the bottom of the cell. This worm
is fed as before, until it is about a week
old, and is then sealed over like a worker
larva, except that the cap to the cell is
raised considerably more ; in fact, the cap-
pings very much resemble a lot of bullets
laid closely together on a board. (See
Brood and Brood-rearing.) The young
drones will begin to cut the caps of these
cells in about 24 or 25 days; the caps
come off in a round piece, very much like
those from a queen-cell.

The body of a drone is hardly as long as
that of a queen, but he is so much thicker
thru than either queen or worker that no
one will ever mistake him for either. He

has no baskets on his legs in which to carry
pollen, and his tongue is so unsuited to the
gathering of honey from flowers that he
might starve to death in the midst of a
clover-field in full bloom.

THE MATING OF QUEEN AND DRONE.

The young drones are ready to leave their
hive after they are about two weeks old,
and they do this shortly after noon of a
warm pleasant day. They come out with
the 3^oung bees as they play, and first try
their wings ; but their motions are far from
being graceful and easy, and they frequent-
ly tumble about so awkwardly that, as they
strike against one's face, he might almost
think them either drunk or crazy. It is not
easy to decide how old a drone must be to
fulfill the sole purpose of his existence, the
fertilization of the queen, but it may be
guessed anj^where from three weeks to as
many months. Perhaps, he seldom lives so
long as the last period named.

Many facts seem to indicate that drones,
as well as the queen, fly long distances from
the hive — -perhaps two miles or more. We
have now satisfactory evidence that the
meeting between queens and drones takes
place not very high up from the ground.
Several observers have reported seeing this
meeting not far from the hives, during the
swarming season. The queens and drones
sally forth during the middle of the day, or
afternoon, and in from 15 minutes to an
hour, or possibly two hours, the queen
returns with a white appendage attached
to the extremity of her body, that
microscopic examination shows to be the
generative organs of the drone. These facts
have been observed by hundreds of beekeep-
ers, and are well authenticated. In attempts
to have queens fertilized in wire-cloth
houses, we have, after letting the queens
out, seen the drones pursue them until both
vanished from sight. Still another fact:
If one takes a drone in his hand some
warm afternoon just as the drone has
sallied from the hive, and presses him in a
certain way, he will burst open something
like the popping of a grain of corn, ex-
truding the very same organ we find at-
tached to the queen, and dying instantly.

The manner in which the meeting of the
drone and queen takes place has been Mnt-
nessed a great many times. We give here
the statements of a few observers,

^42

DRONES

The Rev. Mr. Millette of Whitemarsh,
Pa., appears to have been the first who wit-
nessed the actual encounter. The following
communication from his pen, which we copy
from the Farmer and Gardener for Novem-
ber, 1899, settles the important fact, as it
came under his observation in the preceding
summer :

In the month of June, an old stock threw
oif a second swarm in which there were four
queens. During the process of hiving, one
of the queens was observed on the wing, and
in a moment was seized by a drone. After
flying about a rod they both came to the
ground in close contact; the writer instantly
followed them up; and, as the drone was
about departing (having broken loose), seized
both the bees, the queen in one hand and the
drone in the other. They were taken into
the house and left at liberty to fly, when
the queen flew to the closed window; but
the drone, after crawling about on the hand,
was laid upon the window seat, and in a very
few minutes expired. Both the queen and
drone had a milky-white fluid upon the ex-
tremity of the abdomen, and upon pressing
the drone there was no indication of his
possessing the specialty of his sex.

Later Mr. Carey related his own account
of the occurrence, which we submit in his
own words:

About three o'clock p. m., on the 8th of
July, I saw a young Italian queen enter her
hive without any sign of impregnation. She
came out again in a few minutes, and 1
closed the entrance to the hive. During her
absence, which lasted thirteen minutes, three
drones came in front of the hive, and, find-
ing the entrance closed, kept on the wing
most of the time. When the returning queen
was about three feet from the entrance, one
of the drones very rapidly flew to her, and,
clasping his legs about her, caused her to
settle a little, and to come in contact with
a long spear of grass. At the same time an
explosion was distinctly heard, and they im-
mediately separated — the drone falling to
the ground perfectly dead, and having his
abdomen very much contracted. The queen,
after making a few circles in the air, en-
tered the hive with the male organs of the
drone attached to her. All these facts were
witnessed by myself and R. C. Otis, of
Kenosha, Wis., as we were seated on oppo-
site sides of the hive, not more than six feet
apart, so that there can be no possible grpund
of mistake.

In later times a correspondent in Glean-
ings in Bee Culture thus describes the act :

On June 21, 1888, I saw this mating take
place. The queen issued from the hive, took
two circles, and came within five feet of my
face, and was there met by a drone. They

seemed to face each other, clinging by their
fore legs, their bodies being perpendicular,
and in this shape flew from my sight. It
happened so unexpectedly that I hardly knew
what was going on before it was too
late to follow them. I could have easily kept
up with them. I have described this because
your book says they have not been seen,
only as they were whirling about each other.
I saw these fasten; and as they did so they
turned and came together, square up and
down; and as they flew away their bodies
inclined like this / and each bee was using
its wings.

Myrtle, Pa. E. A. Pratt.

One of our former apiarists, now Dr. W.
I. Wood, lately told us he had seen the
drone and queen come in contact face to
face, exactly as Mr. Pratt describes.

The late E. L. Pratt of Swarthmore, Pa.,
a queen-breeder of note, in Gleanings in
Bee Culture for 1904 thus wrote:

I have this day witnessed the act of copu-
lation between a queen and a drone. About
2:30 o'clock on the afternoon of Thursday,
July 2, I was standing near a fertilizing-box
filling a feeder when my attention was at-
tracted by an unusual commotion in the way
of extra loud buzzing, as of drones on the
wing. I looked and saw a queen rapidly
flying toward the fertilizing-box, evidently
her home. She was closely followed by two
drones, one of which turned and flew off, but
the other remained in pursuit. They were
flying not six inches from the ground, and
were not over eight feet from the fertihz-
ing-box when the act took place. It was
done so quickly that I marveled at it, and
I wish here to record the facts as I witnessed
them. I could not see that the queen was
flying in any but the usual way when return-
ing to her hive, but the drone was unusually
swift of wing. They were both flying rapid-
ly; and as they flew the drone made two cir-
cles about the queen as tho to head her off;
and as these circles were made about the
queen she rose slightly each time. Directly
after making the second circle about the
queen the drone flew at her as a worker with
the intention of stinging in earnest. His
abdomen \ms curved, and his wings rattled
in about the same manner. Directly the
drone was in contact with the queen there
was a sudden lurch sidewise, and they went
together some distance into the field until I
lost sight of them. As they flew together
they much resembled workers when they
attempt jointly to bear off their dead. I
remained by the fertilizing-box perhaps
three minutes, and saw the queen return and
enter, bearing the marks of having met a
drone. I still lingered by the box, and soon
saw a worker bear out the telltale vv'hite
speck. I later opened the box, and saw the
queen bearing the usual thread from the
male contact. A queen bee is very swift of

DRONES

243

wing; but I am convinced that a drone is
ten times swifter; for to be able to encircle
the queen in the manner this one did, such
must be the fact.

Our head queen-breeder, who, during the
last ten years, has raised for us many thou-
sand queens, has had exceptional oppor-
tunities for observing the mating of queens
and drones, says :

I find that the meeting usually takes place
not more than 15 feet from the ground.

During the warmest part of the day the
drones congregate in sheltered locations in
such large numbers as to make a loud hum-
ming noise. This attracts virgin queens out
seeking their mates. In one instance in
particular about 3 o'clock in the afternoon
a loud humming was heard near our bass-
wood apiary. Investigation showed that it
was made by an unusually large collection
of drones in the air. Unfavorable weather
had kept them in the hives for two days
back, but now the sun was out bright, and
both virgins and drones were coming out in
astonishing numbers. When a virgin came
from under the tree tops a number of drones
(in some instances apparently 20 or more)
would circle close about her, the bunch resem-
bling a small but very active swarm. They
would dash high and low for a few seconds
when one of the drones would clasp her and
they would fall together, the rest of the
drones following them nearly to the ground.
Four such swarms of drones were seen at one
time after a queen.

On two occasions I have seen drones meet
with the queen close to the entrance of the
hive. In both of these instances they met
facing each other, clinging by their fore
legs, their bodies being perpendicular. Si-
multaneously a sharp sound like a miniature
explosion was distinctly heard when they
dropped to the ground.

The manner in which the queen frees her-
self from the drone is similar to that of a fly
caught in a spider web, whirling around
and around, while the drone clings to any-
thing he can grasp. In this way the male
organs are torn from Mm and carried away
by the queen.

DOES THE DROIsrE HAVE ONLY ONE PARENT?

One of the most wonderful things about
the drone, or male bee is that it is hatched
from an egg that is unimpregnated. So
wonderful, indeed, is this that the matter
was for years disputed, and is even now, by
many who have not looked into the matter
and examined the evidence. What we mean
by unimpregnated is, that queens that have
never met the male bee at all will lay eggs,
and these eggs will hatch, but they always

produce drones, and never workers. Those
who have had the care of poultry are well
aware that the hens will lay eggs right
along, if no cock is kept in the yard at all;
and a pullet will lay her full quota of eggs,
even if she has never seen a male bird.

Kearly the same is true with regard to
the queen bees. If she fails to meet a
drone during the first 30 days of her life
(if the bees do not kill her before), she
usually begins to lay eggs ; but she seldom
lays as many, or with the same regularity,
as a fertile queen. If no cock is kept, the
eggs a hen lays, if she is allowed to sit,
never produce any chicks. The eggs laid
by a queen, under the same circumstances,
as before stated, always produce drones.
There is one more fact connected with the
common fowl : If a male bird is put in the
yard with the hen for one day only, good
fertile eggs will be laid for many days,
possibly a whole laying. If a Black- Spanish
cock should get among a flock of white
hens for a single day, all the eggs laid for
many days afterward will produce chicks
with more or less black feathers on them.
The point to be observed is that the eggs
of even the common fowl are fertilized as
they are laid by the hen, or possibly a few
days before. With the fowls, one meeting
with the male bird suffices for the fertiliza-
tion of an egg daily, for a week or more;
with the queen bee, for her whole life of
three or even four years.

The hen does not have the power of
laying fertile or unfertile eggs at will; but
a queen bee lays both fertilized and unfer-
tilized eggs, alternating from one kind to
the other in rapid succession. Skillful
microscopists have carefully dissected eggs
from worker-cells, and found the living
spermatozoa in numbers from one to five.
These living spermatozoa were precisely
identical with those found in dissecting a
mature drone. Again : Every egg a queen
lays passes a little sac in her body contain-
ing a minute quantity of some fluid; the
microscope shows that this fluid contains
thousands of these spermatozoa. Is it not
wonderful that these spermatozoa should
live four years or more in this little sac,
awaiting their turn to be developed into a
higher life whenever they should be re-
quired to fertilize the egg that is to produce
a worker-bee?

244

DRONES

Again, the egg that is taken from a
drone-cell contains no trace of spermatozoa.
Therefore, like the unimpregnated egg of
the common fowl, it should never hatch.
Strange to say, it does hatch, and produce
the drone. The first glimpse one gets of
the little bit of animated nature is the tiny
speck alive at the bottom of the cell. Does
he grow out of nothing, without parentage,
at least on the paternal side ? If his mother
was an Italian, he is also an Italian; if a
black queen, he is also a black. It is neces-
sary to conclude, perhaps, that he is the
son of his mother, and nothing more. The
egg that has never been impregnated in the
usual way, must, after all, have some living
germ incorporated in its make-up, and this
germ must come only from the mother.

The reader will see how clear it is that
drones are in no way affected by the fertil-
ization of the queen; or, in other words,
that all daughters of a purely fertilized
Italian queen produce drones absolutely
pure whether they have been fertilized by
a black drone or not.

DRONES FROM WORKER BEES.

Drones are also hatched from eggs laid
by worker bees. These drones are usually
smaller in size than those from a queen,
because they are generally reared in worker-
cells, and the question as to whether they
are capable of fertilizing queens, so as to
be of some value, like other drones, is one
that has never been decided. Some facts
have been brought to light that seem to be
pretty good evidence on each side of the
question ; but, so far, there is nothing very
definite.

COST OF REARING MANY DRONES.

Until the invention and general adoption
of foundation, there was no easy way of
repressing the production of drones in far
greater numbers than could ever be desir-
able. (See Comb Foundation.) Since
the introduction of that article, it is found
to be quite an easy matter to make almost
every cell in the hive a worker-cell. On
the other hand, one can have a hive entirely
filled with drone comb, and a good queen
could be induced to raise nearly, if not
quite, a full quart of drones at a time. By
\Ms means one can have his drones raised

from such stock as he chooses, and he can
save the vast amount of honey that has so
long been wasted by rearing and feeding
an unnecessary number of queens.

While extracting, we have found as
many as several pounds of drone larvae in
a single hive; and, to save the honey they
would consume as soon as hatched, we used
to shave their heads off with a very sharp
knife. This is certainly rather expensive
business.

Since the life of every colony depends
on the mating of its queen, nature is very
lavish in providing a great number of
drones in order that the virgin may be suc-
cessful in her bridal flight, even tho there
are very few bees in the immediate vicinity.
But where several colonies are kept in one
apiary, and especially where they are run
for honey production, the rearing of so
many drones is an unnecessary expense,
the cost of which is nicely shown in an
article written by G. M. Doolittle, in which
he says :

. Taken in round numbers, a square foot of
comb will give 8000 workers or about 5000
drones. It takes 24 days to perfect the
drones while the workers will emerge in 21
days from the laying of the egg.. And it will
take about the same amount of food for the
rearing of each^ since both occupy the same
space; and w^hen all these 8000 workers have
emerged from this foot of comb we have a ' ^
fair-sized swarm of honey-gatherers added ml
to the other forces of the hive, which will ^
almost if not quite turn failure into a suc-
cessful surplus.

This general subject is covered in Combs
and in a more technical article called Par-
thenogenesis elsewhere in this book, and
also under head of Queens.

REARING DRONES OUT OF SEASON.

When the honey flow is drawing to a
close, and the bees may be expected to be-
gin disposing of their drones, take frames
containing drone brood from the colonies
having the best bees to breed from, and
place them in an upper story of a strong
colony. The colony should be made and
kept queenless as long as it is desirable
to have drones in the yard ; or, if not made
queenless, should be given one pint or more
of syrup (two parts of water to one of
sugar) every day as long as drones are
needed. The feeding must be kept up, for

i
ill

DRONES

245

THE LAMENT OF THE DRONES.
Grace Allen, Nashville, Tenn.

No more?

Not ever, ever more within the hive

No more to feel its friendly shelter 'round?

No more to share its pulsing peace, alive
AVith vibrant hum of motion and of sound?

And we so powerful-winged and light of heart :

Of all this life we love are we a part

No more?

No more.

Not ever, ever more within the hive.

An unimaginable end has come.
Tlie things are turning dead that were alive

And all the singing voices turning dumb
And Life herself, who one time bade us be,
Has turned away her eyes, which we shall see
No more.

bees are very easily discouraged; and if a
stoppage occurs in the daily supplies they
will not hesitate to pull the young di'ones
out of their cells and sacrifice them without

DROXES from: droxe-laters.

Queen-breeders find that one or more
drone-laj'ers of good stock, rearing fully
developed drones, if supplied with plenty
of worker brood, will furnish a fine lot of
nice drones in and out of season; but
drones from laying workers, or from queens
that have never been fertilized are to be
avoided. Drones from queens that have
once laid worker eggs, and then failed, are
as good as the di'ones from any queen.

DESTRUCTIOX OF DROXES IX THE FALL.

This does not necessarily occur in the
fall, but may take place at any time in the
summer; and we have several times known
the drones killed off between apple bloom
and white clover, only because supplies

And this the end?

No end but this for those uncounted days
Of banqueting, or those mad hours of bliss

We went careening, careless thru the ways
Of miracle and light? No end but this?

No end but this. No proud sustaining thought

Of deed with rapture or with patience wrought —

No end but this.

More and more

The dripping night that stalks without the hive
Draws round us dread and ghostly, grim and stark ;

Within, the deepest shadows are alive

With warmth and fragrance, and the very dark

Dreams day to come. But tho the great sun burns

A million dawns awake, the day returns

To us, no more — no more.

ceased, causing the bees to become discour-
aged and give up swarming for the time
being. There is no way in which one can
tell so well that the yield of honey has
ceased as by the behavior of the bees to-
ward their drones. When, in the midst of
the honey season, a worker is seen buzzing
along on the back of a drone that seems to
be doing his best to get away from the hive,
it may be concluded that the yield of honey
is failing. TVe do not know that we ever
saw bees sting drones, but they sometimes
pretend to do so. It is probable that it is
only a feint to di'ive them away. The poor
di'one, at such times, after vainly trying to
go back into the hive, will sometimes take
wing and soar away off in the air, only to
return after a time to be repulsed again,
until, thru weakness perhaps, and want of
food, he flutters hopelessly in the dust, and
so submits to the fate that seems to be a
part of the inexorable law of natui-e and of
his being,

DROXES WITH HEADS OF DIFFERENT COLORS.

This is a queer feature in natural history.
Almost everv summer some one writes or

246

DRONES

sends specimens of drones with heads of
different colors. The matter has been re-
ported and commented on at different times
in Gleanings in Bee Culture. Not only are
drones with white heads occasionally
found, but also with heads of a cherry
color; again, of a bright green, and at
other times yellow. Why should this pecul-
iarity show itself in the drones more than
in the queens and workers? Again, why
should heads be the subject of these bright
rainbow colors'? Is there really any pur-
pose or design in it? or is it just because
it happened so f See Hermaphrodite Bees.

RESTRAINING UNDESIRABLE DRONES.

Drones undesirable for breeding purposes
may be prevented from going out to meet
the queens, by keeping them from going out
of the hive, or by letting them go out into
a cage thru which workers can pass and
they cannot. This is done by taking advan-
tage of the fact that a worker bee will pass
readily thru slots in perforated metal (or
between bars properly spaced) where a
drone cannot. In the figure shown we give
the form of the perforated metal.

THE PROPER SIZE FOR THE PERFORATIONS.

The oblong holes must be of such a size
as to permit the easy passage of workers,
but exclude not only drones but even
queens (see Extracted Honey and
Swarming). It is no great task to make
the perforations drone-excluding; but to
make them gweew-excluding at the same

Perforated zinc.

time, and yet not hinder the easy passage
of workers, requires a very nice adjustment
in the width of the perforations. The first
sheet of perforated zinc was cut in Eng-
land, and imported to this country. This
had perforations 18-100 of an inch in width.
While this answered a most excellent pur-

pose, a few claimed that queens would oc-
casionally get thru it. To obviate this, zinc
was made with the perforations a little
narrower.

The width of this was 5-32 or 16-100 of
an inch. While no queen succeeded in get-
ting thru this, reports, as well as the
author's experience, showed that this size
was too narrow. It not only proved to be
a great hindrance to the workers when
their honey-sacs were empty, but, when

Wood and wire honey-board.

gorged with honey, they were scarcely able,
if at all, to pass thru. Later, perforated
zinc was made in this country on a different
pattern, but with perforations exactly 163-
1000 of an inch in width, or a trifle smaller
than the foreign. Years of experience
have shown that this is right for perforated
metal but too wide for wire bars.

In 1908 there was put on the market a
new form of queen-excluder* consisting of
wire bars held at the required distances
apart by means of soft-metal cross-ties at
every two or three inches. These bars con-
sist of No. 14 hard- drawn galvanized wire
that has been straightened in a wire-
straightener so that it is true as a die. Con-
trary to what one might expect, the spaces
between these bars are more exact than the
width of the various perforations in sheet
metal. In the process of making, the bars
are laid in metal forms having grooves that
are spaced exactly right, and then a soft
metal in a molten state is made to flow in
certain cross-grooves of the metal form. As
the metal cools almost instantly, the wires
are held at exactly the right intervals. The
smooth rounding edges of the bars afford

* Invented by Frank G. Marbach, formerly of Medina,
Ohio.

DRONES

less obstruction to the bees passing and
repassing, and practical tests show that
this form of excluder is much superior to
the old perforated metal. On account of
the rounding smooth edges of the wires,
they must be slightly closer or 162-1000 of
an inch.

In the manufacture of the perforated
zinc, unless the dies are very sharp, there
will be a slight rough burr edge on the
under side of the sheet. It is impossible

Full-size wire excluder.

to remove this edge without reducing the
width of the perforation. For this reason
the wire excluder is superseding the other
form of perforated zinc.

The illustrations herewith shown give on«'
an idea of how either form of excluder ha-
been applied to drone-traps and honey-
boards.

DRONE-EXCLUDING ENTRANCE-GUARDS.

If a strip of perforated zinc or wire
excluder is placed over the entrance, the

Wire entrance-guard.

worker bees can go out, but the drones
cannot; but, as a simple excluder is liable

Zinc entrance-guard.

to get clogged if there are many drones in
the hive, an arrangement known as the
Alley trap is used.

The plain guard is simply a strip of per-
forated metal, 3% x 14 inches long, folded
at right angles, as shown. Each end is then
closed Avith a block 1% x 1% x i/^,
fastened in place with a couple of double-
pointed tacks. To use, it is placed tight up
against the entrance as represented in the
cut preceding.

Perforated zinc Alley trap.

When it is desirable to get the drones all
out of a hive without permitting any to get
back again, the guard is put over the en-
trance and all the bees are shaken in front

Wire Alley trap.

of the hive. The workers will, of course,
crawl back on the combs; but the drones
will have to stay out, and the queen* too,
unless she is put in the hive. In the
morning, when the drones are stiffened
with cold, they may be fed to the chickens
or otherwise destroyed.

The drone-excluder just described is not
automatic. Accordingly, the late Henry
Alley of Wenham, Mass., devised the one
shown next.

Alley's drone-excluder.

It is to be observed that this is similar

* This method is sometimes used to catch the queen
in a colony of black bees.

248

DYSENTERY

to the one just described, only it has a wire-
cioth cone in the top. The drones, after
making a fruitless attempt to pass the met-
al, will enter the wire-cloth cone in the top,
and escape ; however, none will go back the
way they came, but will huddle together
outside and await their fate.

If it is desirable to get the drones into a
box, so they may be carried to some other
apiary, for instance, a cage is made with an
upper story, and a couple of these wire
cones conduct . the drones " up-stairs." If
any worker-bees should go up too, they can

Manner of attaching Alley trap.

readily go up thru the perforated zinc.
This latter arrangement is shown in the
cut above.

As to how this trap may be used for
catching swarms, see Swarming^ elsewhere.

DYSENTERY.— When bees are seen
covering the entrance to their hives with
a yellow, brownish, or nearlj'^ black, dis-
agreeable-smelling excrement or stain, it
may be assumed that they have the dysen-
tery, or what is usually known as such. If
the weather becomes' very warm and pleas-
ant, they will usually get over it after they
have had a full flight. If, on the contrary,
the symptoms show themselves before warm
weather, and no opportunity is given the
bees to fly, they may become so much worse
as to stain their combs with the excrement ,
and finally die leaving a damp filthy-looking
mass.

CAUSE OP DYSENTERY.

The real causes are bad food and long-
continued low temperature that prevents
bees from flying. In order to keep up suffi-
cient animal heat the bees have to overeat,
surcharging their intestines. The long-

retained fecal matter results in purging or
dysentery. Any food alone would hardly
produce the disease, as one rarely, if ever,
finds bees suffering from anything they will
gather, in warm summer weather. Aster
honey (see Aster) or the sweet juices gath-
ered from rotten fruit or cider are very
productive of this complaint, and are
almost sure to kill bees at the approach of
cold weather. A woman once boiled up a
mass of sweet apples and allowed the bees
to extract the sweetness because, as she
said, she could not afford to buy sugar
for them. They all died of dysentery long
before spring. Where dampness accumu-
lates from the breath of the bees, and set-
tles on the combs, diluting the honey, it
may cause trouble. Sorghum syrup has
brought on a very aggravated form, and
h2irnt candy or sugar is almost sure death
to bees during cold weather, altho such
feed may be given with impunity in the
middle of the summer.

All candy or honey containing much
gums or dextrins should also be avoided;
for, except in a few rare instances in which
another substance is involved, these gums
or dextrins are the substances that cause
dysentery. The dextrin content of the dif-
ferent honeys varies considerably, being
greatly reduced during a rapid honey flow.

While it is very certain that no such
symptoms of dysentery are found in warm
weather, it is also certain that a strong
colony in a hive with soft, warm, dry
porous walls, will stand an amount of bad
food that a weak one, or one exposed to
drafts of cold air, will not. A power-
ful colony, if left with their hive uncovered
during a rain storm, will soon dry them-
selves; and while they are doing this they
remind one of a sturdy cart horse as he
shakes the water off his hide and dries
himself by his internal animal heat. While
they have the health and numbers to repel
moisture in this way, they are safe against
almost anything. But to help them to keep
this iuternal strength, they should have
close and comfortable quarters, very much
such as we would need for ourselves to
enable us to pass a severe winter's night in
health and comfort. ( See Wintering Out-
doors.) The hives often used are so large
and barn-like, in respect to the winter's
brood-nest, that comfort is almost out of

DYSENTERY

249

the question, for it does little if any good
to pile straw, corn-fodder, etc., over the
outside of the hives while the cluster within
has no sort of protection at all. If they
were in a hollow tree, the diameter of
which was so small that they could fill it
completely, they would be in a much better
place, especially if the sides were lined
with soft dry rotten wood.

There are two kinds of dysentery in
Great Britain. One is mild, and comes in
the spring, and disappears soon at the
approach of warm weather. The other one
is thought to be contagious, and is possibly
a part of the Isle of Wight disease. See
Isle of Wight Disease under the head of
Diseases op Bees.

the agency of the aphides in producing
dysentery.

The poorest winter food is, without doubt,
the honey gathered from the aphides (see
HoNEYDEw) ; or, at least, most complaints
have been made of this honey. As bees
seldom touch this, except during drouths or
unfavorable seasons, it, no doubt, has been
the cause of some of the mischief. If all
the early honey is extracted from the brood-
combs, and the bees left with nothing but
this bad honey, gathered in the summer, the
matter is much worse ; and many cases have
been reported of colonies dying where the
extractor has been used, while those un-
touched had been free from the disease.
The moral is, refrain from extracting too
closely from the brood-apartment. Let the
bees fill their brood-chamber with a good
quality of honey, just before the yield
ceases, extracting, toward the close of the
harvest, only from the combs in the upper
story, unless it is decided to feed them up
for winter on sugar syrup or candy. There
have been one or two favorable reports of
wintering on the aphidian honey, from
which it may be concluded that it is not
always deleterious.

PREVENTION OF DYSENTERY.

There are two important factors in
the prevention of dysentery — protection
against extremes of cold during winter,
and good food. Under the head of Win-
tering Outdoors^ Wintering in Reposi-
tories^ Spring Dwindling^ and Spring

Management^, full particulars are given on
how to house bees properly.

Good food may be in the form of good
honey or sugar-syrup stores well ripened.
Any of the good table honeys make suitable
food ; and there are many of the fall honeys
that do very well. Aster honey, unless well
ripened and sealed in the combs, sometimes
brings on dysentery. Some winters it is
worse than others (see Asters). Honey-
dew usuallj^ should not be used. It is gen-
erally dangerous (see Honeydew).

cure for dysentery outdoors.

If the affected colonies are outdoors-
about the only real remedy is settled warm
weather. Even one good warm day will
often serve to alleviate the trouble, as it
gives the bees a chance to void their excre-
ment out in the open air, away from the
hives and the combs. Otherwise the con-
tinued confinement during an extended cold
spell sometimes compels the bees to retain
their fgeces or excreta so long that they are
finally forced to void it over the combs and
over the hives. In such cases, where one
has good clean combs of sealed honey he
may take out the soiled combs and replace
with the clean ones. At the same time the
brood-nest should be contracted to a space
the bees can fill. This work should never
be done on a cool day — only when it is
warm and balmy. But the practical bee-
keeper of todaj^ does not fuss with colonies
affected with dysentery ; for he knows that,
as soon as warm weather comes, the trouble
will disappear of itself, in all colonies not
too far gone and too weak to recover.

Combs taken out of the hive in cold
weather, and stained with dysentery, may
be given to strong colonies in late spring
or summer to clean up. Indeed, there is no
danger in hiving swarms in hives where
colonies have died with dysentery during
the previous winter. They will quickly
clean up and use the stores that are left.

dysentery in bee-cellars.

After a long and cold winter, if the
temperature in the cellar goes much below
40 degrees Fahr., or if the stores are of
poor quality, there is a liability of some
colonies being affected with dysentery. The
best remedy is prevention. The cellar should

250

DZIERZON

be dry, and the temperature should be be-
tween 45 and 50 F. It should never go
below 40 for a longer period than three or
four days. If the temperature of the cel-
lar can not be kept up, a small stove with
a connection to a chimney should be used
to bring it up to the requisite point.

Some authorities think that dampness has
nothing to do with causing dysentery in the
cellar; but dampness in combination with
a temperature below 40 degrees for several
weeks is a very common cause of dysentery
in cellar repositories. We have one cellar
that is perfectly dry, and where we control
the temperature. In this we have but very
little dysentery — in fact, almost none. At
our outyards we have had damp cellars,
and where, too, the temperature went down
below 40 degrees. It is a most noticeable
fact that in these cellars we had so much
dysentery we had to abandon them.

But what should be done if the bees do
get dysentery? Suppose the food is bad,
and the cellar one where it is not practica-
ble to use artificial heat, at an outyard for
example. If there are days during mid-
winter when the bees can fly (and some
localities do afford such weather for one
day and possibly two), take the diseased
colonies out on one such day and let them
have a flight, then at night put them back
in the cellar. A cleansing flight will do a
world of good. Some authorities disagree
here; but our own experience has shown
conclusively, over and over again, that it
does pay. If the bees are sufering from
an over-accumulation of poisonous fecal
matter, why will there not be almost in-
stantaneous relief as soon as it can be
voided? If the food is bad, give the bees
better next year. Some recommend taking
away all fall stores and feeding sugar
syrup. For further consideration of this
subject, see Wintering in Repositories.

DZIERZON.*— The life of Dr. Dzierzon
was a simple, uneventful one, similar to
that of many clergymen in Germany. He
was born on Jan. 16, 1811, at Lowkowitz,
near Kreuzburg, Upper Silesia. He at-
tended the school of Lowkowitz till his
tenth year, and was afterward transferred
to the University of Breslau, where he at-
tained such excellence in his studies that.

* From the British Bee Journal, Dec. 20, 1906.

after having finished his course, he has been
first in every class in his college, and left
the University in the autumn of 1830 with
a certificate as having passed No. 1.

From early childhood young Dzierzon
had a great partiality for bees. His father
kept a few colonies in log hives, mostly
placed in an upright position; these were
at that time the kind in general use in
Silesia. He always found the greatest
pleasure in the contemplation of the inde-
fatigable industry of bees, and while study-
ing, at the University he was in the habit
of taking his walks near to an apiary, or
where a colony of bees occupied a hoUow
tree, so that he might enjoy the sight of the
industrious insects and listen to their joy-
ful humming.

His fondness for bees made him choose a
calling in which it would be possible for
him to follow the bent of his inclination.

Dzierzon was ordained on March 16, 1834,
and having acted as chaplain in the Schal-
kowitz District of Oppeln till July, 1835,
he received a clerical appointment at Karls-
markt. This brought him a very small in-
come; but, as in succeeding years it suited
him entirely, it never occurred to him to
seek a more richly endowed living. The
garden of his parsonage was a tolerably
large one, and his first care was to arrange
a place for bees. He soon stocked it with
some colonies from his father's apiary in
the old-fashioned hives mentioned above.
His bees did very well in them. He, how-
ever, was not content with these primitive
hives, but proceeded to make various
changes in them, so that he might have a
more perfect control over his bees. These
changes gradually led to the invention of
movable combs, which enabled him to take
out a full brood-comb, or honeycomb, and
insert it in another hive. He introduced
bars, to which the bees built the combs, and,
as these were usually attached to the sides
of the hives, (there being no side bars)
Dzierzon conceived the idea of opening the
hive at the back so as to enable him to cut
the attachments. At the commencement
Dzierzon used single hives called "Lagers"
and "Standers," but afterward constructed
hives to hold two, three, six, or eight colo-
nies, in order to economize material and
space. Owing to the advantages thus gained
the number of his colonies increased in a
few years to 400, and he was constantly

DZIERZON

251

making new hives and planting out-apiaries
in the neighboring villages. He had twelve
of them, but his apiary at Karlsmarkt was
chiefly used for observations and experi-
ments, and, after his introduction of the
Italian race,* for breeding these bees and
keeping them pure. This apiary was vis-
ited by numerous people desirous of in-
creasing their knowledge in beekeeping,
especially by schoolmasters, many of whom
came by desire and at the expense
of the Government .t He was at all
times ready to communicate the re-
sults of his experience to his visitors ;
he also made known his views in the
Frauendorf Journal, which enjoyed
a large circulation at that time.
These articles were afterward col-
lected and published in the form of a
pamphlet entitled "Pfarrer Dzier-
zon's Improved Method of Beekeep-
ing." This pamphlet was very in-
complete, and induced Dr. Dzierzon
to publish his views in a more com-
plete form, which work, after pass-
ing thru several editions, was pub-
lished under the title of "Rational
Beekeeping," the latest and most
complete edition of which appeared
in the year 1878. In 1880 this edi-
tion was translated into English by
H. Dieck and S. Studderd, and edited
by C. ]Sr, Abbott, who then intro-
duced it to British beekeepers. The
last book he wrote, "Der Zwilling-
stock," was published in 1890. From
1854 to 1856 he published the "The
Bee Master of Silesia," but the
greater part of his observations and
experiences appeared in the Bienen-
zeitung. In this publication ap-
peared his views on parthenogenisis.

* Captain Baldenstein, when stationed in Italy, was
the first to notice the exceeding industry of the Italian
bee. When he retired from the armj' he settled in
Switzerland, and procured a colony from Italy in Sep-
tember, 1843. His observations impelled Dzierzon to
make an effort to procure the Italian bee ; and by the
aid of the Austrian Agricultural Society he succeeded
in obtaining, late in February, 1853. a colony from
Mira, near Venice. Dzierzon bestowed much pains in
maintaining the purity of his Italian bees, and thirty
years after the first introduction he exhibited at
Ncustadt, near Vienna, a perfectly pure descendant
from his original stock.

t Several of the governments of Europe took great
interest in spreading among their people a knowledge
of 'Dzierson's system of beekeeping. Prussia furnished
monthly a number of persons from different parts of
the kingdom with the means of acquiring a knowledge
of this system ; while the Bavarian government pre-
scribed instruction in Dzierzon's theory and practice of
bee culture as a part of the regular course of studies in
its teachers' seminaries.

and for eight years, from 1845 to 1853, he
had to fight hard to defend his theory, which
met with the most strenuous opposition,
and it was not until he introduced Italian
bees in 1853 that he was clearly able to
demonstrate the correctness of his state-
ments. Baron von Berlepsch at fii'st vigor-
ously opposed it, but was at length con-
vinced of his mistake, acknowledged his
eiTor, and openly declared he would come

into Dzierzon's camp "with bag and bag-
gage." Dzierzon's theory, according to which
drones originate from unfertilized eggs,
and all impregnated eggs produce females,
gradually foimd adherents and recognition
among men of science; and its correctness
was proved by the microscopical and physi-
ological researches by Professors Dr. von
Siebold and Leuckart.

In recent years M. Dickel made a violent
attack on this theory, and stated that all
eggs laid by the queen were fecundated, and
that the bees themselves determined the se:^

252

DZIERZON THEORY

of the eggs by means of a secretion from
special glands. Dickel and Dzierzon met at
the annual congress of beekeepers in Salz-
burg in 1898, where they vigorously de-
fended their theories in the presence of a
large gathering of beekeepers. Dzierzon's
arguments were so forceful that they con-
stantly elicited applause. He has had his
partisans and detractors; some, like M.
Perez, have discussed the theory most
courteously; a few others have done so
with extreme rudeness, especially to a man
of his age. It is gratifying to find that
Dzierzon lived long enough to see his
theory triumphantly vindicated before he
passed away from among us.

From all parts of the continent.^, and from
many of the reigning sovereigns, Dzierzon
has received distinctions and honors. One
of the first which he received was that
signed by Archduke John in his capacity as
president of the Agricultural Society of
Grraz. The honorary title of "Doctor" was
conferred on him by the University of
Munich. At the Beekeepers' Congress at
Darmstadt, the then reigning Grand Duke
of Hesse invested him with the order of
Ludwig, and from the Emperor of Austria
he received the Order of Francis Joseph.
The Emperor of Russia conferred upon him
the Order of St. Anne, and the King of
Sweden the Order of Wasa. The photo-
graph we reproduce from the Bienen-vater
shows the venerable old man decorated with
these orders. He has also been made an
honorary member of a great many societies,
and his name is known in every portion of
the globe.

To Dr. Dzierzon we are indebted for the
various artificial substitutes for pollen.
With his eye ever open to discover any
means that would be of assistance to his
bees, he observed them bringing from a
neighboring mill rye-meal, before they were
able to secure a natural supply for the food
of the larv£e; and ever since beekeepers
have been in the habit of supplying the bees
with artificial pollen when natural pollen
is lacking in the spring.

Dr. Dzierzon, like many other beekeepers,
has had sad experiences of the virulence of
foul brood. In 1848 this plague broke out
in his apiary, destroying several hundred
stocks, and leaving only ten untouched.

So vigoi'ous was his fight against the
disease that three years later, in 1851, he

was able with pride to point to the 400
colonies of healthy bees which he had
worked up from the ten survivors of the
disaster.

His apiary passed thru several troubles.
At one time 70 hives were stolen, then 24
were lost in a flood, and 60 were destroyed
by fire.

In consequence of various ecclesiastical
troubles which occurred at Karlsmarkt, he
decided to leave the place where he had
lived 49 years. He removed to Lowkowitz,
the place of his birth, in 1884, and took up
his abode with his nephew, the youngest
son of his brother, whose wife accompanied
him to the last in his visits to conventions
of beekeepers. At Lowkowitz he lived a
happy, peaceful, contented life, his time
being wholly taken up with his bees. He
died on Oct. 26, 1906.

To beekeepers his loss is great, and his
name will always stand out prominently in
the history of beekeeping in the nineteenth
century.

DZIERZON THEORY.— In 1845 the
Rev. J ohn Dzierzon enunciated what is now
known as the "Dzierzon Theory," and thus
in reality laid the foundation for much of
our scientific and practical knowledge of
bees. While he was not original in the
discovery of parthenogenesis, he threw a
great deal of light on the subject. (See
Parthenogenesis, elsewhere, and sketch of
his life just preceding.) That the reader
may know just what the theory was, we
give below the several propositions as given
by Dzierzon.

I. A colony of bees, in its normal condi-
tion, consists of three characteristically dif-
ferent kinds of individuals — the queens, the
workers, and (at certain periods) the drones.

II. In the normal condition of a colony,
the queen is the only perfect female present
in the hive, and lays all the eggs found
therein. These eggs are male and female.
Prom the former proceed the drones; from
the latter, if laid in narrow cells, proceed
the workers, or undeveloped females; and
from them also, if laid in wider acorn-shaped
and vertically, suspended, so-called royal cells,
lavishly supplied with a peculiar pabulum or
jelly, proceed the queens.

III. The queen possesses the ability to lay
male or female eggs at pleasure, as the par-
ticular cells she is at any time supplying m'ay
require.

IV. In order to become qualified to lay both
male and female eggs, the queen must be
fecundated by a drone or male bee.

DZIERZOX THEORY

253

V. The fecundation of the queen is always
effected outside of the hive, in the open air,
and while on the wing. Consequently, in
order to become fully fertile, that is, capable
of laying both male and female eggs, the
queen must leave her hive at least once.

VI. In the act of copulation the genitalia
of the drone enters the vulva of the queen,
are there retained, and the drone simulta-
neously perishes.

VII. The fecundation of the queen, once
accomplished, is efficacious during her life,
or so long as she remains healthy and vigor-
ous; and, when once become fertile, she never
afterward leaves her hive except when accom-
panying a swarm.

VIII. The ovaries of the queen are not
impregnated in copulation; but a small ves-
icle or sac which is situated near the termi-
nation of the oviduct, and communicating
therewith, becomes charged with the semen of
the drone.

IX. All eggs germinated in the ovary of
the queen develop as males, unless impreg-
nated by the male sperm while passing the
mouth of the seminal sac or spermathecs,
when descending the oviduct. If they be thus
impregnated in their downward passage
(which impregnation the queen can effect or
omit at pleasure), they develop as females.

X. If a queen remain unfecundated, she
ordinarily does not lay eggs. Still, excep-
tional cases do somxetimes occur; and the
eggs then laid produce drones only.

XI. If, in consequence of superannuation,
the contents of the sperriatheca of a fec-
undated queen become exhausted; or, if from
enervation or accident, she lose the power
of using the muscles connected with that
organ, so as to be unable to impregnate the
passing egg, she will thenceforward lay drone
eggs only, if she lay at all.

XII. As some unfecundated queens occa-
sionally lay drone eggs, so also in queenless
colonies, no longer having the requisite means
of rearing a queen, common workers are some-
times found that lay eggs from which drones
only proceed. These workers are likewise un-
fecundated, and the eggs are uniformly laid
by some individual bee, regarded and treated
more or less by her companions as their queen.

XIII. So long as a fertile queen is present
in the hive, the bees do not tolerate a fertile
worker. Nor do they tolerate one while cher-
ishing the hope of being able to rear a queen.
In rare instances, however, exceptional cases
occur. Fertile workers are sometimes found
in tlie hive immediately after the death or
removal of the queen, and even in the presence
of a young queen, so long as she has not
herself become fertile.

When this was put out originally in the
Bienenzeitung, it called forth most strenu-
ous opposition. Even the Baron von Ber-
lepsch opposed it ; but later on, when Ital-
ian bees were introduced, and the theory
could be demonstrated, Berlepsch became

its most staunch supporter. Indeed, he
published a series of articles defending it ;
but there has been more or less opposition
to it ever since. In 1895 Mr. Dickel made
a violent attack on the theory, stating that
all eggs laid by the queens were fecundated,
and that the bees themselves determined
the sex of the eggs by means of a secretion
from the glands. For a number of years
the European journals were filled with dis-
cussion, some supporting Dickel and some
Dzierzon. Finally, m 1898 the Dickel the-
ory was shown to be untenable.

Those who desii-e to see the original argu-
ments in support of the theory will be
interested in reading the booklet entitled
"The Dzierzon Theory," by the Baron von
Berlepsch, published by The A. I. Root Co.
In the mean time the reader is referred to
Paethexogexesis^ where more information
is given on the subject. Some recent work
by Nachtsheim seems to make Dzierzon's
position stiU stronger.

RECEXT EVIDENCE IX PROOF OF DZIERZOX
THEORY.

Any reliable evidence either for or against
Dzierzon's theory, that the drones of the
honeybee are produced from unfertilized
eggs, is at the present time of more than
usual interest to beekeepers. In the Janu-
ary number of the American Naturalist T.
H. Morgan describes some experiments
made by Xewell at Houston, Tex., in mat-
ing Italian and Carniolan bees.

When yellow virgin Italian c^ueens were
mated with grayish Carniolan di'ones, both
the workers and queens which came from
fertilized eggs were yellow, from which it
was inferred that yellow is dominant over
gray. The drones also were yellow like the
Italian mother. Now this, too, might have
been caused by the dominance of the mater-
nal color (yellow) ; or, on the other hand,
it might have been caused by the fact that
in accordance with Dzierzon's theory these
drones inherited from the mother only. —
that is, that the eggs that produced them
were not fertilized by the drones. The ex-
periment, therefore, as Morgan points out,
is not decisive.

The reciprocal experiment was, however,
decisive. When gray Carniolan queens
were crossed with yellow Italian di'ones, the
workers and queens were yeUow as before,

254

ENEMIES OF BEES

due to the dominant yellow of the father.
But the drones were gray like the gray
Carniolan mother and the pure stock of
Carniolan drones. That is, they inherited
from the mother alone. Otherwise, they
would have been yellow. This proves that
they came from unfertilized eggs. Prof.
Morgan characterizes these crosses as fur-
nishing the long-sought evidence demon-
strating that the drones inherit only the
characters of their mother in accordance
with Dzierzon's theory.

According to Fabre's observations par-
thenogenesis also occurs among the solitary
bees in the genus Halictus. The males of
this genus do not appear until fall. After
mating with the females they fly about
among the flowers for a week or so and then
all perish, none surviving the winter. The
fecundated females hibernate in their old
nests, or in the crevices in stone walls, or
other retreats. With the return of warm
weather they reappear, dig new burrows,
and provision their cells with little masses
of pollen and honey, on each of which they

lay an egg. From these eggs come only
females, and at this season of the year there
are no males of this genus in existence with
which they can mate. This first generation
of females soon build new groups of cells,
the daughters of a single mother extending
the old nest, and all using the old entrance-
tunnel in common. The eggs of these un-
impregnated females give birth to both
males and females ; thus in the second gen-
eration both sexes are produced by parthen-
ogenesis. After mating the males die, and
the females survive the winter and the cycle
is repeated as before.

Fabre sums up as follows: "The Halieti
have two generations a year; one in the
spring, issuing from the mothers who have
lived thru the winter after being fecundated
in the autumn; the other in the summer,
the fruit of parthenogenesis ; that is to say,
of reproduction by the powers of the
mother alone. Of the union of the two
sexes females alone are born. Partheno-
genesis gives birth at the same time to
females and males."

E

EG-GS. — See Brood and Brood-rearing.

ELEMENTARY BEEKEEPING.— See

A B C OF Beekeeping.

EMBRYOLOGY OF BEES.— See De-
velopment OF Bees.

ENEMIES OF BEES.— Kingbirds and
bee martins, and a few other insectivorous
birds prey on bees. The author once saw
a single kingbird capture six or eight bees
in as many trips, on the wing. It would
alight on the peak of the barn near the
apiary, and then make a dive thru the air,
grab one bee on the wing, return to its
perch to dispose of its morsel, and then
catch another.

There have been a number of conflicting
reports as to whether kingbirds do or do

not swallow their victims. Some have as-
serted that they do, and afterward expelled
the ball of bees. At one experiment station
a number of kingbirds were shot, and the
conclusion, after examining their crops, was
that they did not swallow bees. From obser-
vations that have been made since, it ap-
pears that the kingbird does not generally
swallow worker bees. It grabs the bee, flies
away, and after it alights on some perch
with its victim in its beak, bites away until
it absorbs the honey or juices, when it drops
the carcass, and flies away for another,
which it treats in the same way. Observers
have reported seeing these carcasses of bees
below the birds' favorite perches.

There are other birds that do swallow
bees. Cases are on record where they throw
up the dead carcasses of the bees after they
have absorbed the honey.

ENEMIES OF BEES

25o

The

bee-louse.

magnified,

sometimes

found on

young

bees,

queens,

and

drones.

The loss of a few bees which the birds
might kill would amount to nothing ; but in
large queen-rearing yards, if the birds are
allowed to go unmolested there is quite
likely to be a loss of young queens ; for no
doubt the birds select the largest and noisi-
est-flying bees, and these, of course, will be
queens and drones. If such be the case,
the owner of a queen-rearing yard would
do well to use his shotgun until everything
in the way of bee-killing birds is destroyed.

away with small patches of honey in them.
The combs will be completely riddled during
the winter time, if they are left where mice
can get at them. On this account the honey-
house should be mouse-proof ; and for fear
that a stray one may by accident get in, it
is well to keep a trap ready, baited with
toasted cheese. If one does not have a tight
room, he should make a tight box, large
enough to hold all the surplus combs which
have honey in them. (See Entrances.)

MICE.

Mice do harm only when they get into
the hives, and this part of the subject will
be suf&eiently noticed under the head of
Entrances. Mice sometimes make sad
havoc among surplus combs, when stored

PARASITES.

The only bee parasite known is the
Br aula coeca, or Italian bee louse, and it is
seldom seen except on bees just imported
from Italy.

256

ENEMIES OF BEES

The following from M. Lucien Iches, in
" L'abeille domestique," Paris, 1905, quotes
from J. Perez, Notes d'apiculture, and is
about as authoritative as anything pub-
lished.

One day, having captured a bee with one
of these lice I fixed its head with a pair of
pincers sufficiently to keep it unmovable, and
to capture the small parasite easily. Both it
and the bee were left for a while on the table
in my studio, under a glass.

When I returned to them I was not a little
puzzled to see the parasite in the most viva-
cious and strange agitation. Seated on the
fore part of the bee's head it was moving
about with incredible vivacity, as tho pos-
sessed of veritable rage. Now it would go to
the margin of the bee's cap, with its fore
feet raised, stamp and scratch as hard as its
weakness would allow at the base of the
bee 's lip ; then it would suddenly run back
to the insertion of the antenna to renew its
impetuous attack immediately. I was quite
taken up by my first surprise, when I sud-
denly saw all this fury turned to perfect
calmness, and the little animal squatted on
the edge of the cap and bent down its head
to the bee's mouth, which was slightly trem-
bling, and sucked up a drop of moisture.

I instantly understood. The movements I
had just witnessed were preparatory to the
animal's meals. When the louse wishes to
feed it goes to the bee's mouth, where the
motions of its feet, armed with bent claws,
produces a tickling sensation, perhaps dis-
agreeable to its host, but at least provoking
some movement of the buccal organs, which
slightly open and release a small drop of
honey which the louse at once licks up.

Thus the Braula coeca is not a real para-
site of the bee in the true sense of the word.
It is rather a guest — queer, if you like thus
to consider it, like so many others existing
among animals.

SKUNKS.

Skunks are justly coming to be regarded
as one of the most serious enemies of the
beekeeper; and, owing to the legal protec-
tion given them in most States, together
with their ability to multiply very rapidly,
they are constantly becoming more numer-
ous. Not only do they eat great numbers
of bees, but by scratching at the front of
the hives they keep the bees in an excited
condition which is noticeable for several
hours after the nightly raid of the skunk
is finished. Young skunks, that leave their
nests and start foraging for themselves
during midsummer and autumn seem to do
the greater part of the damage, causing
the colonies to dwindle rapidly at a time
when they should be building up for winter.

Skunks may be poisoned by putting
strychnine or Rough on Rats inside of
small chunks of beef, leaving the beef at
night on the entrance of the hive at which
the skunks are working, remembering to
remove it early the next morning. This
could not be done safely where valuable
cats or dogs would be likely to get it.
Some beekeepers have reported good results
by stirring the poison into eggs. Others
are protecting their yards by fencing them
in with four-foot poultry-netting, one foot
of which is folded at a right angle so as to
be flat on the ground on the outside of the
fence, the outer edge being held close to the
ground by being weighted or staked down.
The skunks apparently do not know enough
to start digging back of that part of the
netting lying on the ground.

ANTS.

Certain ants in the more southern States,
particularly in Florida and Texas, will at-
tack a colony of bees and utterly ruin it.
For further particulars see Ants, subhead
"Ants in the South."

SPIDERS.

Spiders as well as toads seem to have
a rare appreciation of a heavily laden bee
as it returns to the hive ; one should there-
fore be careful that all spider webs be
faithfully kept brushed away from the
hives, and that they have no corners or
crevices about them to harbor such insects.
Be sure there is no place which the broom
will not clear out at one sweep ; for where
one has a hundred hives he cannot well
spend a great amount of time on each one.

Many of these so-called enemies probably
take up the destruction of bees only as a
chance habit, and that it is not always to be
looked for nor expected. Common fowls
sometimes get a habit of eating their own
eggs; but it is so unusual an occurrence
that it can hardly be regarded as a matter
of any very serious importance. It may
be well at times to look out for the enemies
that prey on bees ; but, as a general thing,
they are quite capable of fighting their own
battles if they are given the proper care
and suitable hives .

It was L. L. Langstroth, just before he
died, who showed how spiders may be of

ENTRANCES TO HIVES

257

value to the beekeeper. If, he said, they
have access freely to the combs stored in
stacked-up hives in the apiary, there never
need be any fear that moth worm or moth
miller would be able to do any damage, for
the spiders will shortly destroy them.

WASPS.

Wasps and hornets sometimes capture
and carrj^ off honeybees; but, unless they
should take part in the work in great num-
bers, there need be no solicitude in regard
to them.

MOSQUITO HAWKS.

Mosquito hawks, sometimes called "dev-
il's darning-needles," and "bee hawks," at
certain seasons of the year, are very de-
structive to bees in some of the Southern
States, particularly in Florida. They give
more trouble along the Florida rivers, es-
pecially along the marshy lands, where they
breed very rapidly. In April and May
th^y come in such countless numbers that
the sky is black with them. As the habits
of these insects are predatory, they will at-
tack any insects, including mosquitoes and
bees. When they are very numerous, the
bees have learned the trick of staying in
the hives, so it is said, realizing that the
mosquito hawks are their natural enemies.
These insect hawks are so destructive at
times that they weaken a whole apiary.

One year, when the publishers of this
work had some 300 to 400 colonies on the
Apalachicola River, their apiarist there es-
timated that the mosquito hawks did dam-
age to the extent of a thousand dollars in
four or five days. Arrangements had been
made to move the bees north to escape this
pest, but it was then too late.

THIEVES.

Thieves are sometimes troublesome at
outyards, and once in a while at the home
yard. The best way to end their depre-
dations is to put up a sign or two offering
fifty or a hundred dollars reward for the
arrest and conviction of the guilty parties.
The thief is immediately warned that a
price is upon his head, and that he had
better stop stealing. It is seldom that the

reward money is ever called for, and fur-
ther annoyance is stopped.

THE WORST ENEMY.

By all odds the most serious enemy to
the bees and beekeeping is the careless or
ignorant beekeeper himself who harbors
disease in his hives, either because he does
not care or because he does not know any
better. Such a man places in jeopardy the
interests of every other beekeeper for miles
around. While bees do not ordinarily fly
over two miles (see Flight of Bees), and
one is usually safe if he is that far from a
foul-brood apiary, yet in the course of
a year or two the colonies in the diseased
yard will die, when bees a mile and a half
away can easily rob out the honey from
these dead colonies, and carry the infection
to their own yards. These in turn become
diseased, forming new centers of infection
reaching out a mile or perhaps two miles
farther. This, in fact, is the way bee dis-
ease proceeds from yard to yard by rob-
bing. To prevent this spread arises the
need of foul-brood laws and bee inspectors.
See Laws Relating to Foul Beood; also
Inspectors.

ENTRANCE GUARDS.— See Drones.

ENTRANCES TO HIVES.— At the bot-
tom of the hive is the usual and by
far the best location for the entrance.
Having the entrance below makes it

much easier for the bees to retain the
warmth of the cluster. Moreover the bees
when flying during chilly weather have

9

258

ENTRANCES TO HIVES

less difficulty in entering the hive, and can
easily remove bits of refuse comb, dirt, or
dead bees from the bottom-board.

On account of the tendency of returning
bees to chill in cold weather, there should be
a large alighting-board if the hive is raised
off the ground; or if on the ground, there
should be an easy slanting grade or door-
step to the entrance. All grass and weeds
should be kept down within at least a foot
of the front of the hive; and it would be
better if there were a full yard of clear
space. Bees that come in heavily laden are
often knocked down by bumping into tall

A colony with an entrance too small where the
bees have formed the loafing habit.

weeds or sprigs of grass. While they ulti-
mately take wing, making another attempt,
and finally land in the hive, such obstruc-
tions, if hindering to the bees, cause a loss
to their owner.

be surprised. When it is such an easy matter
to cut away the weeds, or keep them away
from the entrance with a little sprinkling of
salt or with a wide board, it is "penny wise
and pound foolish" to wear out the wings
of our little servants trying to pass this
obstruction, at the same time delaying them
when every moment counts. Farmer bee-
keepers especially seem to have the idea

that bees will work for nothing and board
themselves, and in three cases out of five
one will find the entrances of their hives,
what few they may have, all tangled up
with grass and weeds. On mornings when
there is a heavy dew such obstruction is
very considerable.

Very many use a scythe, lawnmower, or
a common sickle, to cut down the grass.
Others keep it down with a small handful
of salt scattered around the front of the
hive. Still others prefer to use a piece of
board about a foot or more wide, and as
long as the hive is wide. Rough unplaned
lumber of the cheapest kind is better than
clear planed stuff, as the bees can cling to

It is impossible to estimate just how much it more easily. The boards should be
the loss in honey is; but, if the actual fig- cleated and laid directly on the ground,
ures could be secured, the producer would abutting up close to the bottom-board if it

ENTRANCES TO HIVES

259

rests on or close to the ground. No grass
or weeds can grow, of course, where these
boards are laid; and general practice shows
it is cheaper and better to use such boards
than to be compelled to use salt or cut
down the obstructions every few days in
front of the hive.

One of the drawings contains a sugges-
tion which can be very easily applied to the
eleated boards just described. Bend some
iron wii'es, about No. 8, with hook at each
end. Drive one of the hooks into the board
as here illustrated, and secure in position
by means of a common blind-staple near
the other edge. If the wires are cut right,
this alighting-board can be easily hooked
into the entrance and make a nice easy
grade from the ground up to the hive.
At any time these alighting-boards can be
unhooked, the grass cut with a lawnmower,
and the board replaced.

SIZE OF SUMMER EXTRAXCE.

The proper size of entrance depends on
the location, season of the year, size of
colony, amoimt of protection, and whether
the bees are wintered indoors or out. Dur-
ing the height of the honey flow the aper-
ture should be as large as the bottom-board
or hive will permit — not less than i^ch
deep by the width of the hive. If too
small there will be insufficient ventilation,
causing loafing and clustering on the front
of the hive, often resulting in swarming.
(See Swarming.)

Nuclei or weak colonies must have no
larger entrances than they can easily de-
fend. They should be as small as possible
after the regular honey flow, for then it is
that robbers are liable to rush in peUmell
and overpower the guards of the little col-
ony, depriving it of the scanty store it may
have. See Robbing. A two-frame nucleus
should not have an opening larger than
wHl admit two or three bees at a time dur-
ing the robbing season. When the honey
flow is on, it may be larger; but it should
be contracted as soon as the flow eases up.

SIZE OF WINTER ENTRANCE.

When cool weather comes on the en-
trances of all colonies should be contracted,
both strong and weak, and kept so during
the entire winter if bees are left outdoors.

Formerly the practice was to allow the full
size; but experience has shown that this is
a serious mistake in many localities. There
is no more reason why the bees should have
their doors wide open in midwinter, letting

^A^r/?AA/C^ BJL OC/<

Contractive cleats for summer use.

chilling drafts blow in, than that we should
leave our doors open. A ten-frame Lang-
stroth hive should have an entrance about
% inch deep by one to eight inches wide,
the length of the entrance depending on the
climate and the size of the colony. During
verv severe weather it might be still

OLD STYL-C ENTRANCE BLOCK

NEW STYLE 8L OCK .jyS " /-/OL E3

smaller. With a contracted entrance it
may be necessary for the apiarist to hook
the dead bees out with a wire two or

COMBINATION BLOCK- Vs'-^ HOLE 5 AND SLOT

260

ENTRANCES TO HIVES

three times during the winter, and possibly
once in the spring ; for in no case must the
opening be clogged up.

Dr. E. F. Phillips, in charge of Api-
culture, Bureau of Entomology, Washing-
ton, D. C, recommends the use of a small
entrance in the form of a circular hole
from ^ inch to % inch diameter where
the bees are packed in quadruple winter
cases, such as are described under head
of "Wintering" at the close of this work.
A number of prominent apiarists all over
the country have used very small entrances
like this with excellent results during win-
ter, but such small entrances are not prac-
ticable unless there is at least 6 inches of
packing on the sides of the winter case,
then 6 inches on top and 4 inches on the
bottom. With that amount of packing it
is claimed the interior of the brood-nest is
so warm that bees can easily pick up the
dead and poke them out of the entrance.
When hives are only single-walled and out-
doors, so small an entrance would probably
be too much of a good thing, as the dead
bees would accumulate so fast that the en-
trance would clog up.

In California it is getting more and
more the practice, even with small colonies,
;o contract the entrance down to % inch

Hives owned by John Nippert, at Imperial. Calif-

wide, or a space where not more than two
or three bees can pass at a time, but as the
bees can fly nearly every day during the
winter, they can easily carry out any dead
that may accumulate. The object of the
close contraction of the entrance in Cali-
fornia is to obviate robbing and to hold
the heat in the hives.

The use of very closely contracted en-
trances during the winter, as advocated by
California beekeepers, can be practiced to
excellent advantage in other semi-tropical
countries during that part of the year

when the days are warm and the nights
cold.

It is customary to have some sort of cleat
to reduce a wide entrance to a small slot.
This, when inserted slot side down, reduces
the opening to the proper size for outdoor-
wintered bees. In cleaning out the dead
bees the entrance-stop should be removed
entirely, making the entrance the full size.
Any dead bees that may have accumulated
should be raked out and the stop put back.
If it is discovered that the colony is weak,
the slot should be reduced to one inch or
less in width. At the same time the frames
should be contracted to the number that the
bees can reasonably occupy or cover. If
they are compelled to keep a large room
warm, they may die from cold.

The illustrations show very simple cleats
which can be made at any planing mill, or
can be cut at home, using nothing but a
common hand saw and a chisel. These
cleats give various-sized entrances accord-
ing to the way they are attached. When
the cleats are removed entirely the full
opening of the hive is provided.

If the new-style block containing % inch
holes is used, at least two of the holes may
be closed during very cold weather.

No matter whether the slotted entrance,
or one consisting of a series of holes, is
used, it is very important that there be
no doorstep or ledge to catch snow and
ice. We have tested this out to our satis-
faction, and some of the biggest beekeep-
ers are emphatic in the statement that door-
steps just beneath the entrances are far
worse than useless.

Under the heading Enemies oe Bees
reference was made to the depredations of

ENTRANCES TO HIVES

261

mice during the winter. It often becomes
necessary to screen the entrances of hives
put in the cellar. W. D. Keyes of Wilkins-
burg, Pa., uses a very simple device, con-
sisting of two triangular blocks and a strip
of coarse-mesh cloth, just coarse enough to
let bees thru it and yet exclude the mice.
It is very quickly applied; and, if there is
one to each hive, it will make very little
expense, especially considering that a
mouse on even one frame of young brood
may do enough mischief in a single colony
to pay the expense of the excluder. They
will seldom gnaw a % inch slot in an
entrance-contracting cleat. For colonies

Coarse wire mesh that will let bees thru but
exclude mice.

space, and on the other side %. The
usual practice is to use the deep side up,
and an entrance-contracting cleat as shown.

While some prefer to use the shallow
side of the bottom board up the year round,
it is better to use the deep side, and then
make the necessary contraction of entrance
with the contracting cleat as shown. Dur-
ing the warm part of the year, when bees
need an abundance of ventilation (spoken
of under Comb Honey^ to Produce^ and
Swarming, Prevention of), the wide or
deep entrance is used Avithout the entrance

cleat. As cooler weather comes on, or if
the colony is not strong, the cleat is inserted
as shown in the above engraving.

A PLURALITY OF ENTRANCES.

wintered outdoors such a contracted en-
trance is all that is necessary for excluding
mice.

The accompanying illustrations show how
the entrance is provided for in a modern
dovetailed hive. The bottom is made up of
an outside rim or framework, into which

are inserted the floor-boards % iJich thick.
These slide into grooves so cut that on one
side the bottom-board provides a % inch

While it is true that a plurality of en-
trances may be a detriment in a brood-
chamber, this does not necessarily hold
good during the honey season when the
hive is tiered up two or three stories high.
It then becomes difficult, and wasteful of
bee energy that might be better employed,
to ventilate the whole hive from one en-
trance, however large it is, for the bees
have to maintain a current of air rushing
in, and another going out at the same aper-
ture. If queen-excluders are used the case
is made worse. It almost goes without say-
ing, that, during the period in which the
honey is evaporated while in the combs,
there should be more than one entrance
to the hive — at least two, and, during very
hot weather, more, one to each story, with
the cover or roof slightly raised at the back
to furnish additional means for the bad air
to escape at the top of the hive.

It is said by those who have tried this
method of air control that it is a great pre-
ventive of swarming, and it looks reason-
able. The brood-chamber is far less crowded.

262

ENTRANCES TO HIVES.

since the field workers arrive and depart
from the upper entrance to a great extent,
saving overcrowding of the brood-chamber,
which surely leads to swarming. On the
other hand, there is danger of the honey-
chambers being rendered too cool by so
many entrances ; but if this is the case, it is
also too cool for honey-gathering, and the
upper stories should be removed. If the
colony is weak, upper entrances are unnec-
essary; and in that case, also, the honey-
chambers should be removed, since such a
colony does not gather a surplus in any
event.

Some of our well-known writers on bee
culture heartily recommend upper entrances
—notably so Dr. C. C. Miller, C. P. Dadant,
R. F. Holtermann, and, in early times,
Adam Grimm, who, with the money he
made with his bees, established a bank.

Dr. C. C. Miller, in Gleanings in Bee
Culture for June 1, 1907, writes: "Prof.
Cook says, p. 312, that bees ventilate so
effectively at the entrance that it is best
to have only one opening to the hive, evi-
dently meaning at all times; and W. K.
Morrison, page 686, asks if I subscribe to
that doctrine. Emphatically, no. If run-
ning for extracted honey I would generally
have one more opening than the number of
stories in use — the regular entrance and an
opening at the top of each story. Each year
for years I have had one or more piles thus
ventilated, and none has ever swarmed.
Many years ago I learned from Adam
Grimm to have an opening for ventilation
at the top of the brood-chamber at the back
end when running for comb honey. I gave
it up because it interfered with the finish-
ing of the sections near such openings. But
I have gone back to it again, believing that
such disadvantage is overbalanced by the
gain in ventilation. You can't make me be-
lieve that it is not easier for the bees to
have one hole for the air to go out and an-
other for it to come in than to make the air
go both ways in the same hole."* The

* It is a very interesting experiment to light a
match and hold it in front of the entrance while the
evaporation of nectar is going on in the hive. On
one side the flame will be sucked into the entrance
and on the other side the flame will be blown away
from it. So strong is the current that the match
will be sucked out in one case and blown out in the
other. It shows that bees, like a series of little
electric fans, are sucking fresh air in one side and
forcing the air laden with moisture from evaporation
on the other side. The direction of the air current
can also be determined by the use of a little smoke
or a light and fluffy feather.

practical beekeeper will soon discover for
himself when and how to use a plurality of
entrances, for much depends on the climate.
Evidently it does not work so well with
comb-honey production as it does with ex-
tracted ; yet even this may be satisfactorily
arranged. It looks now as if plural en-
trances were a long step toward swarm
prevention by causing the field workers to
leave the brood and confine their energies
to storing honey in the upper chambers.
See Swarming.

ENTRANCES FOR INDOOR V^INTERING.

Authorities differ as to the size of en-
trance that should be used for indoor win-
tering. Some argue that, the larger the
openings, the better. A few go even so far
as to urge that the bottom-boards be re-
moved entirely, one hive piled upon two
others, leaving an opening between the two
lower hives of about one-third of the size of

□ □ □ □
□□ □□ □□ □□

the entire bottom of the hive. Others ad-
vise a regular bottom-board, but an en-
trance two inches deep by the full width
of the hive; while others recommend no
larger entrance than the bees have during
the summer.

The preponderance of evidence seems to
be in favor of the last-mentioned size. Too
much ventilation, even in a cellar where
the temperature is reasonably under con-
trol, has a tendency to induce too large a
consumption of stores. Over-eating causes
dysentery. When that happens in a bee-
cellar the colony is doomed unless it can be
given a flight on a warm day, as recom-
mended under the head of Wintering in
Cellars in the latter part of this work.

The author's practice has been to use the
same entrance that we have in the summer ;
and so long as we used that size we had
excellent results in wintering. One win-
ter, for the purpose of experiment, we
raised each individual hive off its bottom-
board and inserted a rim three inches deep
and of the same outside dimensions as the
hive. The sides of these rims were open,
but covered with wire cloth. The result
was that we lost over 100 colonies out of
the 230 put into the cellar, and the rest
came out in a very weakened condition.

EUCALYPTUS

263

The bee is essentially a warm-blooded
animal. Experience has shown that in a
cellar a temperature of 43 to 50 degrees
F. with plenty of ventilation gives the best
results. When the temperature is down to
40 or 42 less ventilation is required. An
ordinary colony with ordinary summer en-
trance in such cellar temperature will be
able to warm the interior of its hive with-
out too much expenditure of animal heat.
When the bees are too cold they will eat
largely of their stores, and in doing so
bring on disease.

and landscape trees. A number of the
species are popularly known as gum trees
because a resinous gum flows from incisions
in the bark; others are called iron-bark
trees from their very hard bark, and still
others from their fibrous bark are termed
stringy-bark trees. To this genus belongs
the tallest tree in the world, E. amygdalina,
which attains the height of 480 feet.

By far the most widely planted and
probably the best adapted to the climatic
conditions of California is the blue gum,
or E. globulus, which is found in almost

The eucalyptus is of vast miportance in California for brood-rearing.

EUCALYPTUS.— A large genus of ever-
green trees growing chiefly in the coast
region of Australia and New Guinea. About
150 species have been described, of which
not far from 100 have been introduced into
California. At the Forestry Station at
Santa Monica there have been planted near-
ly 70 species and varieties, the qualities of
which are being tested and compared. To
a much smaller extent they have been
planted in Arizona and the Gulf region of
Texas. Few eucalyptus will endure a tem-
perature below 20 degrees, or above 120
degrees F. They grow very rapidly and
promise to become very valuable sources
of timber and other commercial products,
and are likewise very effective as avenue

every town in the State from San Fran-
cisco to San Diego, and inland as far as
the edge of the Imperial Desert region. It
is apparently as vigorous in California as
in its native Australia. It is claimed to be
the fastest growing tree in the world.
Seedlings will average a growth of 50 feet
in height in six years and 100 feet in ten
years; and under favorable conditions a
seedling may reach a height of 35 feet in
eight months, and in three years a height
of 70 feet. In Australia old trees grow
375 feet tall. The wood is very heavy,
hard, and strong, and is valued at the same
price as oak. It is used for innumerable
purposes from telegraph poles, railroad
ties, and shipbuilding to cabinet work and

264

EUCALYPTUS

wagoji wheels, as well as for fuel; while
the leaves yield large quantities of medici-
nal oil. Windbreaks of two or three, rows
of blue gum afford excellent protection to
orchards. The cost of setting out and cul-
tivating a plantation for two years is about
$25 per acre, while the returns at the end
of ten years will usually not exceed $160
per acre.

The bark of the blue gum is smooth and
pale brown. The leaves are sword-shaped,
6 to 12 inches long, tough, leathery, and
bluish green in young trees, but dark green
in older trees. The flowers are solitary (in
most other species they are in small clus-
ters), in the axils of the leaves and appear
from December to June. The flower bud
expands by the top of the calyx dropping
off, when there is a "veritable starburst"
of some 100 creamy-white stamens. A
flower consists of the cup-shaped lower
portion of the calyx, which is well adapted
to hold the very abundant supply of nec-
tar, and a ring of stamens, with the pistil
in the center — there are no petals. The
seed cases are round, top-shaped, or in the
blue gum angular, and a pound of seed
will produce over 10,000 plants. E. globu-
lus was introduced into California in 1856.

Other species- of eucalyptus, which are
promising commercially, are the sugar gum
{E. corynocalyx) , the red gum {E. rostra-
ta), and the gray gum {E. tereticornis) ;
but none of them are comparable to E.
globulus in rapid growth, value of timber,
and ability to flourish over a wide range
of conditions in California. The sugar
gum is much used in southern California
as a street tree and for windbreaks. It
strongly resists drouth, but succumbs easily
to frosts. The red gum has been largely
planted in the Sacramento and San Joa-
quin Valleys, and also withstands well the
intense heat of the Imperial Valley. The
gray gum endures drouth and cold better
than many species, and can, therefore, be
planted over a wide range of the State.
The timber of all three species is strong
and valuable.

All of the species yield nectar, but most
of them are so rare outside of experimental
grounds that their value as honey-producers
remains to be determined. The blooming
time of the various species varies so widely
that there are, at least, from three to seven
^Decies in flower during every month of the

year, and a species may even bloom twice
in the same year. The blue gum {E. globu-
lus) is the only species which is yet suffi-
ciently abundant to be of much importance
to apiarists.

The honey is an amber of a rather in-
ferior quality. Its chief value to beekeep-
ers, however, is that it comes on during the
winter in California and yields honey pretty
much all winter. Some years there is a
great deal more of it than others. Occa-
sionally there will be enough secured to
yield quite a surplus, but as a rule, it
comes in just fast enough to stimulate
brood-rearing and to supply enough more
honey so that the bees do not have to draw
upon their reserve supply left in the hive
to prevent starvation in case there should
be no winter flow.

There are many localities in California
where there is no eucalyptus. Its import-
ance from a brood-rearing standpoint is so
great that many beekeepers move their
bees a good many miles to the eucalyptus
to build them up during the winter, so that
when the orange flow comes on they will
be ready for the crop.

Several species are reputed "to yield fine
honeys with exquisite flavors. The sugar
gum {E. corynocalyx) secretes nectar copi-
ously, and two or three bees may often be
seen around a single blossom seeking a load
of nectar. The flowers, which are in pretty
white clusters about two inches broad, ex-
hale a most agreeable odor suggestive of a
ripe cantalope. The mahogany gum {E.
robusta), which thrives in swampy locali-
ties, is also very valauble. White iron bark
{E. leucoxylon) with a vanilla-like fra-
grance, and the honey-scented gum {E.
mellilodora) are reported to be wonderful
yielders of nectar and to be very eagerly
visited by bees. They all bloom during the
earlier half of the year when their value in
stimulating brood-rearing is almost beyond
estimate.

But eucalyptus honey in America prob-
ably belongs chiefly to the future. The
commercial importance of eucalyptus cul-
ture, which has now passed the experimen-
tal stage, will lead to the planting of thou-
sands of trees, which will offer a bee pas-
ture of extraordinary richness. The Santa
Fe Railroad Company, for example, ex-
pects to cover 8000 acres in San Diego

EXTRACTED HONEY

265

County with eucalj^Dtus trees for ties and
timber. If the nectar production of these
immense plantations equals expectation,
the possibilities of bee culture in California
can hardly be overestimated. It is, how-
ever, unfortunate that the blue gum, which
financially is the most promising species,
should yield a honey of ijiferior quality.
For descriptions and illustrations of the
more important species of eucal^'-ptus and
the methods of cultivation see Bulletins No.
196 and No. 225, Agriculture Experiment
Station, Berkeley, Cal., and Circular 59 of
Forest Service, United States Department
of Agriculture.

EXTRACTED HONEY.— Up to the year
1865 all liquid honey obtainable was pressed
and strained from the combs — hence the
term ''strained'"' honey. Such a product is
generally full of sediment owing to particles
of wax, pollen, propolis, and dirt. The
more modern product of liquid honey is
extracted from the combs by centrifugal
force. A reel holding two or more combs
and revolving inside of a cylinder or can,
throws the liquid honey from the cells,
leaving the emptj' combs intact for the
bees to fill up again. (See Extractixg.)
The honey so obtained is called "extracted."
It is free from impurities — moreover, it is
not impaired in flavor by bits of pollen
and propolis. Practically all the liquid
honey on the market today is separated
from the combs by the use of the extractor,
and is, therefore, extracted honey. Occa-
sionally there is a honey — for example, the
far-famed heather honey of Scotland — that
is so thick that it cannot be readily sepa-
rated from the comb by centrifugal force,
imless it is placed in a warm room for
twenty-four hours before extracting.

There are as many varieties and flavors
of honej^s as there are of apples and other
fruits. Extracted honey may be divided
into two general classes, one suitable for
table use and the other for manufacturing
purposes. Among the fii^st named are the
light-colored honeys, such as the clover,
basswood, alfalfa, sage, orange, tupelo,
palmetto, and raspberry, all of which are
of fine body and flavor, and of course suit-
ble for use on the table. While it is not
invariably true, yet generally the light-col-
ored honeys are mild and delicious. The
darker honeys are nearly always stronger

in flavor and must be marketed in a locality
where the consumers are accustomed to the
flavor, .or they must be sold for baking pur-
poses. Hundreds, yes, thousands, of car-
loads of dark honeys are used by the large
baking concerns, for no artificial product*
that has ever been produced quite takes
the place of honey for keeping cakes soft
and moist for months. Some cakes, like
honey jumbles, contain a larger percentage
of honey than others. Honey is also often
used along with molasses and cheaper sjr-
ups in baking. See Honey as a Food.

As is pointed out under CoiiB Honey
there is some difference in flavor between
comb honey and extracted, owing to the
fact that the latter, especially if improper-
ly handled, loses some of its aroma and
because it usually has to be heated one or
more times, as explained under Bottling.
Overheating, even for a very short time,
impairs the flavor of honey. Moreover,
some producers in their eagerness to obtain
all the honey possible extract it from the
combs before it is fuUy "ripened." Honey
when it is first stored in the cells is thin
and watery, and does not have the exquisite
flavor that it has when evaporated and
changed chemically by the bees and sealed
over. Honey which has been allowed to
stay in the hive some time after it is sealed
acquires a body and a richness that honey
only partially sealed does not have. Some
producers who use specially constructed-
evaporating tanks maintain that unripe
honey may be evaporated by artificial
means and made just as hea^^^ in body a-s
that evaporated by the bees. If an exten-
sive equipment is used this is probably
true, but the flavor is not as rich as tho
the honey had been left on the hive, fully
evaporated and capped over by the bees
before being extracted. Most beekeepers
who have tried to ripen honey artiflcially
have not succeeded, and the thin honey
which they attempt to sell not only lacks
in flavor and body, but in many instances
actually sours, iiTeparably damaging future
sales and injuring the reputation of the
producer. Unless honey is coming in so
fast that there is not a reserve of combs
to take care of it, it is penny-wise-and-
pound-foolish to extract unripe honey. It

* Invert sugar, when it is cheaper than honey, is
somotimes used as a substitute, but it lacks flavor. See
Invert SncAR.

Uncapped combs being lowered into a honey-extractor.

The comb after being taken from the extractor is as good as nev. and is ready :o be filled again by the bees.

2G8

EXTRACTED HONEY

is not possible to produce an extracted
honey that will have all the delicate aroma
that it possessed before being removed
from the comb, and every extracted-honey
producer, therefore, should err on the safe
side by letting the bees do their part fully.

In 1870 A. I. Root extracted over three
tons of honey from an apiary of less than
fiftj^ colonies. During the fore part of the
season it had been allowed to become cap-
ped over; but during the basswood bloom,
when the bees were fairly crazy in their
eagerness to bring in the nectar, some of it
was extracted that was little better than
sweetened water. This granulated when the
weather became cold, and nearly all of it
had to be sold at a loss. Almost all honey
will granulate; but an unripe honey will
do so, leaving a thin watery part,, which,

Unripe honey. Fermentation and consequent expansion

if it does not sour, acquires in time a dis-
agreeable brackish flavor. Unripe honey
will often show the peculiar quality of
pushing the bungs out of barrels, corks
out of bottles, and it may actually burst
cans, to the disgust of every one who has
anything to do with it.

New honey, even that which is fully
capped over, often has a peculiar odor and
taste. Sometimes, where there is a great
amount of goldenrod a disagreeable smell is
noticeable in the apiary while the golden-
rod honey is ripening. In a few weeks,
however, all this passes away and the honey
shows nothing of the former disagreeable
odor or flavor. In certain localities where
onion seeds are raised for market, the
honey, when flrst gathered, has so strong
a flavor of onions that it cannot be used.
Later on, however, much of the disagree-
able'quality disappears.

Even basswood honey, when first gath-
ered, is so strong, and has such a pro-
nounced "twang" that it is often unpleas-
ant. After standing, especially if left in
the hives, it greatly improves.

caused the honey to leak out around the screw-caps.

One season we could not attend to ex-
tracting when the honey was capped over,
and so the filled supers were raised up and
supers of empty combs placed under them
next to the brood-chamber. This occupied
little time, and the bees were not hindered
in their work. This was continued until the

EXTRACTED HONEY

269

latter part of the summer, before any
honey was extracted. While honey that
has stood in the hives is somewhat thicker
and harder to extract, it has a richness of
flavor that can be obtained in no other way.
Of course, in localities where there are
honey flows from two or more sources it is
necessary to extract after each flow, if one
desires to keep the flavors separate.

HOW TO KEEP EXTRACTED HONEY.

It is usually best to sell the crop at once
when the market is good; but sometimes it
is advisable to hold, awaiting a further
higher price. It is impossible to recommend
any invariable rule, for conditions are dif-
ferent in different seasons. It is pretty
safe to assume, however, that honey brings
a better price before the holidays than
after.

Comb honey cannot be kept indefinitely,
because there is danger that it may granu-
late;* but, if extracted honey is properly
cared for, it may be kept for years without
deteriorating. All comb honey should be
kept in a room as near summer tempera-
ture as possible. The thermometer should
not go below 70 degrees F., and no harm
is done if it goes as high as ordinary sum-
mer temperature permits, even 90 or 100
degrees in the shade. Extracted honey
keeps perfectly when stored in tin cans or
in large tanks, even when the temperature
is down to freezing or lower. At the low
temperature it will granulate. For the
purpose of shipping it is much better to
have it in a granulated condition. Tanks
holding more than 500 pounds are ordi-
narily made of galvanized iron. Some
objection has been made to this metal be-
cause of the zinc contained in the spelter;
but in the large-sized tanks no injury to
the honey has ever been noticed. However,
it would be a mistake to leave a very thin
layer of honey for a long time in the bot-
tom of a large galvanized tank, as the
honey might take on enough of the zinc to
be poisonous. In California and other
Western States where great quantities of
extracted honey are produced, it is custom-
ary to store honey in large galvanized
tanks, some of them practically good-sized
cisterns above the ground. In hot climates

^ See Comb Honey.

the honey will remain liquid for some time
and can be kept perfectly clear until cool
weather comes on. If the honey has a
tendenc}^ to granulate soon after extract-
ing, it is not advisable to store it for any
length of time in large tanks, but it should
be drawn off into smaller cans of con-
vienient size to handle after it granulates.
In such cans it is not difficult to liquefy it,
if desired. (See Bottling Honey and
Granulated Honey.) It is an expensive
matter to dig granulated honey out of a
large tank. Some have attempted to sup-
ply heat by means of a steam- jacketed
tank, or by means of coils of steam pipes;
but in most instances this, too, is expensive,
and it is better to get honey into smaller
cans as soon as possible.

In some localities barrels are extensively
used for storing. They require careful
watching, however, on account of the dan-
ger of leaking. The hoops need to be
driven down occasionally to compensate
for the slight shrinkage of the wood, of
which there is danger, especially in a hot
climate. The barrel should be thoroly
waxed on the inside as described under
Barrels. The bung should be left out,
and the honey stored in a dry room. When
ready to ship, the bung should be driven in,
a piece of tin tacked over it, and the hoops
tightened.

IS extracted honey always pure?

Years ago adulterated extracted hont^y
was marketed in considerable quantities;
but in late j-ears, owing to the enactment
and enforcement of pure-food laws the
adulterated product has been practically
eliminated from the market. One may be
nearly certain, therefore, that any liquid
honey that he buys will be the pure product
of bees. Some may be of poor quality, it
is true; but that does not signify that it is
adulterated. See Adulteration of Honey,
also Labels^ for a further discussion of
this question.

packages for shipping and selling
extracted honey.

For the shipment of honey, tin containers
are much more satisfactory than wooden.
When tin is used there is never any loss
by honey soaking into the package, while

270

EXTRACTED HONEY

in case of barrels or kegs the loss is some-
times 2 or even 5 per cent, and this is con-
siderable. Such loss is greatly reduced by
waxing; but that in turn includes much
additional labor. In the West, the dryness
of the climate causes wooden packages,
such as barrels and kegs, to shrink to such
an extent that they are entirely useless.
If tin containers are tight in the first place
they will remain tight, and no degree of
dryness will affect them. While they are
somewhat more expensive, yet this disad-
vantage is more than offset by the greater
convenience and safety in handling.

Yet whatever package is used, care should
be taken to insure safe shipment. Everj^
year in this country an enormous amount
of honey is lost by the honey-shipper's

A honey can after being shipped loose in a bo.\. Most of
the honey had leaked out.

carelessness in failing to provide proper
shipping equipment when putting his crop
aboard cars. Now railroads stand all loss
in transit; and, therefore, in order to re-
alize the necessary profit, excessive loss in
transit compels them to raise the rates, and
thus the shipper is ultimately obliged to
pay from his own pocketbook for his fail-
ure to provide strong shipping-cases.

A round can as a container for honey or
other liquid has long been condemned as a

failure by the railroad companies. This is
because of the fact that there is no way of
keeping a round container upright and in
its place on the car floor, and, once tipped
over, it rolls about with every jolt of the
car and gets battered or even knocked to
pieces. As for the wooden jacket (a
wooden veneer about % inch thick) it is
about as good as nothing. The accompany-

A truck-load of round wooden-jacketed cans just as
they were received after shipment.

ing illustration shows the battered and
leaky condition in which jacketed cans ar-
rive at their destination.

When such packages are used, not only
is the honey itself liable to be lost in tran-
sit, but often the honey runs down upon
other merchandise in the freight car, caus-
ing considerable damage. It is on account
of these repeated instances of loss and dam-
age caused by leaking honey, that some
shippers have recently been advocating steel
drums, holding 15 gallons or possibly 30
gallons. These are especially advised for
export shipments to foreign countries where
the packages receive very rough treatment,
as on shipboard. The only possible objec-
tion to shipping honey in these drums is,
that they are rather heavy and cannot be
lifted without a hoist. Moreover should the
honey granulate in them, it would require
a long heating process to reliquefy it. When
steel drums are used, they must be either
tin lined or galvanized.

EXTRACTED HONEY

271

By far the most popular package for
shipping extracted hone}' in bulk is the
five-gallon sixty-pound square can. These
are usually shipped tvro in a wooden ease

Standard two-can shipping case with strong parntion in
middle beraeen the cans. Each 5-gal. can
holds 60 lbs. of honey.

as shown. Note the strong % inch parti-
tion between the two cans. This is abso-
lutely necessary for safe shipment. With-
out this partition the case is too frail to
stand such a weight of honey together with
the rough handling it is boimd to receive in
shipment.

A very convenient device to use when
potu'ing honey from the five-gallon cans is
the screw-cap honey-gate, as shown. This
simple gate may be made by any one. Take

piece of hea\y tin^2y2 x 3, and make a
square bend 14 i^icli from each long edge.
A hea\y piece of sole leather, 2x3 inches,
of a size to fit into this, should be riveted
firmly at the four comers. Solder to it a
screw-cap the right size to fit the cans used,
and with a tinner's punch cut a hole thru
the cap, tin, and leather. A tin slide, to be
pushed in between the leather and the
folded tin, completes the device, which,
when screwed on the can, is ready for use.

To meet the demand for smaller tin
packages the manufacturers of square cans

have introduced smaller-sized cans holding
one, one-half, and one-fourth gallon re-
spectively. The gallon cans are usually
sold in boxes of ten each.

HOVr TO TEST TIX CAXS FOR LEAKS.

Ordinarily by looking into the can while
it is held toward the light, one may deter-
mine whether or not the can has leaks.
Even a tiny hole will let in a bright ray of
light which will be readily seen if the can is
turned slightly toward one side or the
other.

If solder becomes loosened at some point,
however, this test might not locate the de-
fect. Therefore some beekeepers prefer to
screw the caps tightly on the cans and then
immerse the cans in hot water. The inside
air expanding will cause small bttbbles to
escape from all leaks. Another plan some-
times employed is to have a cap specially
prepared for attaching the tube of an auto
pump, and then forcing aii' into the can.
If there is a leak, one will hear the soimd
of escaping air.

HOW TO CLEAX SECOXD-HAXD CAXS.

Opinions vary as to the advisability of
using second-hand cans. Frequently sec-
ond-hand gasoline or kerosene cans may
be bought for about half the price of new
ones. Unless one is very cai'eful in clean-
ing, however, honey placed in them is like-
ly to be ruined. The general consensus of
opinion is that bright new cans are the
cheapest for fine light honey. Honey that
is dark or ill flavored may be shipped in
second-hand cans if they are carefully in-
spected and rigidly cleaned. If a can has
held oil of any kind, it may be cleaned by
putting a handful of imslacked lime into
it with three or fottr quarts of boiling
water. After the lime is slacked, it should
be shaken weh. and afterward rinsed out
twice with cold water.

Rusty cans must never be used for honey.
The rust not only discolors the honey, but
it indicates weak spots in the tin, whii;j
may cause leaks almost any time.

Some beekeepers insist that even new
cans should be rinsed out with boiling water
before the honey is put in them, to remove
the dust or any other foreign matter. Oth-
ers claim that it is so difficult to dry the
cans after they are thus cleaned that it does

272

EXTRACTED HONEY

Friction-top cans and pails.

not pay. If the cans are not carefully dried,
the moisture left is almost sure to cause
rusting-. We have rarely found new cans
that require rinsing.

FRICTION-TOP PAILS.

Among the smaller tin packages for hold-
ing a gallon or less the friction-top cans
and pails are very popular. The opening
at the top is very large, and this adds
greatly to the convenience in filling. The
caps, when they are properly pressed into
position, are absolutely tight and will not
work loose.

GLASS PACKAGES FOR EXTRACTED HONEY.

The appearance of extracted honey is
beautiful. For this reason the lighter grades
should be retailed in glass instead of tin.
A tin package must depend upon its label
for its attractiveness. Honey in clear white
glass speaks for itself. The label does not
need to be gaudy; in fact, it should serve
only to call attention to the honey. There
is a great variety of different types of jars
from the smallest tumbler to the large two-
quart Mason jars. Square bottles with large

mouths using corks were very popular a
few years ago and are still used quite large-
ly. These are obtainable with a picture of
a straw skep pressed in the glass on the
front.

Airline jars.

Mason fruit jars are popular because
they can be bought anywhere, and no one
objects to buying them with honey, since
they are always useful. Whenever possible
select crystal-white glass rather than that
of a greenish tint, for green does not show
the honey to the best advantage.

Taper-panel jar Federal jar

Tip-top jar

Tiiinhlt'r

EXTRACTING

273

Paper milk-bottles have been used for
honey to some extent; and while these are
ve'y satisfactory for g-ranulated honey they
do not answer for long shipments of liquid
honey that is not granulated. For this rea-
son they are not very popular.

Extracted honey is one of the purest and
best foods. It should not be classed with
cheap syrups, and therefore it deserves the
best and most attractive package.

EXTRACTING.— To produce honey, one
must have a big force of bees. The pro-
ductiveness of an apiary can not be meas-
ured by the number of colonies it con-
tains, but by the number of bees in the
individual colonies. The only way to
achieve the best results is to see that each
colony is in good working order by the
time the flow opens, and to do this it is
necessary to examine each separately in or-
der to ascertain its condition. Special at-
tention must be given to each queen; and
every one that is in any way defective
should be replaced with another that is
young and vigorous. It will never do to
retain a queen whose prolificness is doubt-
ful, for the colony of such a queen will
yield very little surplus, or, in all probabil-
ity, none at all. It is far better to replace
such a queen, even if another has to be
bought. The next important thing to be
careful about is the strength of each col-
ony. If the honey flow begins a month or
six weeks ahead, and the weak colonies
have young prolific queens, an effort may
be made to build them up to full strength
in time for it; but if the flow is near at
hand, it is better to unite the weaklings.

In some localities, the main honey flow is
preceded by a light flow from some other
source, while in others there is a dearth
until the opening of the harvest. Where
the former is the case the bees will make
good progress in brood-rearing, and the
colonies consequently will build up nicely;
but where there is but one flow, some colo-
nies may be in the poorest kind of condi-
.tion when it commences.

It is true that, if the colonies were pre-
pared properly in the fall, and left with
sufficient stores, they may need no further
attention until the honey flow; but if they
lack stores or necessary room for the queen
to lay, the matter should not be neglected;

for in order to get a good crop it is im-
perative that at the beginning of the honey
flow the hives be overflowing with bees. In
the case of those colonies that need atten-
tion, the number of bees actually present
at the opening of the flow will depend en-
tirely upon our manipulations begun some
six or eight weeks previously.

During these weeks the colonies should
be kept always supplied with plenty of
stores. At all times there should be at
least from ten to twelve pounds of honey in
the hive — more if possible ; for duri ng
spring breeding great quantities of stores
are needed, full colonies sometimes needing
three or more pounds each week. It is
necessary to have stores in excess of their
actual needs, in order that brood-rearing
may continue at the proper rate. There-
fore close watch should be kept in order
that the stores may not run low and thus
curtail brood-rearing.

If some colonies are short of honey, it is
generally possible to find others in the
apiary which can easily spare a few combs ;
and if no disease is present in the apiary,
these stores should be equalized; or lack-
ing these stores it may be necessary to feed
syrup or candy. (See Feeding in Spring.)

However, the general opinion of the ma- .
jority of large producers is that it is better
to avoid spring feeding if possible. If in
need of stores they should be fed; but the
better way, as mentioned before, is to have
strong colonies of young vigorous bees with
an abundance of good stores in the fall to
last until the main flow begins in the
spring.

Just preceding the honey flow the queen
should be continually supplied with plenty
of room for laying. To move brood above
too early in the season would be attended
with danger of chilling the brood, since
much of the heat of the lower story would
rise to the upper one. But two or thrc"-
weeks before the opening of the main honey
■flow, if the strong colonies become quite
crowded with brood and bees, a super the
same depth as the brood-chamber should
be given immediately above the lower story ;
and, if the crowded condition seems to
warrant it, it may be advisable to place
one or two frames of eggs and larvae in the
upper story, replacing with frames and
empty combs or foundation. Combs are
greatly to be preferred; for if foundation

274

EXTRACTING

is used it will be necessary to feed syrup in
order to get the foundation drawn out.
When some brood is thus kept in the sec-
ond story the bees become so accustomed to
occupying the second story that when a
heavy honey flow comes they store in the
super with energy and enthusiasm.

WHAT KIND OF HIVES TO USE TOR
PRODUCING EXTRACTED HONEY.

For most localities the best results will
be secured in the long run with ten-frame
hives of Langstroth dimensions. These may
be either the double-walled pattern or the
regular dovetailed style shown herewith.
Eight-frame hives are advocated by some,
but they require much more attention ; and
the average beginner, as well as expert,
will get far better results with ten-frame
hives, for colonies in such hives not onlj'
swarm much less, but they produce more
honey per hive.

The supers that go above the brood-
chamber to hold the surplus honey may
either be of the shallow type, in which
frames are used about half the depth of
Langstroth frames, or they may be similar
in dimensions to the brood-chamber, the
frames used being identical with the brood-
frames. There are advantages and disad-
vantages in both, and it rests with the indi-
vidual as to which kind is best. Briefly, we
may say that the shallower supers are com-
ing more and more into use.

as short a time, if not shorter, than from
the deep combs. It is certainly true that
the shallow supers are lighter, more easily
handled, and more safely hauled without
breakage, may be put on early in the spring
with less loss of heat from the brood, and
that they make it possible to keep separate,
in different supers, different flows of honeys
varying in color and flavor, such as clover
and buckwheat.

Some advocate deep supers so that all
the frames in the hive will be interchange-
able, which is certainly a handy arrange-
ment. Others compromise by having one
deep super for each hive and two or more
shallow ones. This arrangement makes it
possible to give the queen access to two
stories when desired, and yet retains most
of the advantages of shallow supers.

In our own apiary we use the shallow
supers, and, as we said before, we find an
increasing number of producers are begin-
ning to use them also. In either case it is
best to space the frames further apart than
they are spaced in the brood-chamber ; that
is, even tho self-spacing frames are used in
extracting-supers, it is best to remove two
of the frames, so that the eight remaining
ones can be spaced further apart. This
will result in good fat combs that can be
more easily uncapped than those that are
spaced more closely together, so that the
combs are thinner.

Fig. 1. Ten-frame Standard hive
body or brood-chamber.

Ten-frame shallow extract-
ing super.

Fig. 3. Jmnbo deep hive body or
brood-chamber.

Some claim that there is no need of wir-
ing the combs in the shallow frames to pre-
vent breakage in the extractor — that the
combs in the shallow frames are easier to
uncap, and that the same bulk of honey
may be extracted from shallow combs, in

PUTTING ON SUPERS AT OPENING OF FLOW.

Many make the fatal mistake of waiting
until the last minute before purchasing
their supplies. It is folly to go to the ex-
pense and trouble of establishing an apiary,

EXTRACTING

275

and then, when the time arrives to reap the
reward of the labor, to lose it all simply
because the goods have not come. Long
before the harvest opens, the supers should
be put together and painted, the frames
nailed up, supplied with full sheets of
foundation, etc. If the deep frames of
Langstroth dimensions are used, they should
be well wired to prevent comb breakage in
the extractor ; but with the shallow frames
the wires are not necessary.

We will assume that the colonies are in
good condition for the honey flow, and the
supplies all in readiness. The next thing
is to put a super on each of the colonies
not already supplied with a second story,
and even on those if they seem crowded for
room. Yet the supers should not be put on
before the bees are ready for them, as noth-
ing is gained, and it is harder for the bees
to keep up the necessary heat, especially in
cold climates. On the other hand, the put-
ting-on of supers must not be delayed too
long, for thus time would be wasted, and
the bees on account of the crowded condi-
tion would probably start preparations for
a swarming. This should be avoided, since
much swarming is bound to cut down the
honey crop. As soon as there are indica-
tions of honey coming in from natural
sources in such quantities that the tops of
the combs in the brood-nest begin to whiten,
it is time to give supers to those colonies
not already supplied.

As previously stated, no matter whether
shallow or deep supers are to be used, many
prefer that the first super be a deep one, and
that it contain one or two frames with eggs
and larvae, together with frames of empty
combs or foundation. Some advocate the
use of this plan thruout the season but
many continue this arrangement only until
all danger of swarming is past, and then
the queen is placed below and a queen-
excluder between the two stories. This
plan gives the queen plenty of room to lay,
and so makes the colony less inclined to
swarm. It also gets the bees into a habit
of storing above — a thing that some Ital-
ians are very reluctant about doing at the
beginning of the season. The combs in the
second story act as baits to induce the bees
to go above. When the bees get well started
they continue working above willingly.
After that, as little exchanging or handling
should be done as is consistent with success-

ful management of the colony; for every
tiine a hive is pulled to pieces the bees are
hindered in their work and honey is lost.
Any colony with a two-story brood-cham-
ber, that still insists on crowdmg the brood-
chamber with honey, has a poor queen that
should be immediately replaced.

There are some who advocate the non-
use of queen-excluding honey-boards be-
tween brood-chambers and supers; but we
strongly advise that, whether the brood-
chamber is one story or two stories, it be
separated from the supers above by a
queen-excluder, for otherwise the queen is
likely to go up into the extracting-combs,
and, instead of nice white honeycomb, there
will be a mixture of brood in all stages,
and pollen, drone, and possibly queen-cells.
By special management the queen may be
kept out of the supers after the flow be-
gins, even tho no excluders are used; but

iliiii

4. Seven-wire and Wood Queen-excluding Honey-
board.

99 out of 100 who attempt this will fail.
It is not necessary to state that honey ex-
tracted from combs containing unsealed
brood is unfit for table use. Furthermore,
the queen, if allowed in the supers, will be
in a most dangerous position, and every
time the extracting-combs are handled will
stand a chance of being kiUed. It is also a
very difficult matter to find a queen if no
excluder is used, for there would be so
many more combs to look over. This would
also be true in reference to the finding of
queen-cells at swarming time.

One of the greatest objections to the non-
use of the queen-excluders is that it is im-
possible to remove bees from a super by
means of a bee-escape, if the super contains
brood. It is plain to see, that, if there is
any brood in the supers, the bees will not

276

EXTRACTING

desert it and go down below. On one occa-
sion, when in the height of extracting, we
recollect seeing a queen and her attendants
placidly located on a large comb of honey,
apparently taking in the situation. The
colony had had no queen-excluder over the
brood-chamber and the queen was in the

Fig 5. Hoflfman frames, reg^ular.

super when the escape was put on. It was
next to impossible to tell to what hive she
belonged, and the whole proceeding meant
extra work and worry that would have paid
for many excluders. Therefore, a queen-
excluding honey-board should go over the
brood-nest.

The objection that used to be made by
some to the use of queen-excluders was that
they obstructed the passage of the bees into
the supers, but with the new wood-wire
construction this is entirely obviated.

As soon as the first super is filled and
the process of sealing has begun, remove it,
put an empty one in its place, and over it
put the nearly completed one. The colony
will then be occupying a hive of three
stories, in case full-depth supers are used,
or approximately two stories, if the shal-
low supers are used. Always put the empty
super nearest the brood-nest, as the bees
start to work in it more readily; and, as
it is nearer, they have a shorter distance to
travel. After the first extracting the empty
combs can be put back again and it will be
found that the filling and sealing is done
much more rapidly the second time, as the
combs are already drawn out and the bees
do not have to waste any time in comb-
building.

We have already mentioned the advisa-
bility of spacing the combs further apart
in the supers than in the brood-chambers,
on account of the greater ease in uncap-
ping the thick comb. Ordinarily, eight
combs should be placed in a ten-comb super,
the space between being regulated so that
it is just the same. If this is not done, a
part of the combs will be no thicker than
ordinary brood-combs while others will be
entirely too thick, or else the bees may pos-
sibly build natural combs in between the
frames. Let no one get the idea that, in
order to space frames further apart, non-
spacing frames should be used, for the reg-
ular Hoffman frame is the best under all
conditions. In localities where propolis is
very plentiful, the metal-spaced Hoffman
frame is desirable, altho it requires a little
more care in uncapping the metal-spaced

Fig. 6. Floffman frames, metal-spaced pattern.

frame to avoid dulling the uneapping-knife.
The regular Hoffman frame, then, should
be usually used in the super, altho the
metal-spaced type is always better in the
brood-chamber where propolis is plentiful.

THE CONTROL OF SV^ARMING

The extracted-honey producer does not
have as much trouble preventing swarms as
does the comb-honey man, since there is no
objection to giving plenty of room as fast
as the bees need it, and perhaps a little
faster. In some localities bees swarm be-
fore and in others during the honey flow,
and in a few localities they swarm after
the flow is almost over; but in any case,
swarming is a hindrance to the best results
in honey production. Bees which should be
working with concentrated energy in one
hive, if divided into half a dozen diminu-
tive swarms, are generally of no use to
themselves or to the beekeeper, so far ^s.

EXTRACTING

277

the production of surplus honey is con-
cerned ; and supers which would otherwise
liave been well filled are almost entirely
emptied of what they may already contain
in order to supply provender for the new
swarms. It will be seen, then, that, in or-
der to get good results, swarming must be
Ivept under control, and at the same time
rlie colony kept strong. See Swarming,
subhead, "Prevention of Swarming."

WHEN TO REMOVE HONEY FROM HIVES.

We will assume again that the colonies
Vv'ere in good condition for the flow, that
swarming was kept well under control, and
that the supering was done judiciously so
that now the attention may be turned to
extracting. It is well to look over all the
upper stories and mark those which con-
tain sealed honey. Beekeepers, especially
beginners, often like to rush matters and
extract honey that is unsealed. This is one
of the worst moves possible.

Honey should never be extracted until it
is thick and well ripened. As soon as the
bees consider it just right they begin cap-
ping it over. During hot weather, there-
fore, combs at least three-fourths capped
Avould probably be sealed in a few hours if
left on the hive, and may, therefore, be
safely extracted. But if honey is extracted
before the bees have ripened it, it will be
thin and of unpleasant flavor, and, after
being kept for a time, fermentation will
doubtless result. If such honey is sold, it
will in all probability cause the loss of rep-
utation with the wholesale honey-dealers,
as well as with the local trade.

It is not always necessary to wait until
the end of the flow before extracting, as it
is sometimes advantageous to extract, be-
fore the end of the flow, all ripe honey —
that is, all honey that is sealed, as at that
time there is no robbing to contend with
since the bees are busy, and the combs ex-
tracted will be ready for putting on again
and getting refilled. As long as the honey
flow lasts, only that which is well sealed
should be extracted, the partly sealed combs
being left until after the flow, in order to
get the honey in the cells ripened as much
as possible. We may mention here that
some large extracted-honey producers pre-
fer to leave all honey on the hives as long
as possible, claiming that by so doing they

get a much thicker and better grade. This
is a very good plan for localities where
there is no dark honey flow soon after the
light flow. Where dark honey comes in
soon after the light, or where there is a
mixture of honey, it is better to extract the
combs as soon as they are sealed in order to
keep the different kinds of honey by them-
selves as far as possible. When the flow is
over, and all the honey is removed, the
combs should be carefully sorted, all the
unripe honey extracted by itself and used
for feeding, or sold for manufacturing
purposes. Such honey should never be
used for the table.

If the honey is extracted as soon as sealed
there will not be so large an amount taken
from the hives at one time and therefore
it may be extracted while still warm from
the hive, so that in the extractor it will be
thrown out of the cells quickly. On the
other hand, if it is allowed to remain on
the hives until the end of the flow, then
removed, stacked up in the honey-house
and extracted at a later date, it will be
colder, and will consequently take more time
to extract.

Moreover, if the supers are stacked up
on the hives until the end of the flow it
requires more extracting-combs, and more
supers to hold them, than if the combs are
extracted about as soon as sealed. How-
ever, it' is the opinion of some of the larg-
est producers that it actually pays to ex-
tract the honey all at one time after tht;
honey flow, since at that time work is not
so pressing, and more time can be given.

The employment of this plan may result
in a somewhat smaller crop the first year
because of the necessity of the bees draw-
ing out so much foundation; but it should
be remembered that the same combs may be
used year after year, probably for the re-
mainder of one's lifetime.

HOW TO FREE THE COMBS FROM BEES.

Since the invention of the ventilated
escape-board and double bee-escape, we do
not advise any one, whether beginner or
expert, to free the combs of bees by means
of the smoke, shake, and brush method,
which is too slow and troublesome, and
during a dearth it is quite certain to start
robbing. However, since the great major-

278

EXTRACTING

ity of extracted-lioney producers used this
method in the past, and many still use it,
we shall discuss it briefly.

When brushing bees from extracting
combs a serviceable brush is necessary. A
makeshift is never economical. Either the

The Bristle bee-brush.

Bristle or the Coggshall brush answers
every purpose, and, what is of prime im-
portance, they may be washed when they
become sticky with honey.

In case any disease is suspected the
combs should never be brushed or shaken,
for if robbers gain access to the smallest
drop of diseased honey, the disease would
be certain to spread.

There is no question but that it is easier
to get the bees from shallow combs than
from the full-depth combs. Smoke may be
used in either case, altho better results fol-
low from its use on the shallow combs,
since there is more of a chance for the
smoke to go down thru. Some follow the
plan of giving a vigorous smoking, and
raising the supers and blowing smoke thru
between the combs to get out the last few
bees. The combs then need but very little
brushing to render them practically free.

If any comb should chance to have many
bees on it, it is held by the top-bar or end-
bar as preferred, and given a sharp jarring
shake so that the bees will be jarred off on
the alighting-board in front of the hive.
If they are shaken back into the super they
collect on the other combs and have to be
shaken again. After shaking, the few re-
maining bees are brushed off. When brush-
ing, the combs are held in the left hand by
the end of the top-bar, both sides being
brushed without turning the frame. As
fast as the combs are brushed they are
placed in an empty super near by; and
finally, when the combs are all out, the
super just emptied should be taken to the
next hive to use in the same way. There
is more or less objection to the use of
smoke, one being that the bees are likely to
uncap the honey to some extent, altho this
is not so important in extracted-honey pro-
duction as in comb-honey production. The

greatest objection to the use of smoke is
that it is quite slow, and uncertain in re-
sults, and, furthermore, the honey is some-
times tainted a little by the smoke, espe-
cially that which is sliced off with the cap-
pings. On this account some prefer to use
practically no smoke, depending almost en-
tirely on brushes for getting the bees off,
each comb being taken out by itself, both
sides brushed quickly, and then set into the
empty super waiting. A large feather is
sometimes used; but feathers irritate the
bees, and it is better in the long run to use
a brush especially for the purpose. It is
probable that a combination of both the
smoke and the brushing is better than either
one alone ; but it must be remembered that
all this work, if done during a time when
no honey is coming in, must be carried on
very rapidly, and the super and all the
honey kept covered up every instant in
order to be kept away from robber bees.
When robbers once get to following the
operator around the yard it becomes very

How to hold the Coggshall bee-brush.

troublesome indeed, and the best way is to
work quickly and go from one place to an-
other so rapidly, that they do not get a
chance to start.

When so many combs are being shaken

RXTRACTINa

279

and brushed, the trouser legs should be
tied around the ankles, or should be stuffed
inside the stockings, since it is the nature
of bees to crawl upward. Many beekeepers
take the additional precaution of wearing
fingerless gauntlet gloves in order to pre-
vent the bees from crawling up the sleeves.

By far the easiest and nicest way to free
supers from bees is to use the Porter bee-
escape, shown in the engraving. This is a
little device which, when placed in a board
between the supers and the brood-chamber,
allows the bees to pass down thru into the
brood-chamber, but prevents them by means

Porter Double Bee-escape.

of delicate steel springs inside from get-
ting back up again. These escape-boards,
if placed under the supers in the after-
noon, will almost entirely free the combs of
bees the following day. Sometimes more
time is required, but usually this is enough.
The honey is then removed without knowl-
edge of the bees; there is no danger of
robbing, no stings, no loss of time, and no
disturbance. There is not even any need of
using a smoker. If the colony has two
supers, and the upper one only is ready to
come off, the escape should, of course, be
put between the upper and lower super, so
that the bees will not be prevented from
working in the super not yet finished.

In the production of comb honey the use
of the bee-escape for removing bees from
the super is almost universal, and is rapid-
ly becoming so in the case of extracted
honey also. Form.erly there were two ob-
jections to the escape. It was found that
in the 24 or 48 hours required for the bees
to pass down into the brood-chamber, the
honey became cold, and therefore much
harder to extract. The second objection
was that the bees did not leave the extract-
ing-combs quite as readily as they did the
comb-honey sections on account of the fact,
probably, that there are always some un-
capped cells, and the bees are slow in leav-
ing thru the escape on this account.

The first objection has been largely over-
come by the ventilated or screened escape-
board. As the name implies, the bee-
escape, instead of being placed in the cen-
ter of a solid board, is put in the center of
a screen, bound with a wooden frame. The
warmth of the bees below rises and keeps
the honey warm — almost as warm as tho the
bees were on it, so that it extracts easily.

The second objection has been overcome
by the use of the double bee-escape. If the
combs are entirely capped over, the super
may be taken off in the morning if the
escapes are put on the day before.

The ventilated escape-board, which is the
invention of Arthur Hodgson of Jarvis,
Ontario, has brought the escape into gen-
eral use among the producers of extracted
honey.

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Hodgson Ventilated Bee-escape Board.

Another method for freeing supars of
bees (the carbolized-cloth method) is used
by a few beekeepers.

The beekeeper provides himself with five
or six pieces of cotton cloth a little larger
than the common super. These are soaked
in a solution of one part of 'pure carbolic
acid to nine parts of water. The surplus
moisture is wrung out, and the damp cloth
is laid directly on the super after the bees
have been smoked somewhat. The hive-
cover, or other board, is then put on top to
prevent the cloth from drying out too rap-
idly. When one hive is thus prepared the
beekeeper goes to the next, and so on, until
the cloths are all on. By that time the bees
are practically out of the first super, and
that cloth may be placed on another super,
and so on.

This method works best on shallow ex-

280

EXTRACTING

tracting-supers, but is very effective on the
deep supers.

If the crude carbolic acid is used, the
odor is stronger, and there is a little more
danger of tainting the honey. Unsealed
honey, especially, takes on this odor easily,
and for this reason the liquid used should
not be too strong.

The advantage of the carbolized-cloth
method over the others is that there is no
danger of starting robbing, even if the
honey flow is over, and the honey may be
removed from the bees almost immediately
while it still holds all the heat from the
bees.

TAKING TPIE COMBS TO THE EXTRACTOR.

If combs are taken from the hives to the
extractor at a time when no honey is com-
ing in, care should be taken to keep the
combs covered so that no bees may gain
access, for a little carelessness in this re-
spect will make all kinds of trouble.

There are various methods in use for
transporting the combs of honey from the
hive to the extracting-room. In small api-
aries the tin comb-buckets with a tight-
fitting cover holding half a dozen combs
are very satisfactory.

Comb-bucket.

Others use larger comb-carriers consist-
ing of a full-sized super, with tin nailed ou
the bottom, a handle across the top, and a
tight-fitting cover in two halves hinged
together in the center.

Probably the majority of producers use
a wheelbarrow with a specially constructed
box or platform to hold several supers.
Some apiaries are located where the ground
is too rough for a wheelbarrow, but by a
little work the rough places may be
smoothed up enough to answer very well.

Certain it is that it is easier to move sev-
eral supers with a wheelbarrow than by
any other plan.

Sometimes a cart having two large wheels
can be handled easier on rough ground
than a wheelbarrow. L. E. Mercer of Cal-
ifornia uses such a cart, equipped with
pneumatic-tired wheels and a long box to
receive the combs.

With either a wheelbarrow or a cart it is
advisable to use a specially constructed box

Mercer's cart.

or platform, for by so doing almost double
the ordinary load may be carried with but
little additional exertion.

R. F. Hoitermann of Canada lays a
wooden track at each extracting-yard from
the building down thru the hives.

A light four-wheeled truck is loaded up
with eight or ten full supers and pushed
along with little effort to the extracting-
room where the supers are slipped thru an
opening in the side of the building.

EXTRACTING HOUSE.

Any well-ventilated bee-tight building
will answer for this purpose, altho it must
be large enough to hold the necessary ma-
chinery, the supers of combs ready to ex-
tract, and in some instances the cans of
honey that have been extracted, altho in
most cases it is better to store the honey in
some other place and not fill up the ex-
tracting-room in this way. The windows
should be large, so as to admit plenty of

EXTRACTING

light and air, and it vronld be better if they
could be so arranged as to be removed en-
tirely, wire-cloth screens taking their place.
On the outside of the upper corners of the
windows, honey-house escapes, made on the
same principle as the hive-escapes before
mentioned, should be attached, so that any
bees taken into the room on one of the
combs will go at once to the windows and
make their escape. The door of the build-
ing, instead of being made of screens, had
better be solid, so that the bees will not be
attracted to it and interfere with the oper-
ator going in and out. The bees attracted
to the buildmg, then, vnlL ordinarily be fly-
ing around the open windows instead, leav-
ing the door comparatively free from bees.

Escape in Position on Honey-house Window.

One who does not o^ti a bee-tight build-
ing might do the extracting in any kind of
open shed at night, but it is necessary to
clean every thing up thoroly in the morn-
ing or else the bees will take possession and
make considerable trouble the next day.

EXTRACTING FOB A TWENTY- OR
THIRTY-COLONY APIARY.

The extracting apparatus and methods
for the man with twenty to thirty colonies
could still be used, even when the bee-
keeper had doubled the size of his apiary;
but usually by that time he begins plan-
ning for much larger beekeeping, and
therefore wishes to make changes in ac-
cordance.

EXTRACTT^'G-APPARATUS NEEDED FOR A 20-
OR 30-COLONY APIARY.

For the beekeeper with 20 to 30 colonies
a simple and practical outfit may be pro-
vided at small cost. A honey-house 8 by 12

Two-frame Reversible Honey-extractor.

would be quite large enough for extracting
his crop. For the work of extracting he
will need a small two-frame extractor, and
for convenience it should be made reversi-

Root Automatic Four-frame Extractor ; patented April
11, 1905, and patents pending.

ble SO that the baskets may be swung
around to the other side to extract the
other side of the combs. We do not rec-
ommend a two-frame automatic extractor,
as there is little if any advantage gained
by its use, since the two baskets for the
combs can be easily reversed by hand.

282

EXTRACTING

This illustration shows

the left the strainer resting by two cleats on the top of the can. The extractor is shown
in center, and uncapping barrel at right.

The extractor should be securely attached
to a solid box firmly bolted to the floor, the
box being of the right height for drawing
oft the honey. The best location for the
extractor is near the wall, where there is
less vibration when in operation, for con-
tinued vibration is apt to pull the can or
box loose, especially if care is not taken to
place combs of equal weight in the two
sides of the extractor. For convenience in
working, the extractor should be placed in
one of the corners furthest from the door.
Near this extractor, close to a window,
where there will be plenty of light, should
be placed the uncapping-receptacle. It is
handy to have it on the same side of the
room as the extractor, so that the combs
may be handy to the extractor as soon as
uncapped. This uncapping-receptacle may
be made of a barrel with both ends knocked
out, and a coarse screen nailed over the
bottom; across the top, about one-third of
the distance from one side, a two-inch strip
of lumber should be nailed. (Rather than
nailing this strip to the barrel, some prefer
to attach cleats to the under side of the

strip, so that it may be movable.) At the
middle of this strip a sharp-pointed nail
projects upward, about an inch, to hold the
frames while uncapping. The barrel itself
may be supported in the tub into which
the honey from the cappings falls, the bar-
rel being supported by means of four
hooks made of heavy wire. A simpler way
of supporting the barrel is to nail, to the
staves, at the right point, a couple of cleats
just long enough to go across and rest on
the edges of the tub. The cleats have the
advantage that they furnish handles with
which to lift the barrel.

If one cares to take the extra trouble, a
cheap yet handier capping-receptacle may
be made from a plain box, of any desired
length, and about 19 inches wide, so that
the uncapped combs can be suspended cor-
nerwise in one end of the box until they
are extracted. Near one end is a cross-
piece with an upward-projecting nail-point
for holding the frame while uncapping.
The bottom of the box is covered with
heavy screen, and supported from the shal-
low galvanized-iron tray by half -inch cleats

EXTRACTING

283

A handy uncapping receptacle made from a plain box of any desired length, and about 19 inches wide. The bottom

of the box is covered with heavy screen, and supported from the shallow galvanized-iron tray by half-inch
^ cleats nailed lengthwise of the box.

nailed on lengthwise of the box. The box
and tray are placed on a box at the requi-
site height for easy uncappmg, the outlet
end of the tray being somewhat lower than
the opposite end, and just above the recep-
tacle into which the honey from the cap-
pings is to drain.

The straining-can may be placed wher-
ever convenient, but should not be too far
from the extractor, as this would involve
extra labor when lifting pails of honey
from the extractor-gate to the straining-
can. In this can or barrel is suspended a
large wet cheese-cloth bag attached to a
barrel hoop supported by the top of the
can. Too much honey should not be drawn
from this can. There should always he
enough honey left to cover the strainer;
for if the honey gets low the cappings and
bits of wax that would otherwise float on
the surface of the liquid will collect on the
strainer and soon clog it.

The knives used in slicing off the cap-
pings must be especially made. Large-

sized butcher-knives may be used; but,
ordinarily, these do not give good results.

Gravity method of clarifying. A large cheese-
cloth bag is supported in the tank. Xo honev is drawn
off into cans until the tank is full, and then no faster
than it is pumped in. All bits of cappings float to the
surface of the bag, hence the cheese-cloth does not clog
up. A heavy wire hoop in the bottom of the bag over-
comes any tendency of the cloth to float. The honey is
drawn off into cans thru a funnel in the floor.

We use and recommend the heavy Bing-
ham knife, for we have never found any-
thing else so effective. (See page 291.)

284

EXTRACTING

EXTRACTING PROCESS FOR AN APIARY OF 20
TO 30 COLONIES OR LESS.

The supers of combs to be extracted
should be placed within easy reach of the
uncapping-reeeptacle. Then one at a time
the combs are removed and held with the
top-bar away from the manipulator, and
the end-bar resting on the nail-point of the
cross-bar. Holding the upper end of the
frame with the left hand, and tilting the
upper end slightly to the right so that the
cappings may fall freely, begin at the
lower end of the comb and with an ordi-
nary uncapping-knife (dipped in hot water
if desired) cut the cappings from the entire
right side of the comb, performing the
operation with a kind of sawing motion.
If the comb contains any depressions the
heel of the knife should be used. Then re-
verse the comb, still keeping the top-bar
away from you, and slice a thin layer also
from the other side, using the cross-piece
to scrape off any cappings that may adhere
to the knife.

The uncapped combs may next be placed
one in each basket of the extractor, the top-
bar being placed next to the hinge. It is
quite worth while to use combs of about the
same weight ; for if not perfectly balanced
the extractor will run unsteadily, and may
become loosened from its support. In case
of old dark combs whose cell walls are
strengthened by many layers of cocoons,
there will be but little danger of the combs
breaking. When new combs are extracted
— those in which brood has never been
raised — greater care will be necessary to
prevent the combs from breaking out of
the frames. Such combs should be extracted
until about half of the honey is out of the
cells of the first side. The combs should
next be reversed and the opposite side en-
tirely extracted, and then the remainder of
the honey taken from the first side.

The gate of the extractor should be kept
closed until the honey comes almost up to
the reel in the extractor; then, when the
gate is opened the pail will fill quickly, and
almost no time lost. Leaving the gate of
the extractor open, so that the honey may
run into the pail, as fast as it is extracted,
is bad practice; for sooner or later one
will let the pail run over on to the floor.
After drawing the honey into the pail,
from the faucet, it is then emptied into the

straining tank, from which it is run into
60-pound cans, or other receptacles in which
it is to be stored.

As fast as the combs are extracted they
may be again placed in the supers and
stacked up in the honey-house. Along to-
ward night these may be piled five or six
on each hive, over a queen-excluder, leav-
ing the bees to clean out the honey stiU
adhering.

The best place for keeping honey is in a
dry room of even temperature — about 70
to 100 degrees Fahrenheit.

Honey should be stored in tin cans, and
never in large tanks and left to candy, as
it would be exceedingly difl&cult to remove
it for bottling.

EXTRACTING APPARATUS AND
METHODS OF LARGE
PRODUCERS.

The apparatus and methods of the large
producers differ from those of the small
producers to such an extent that it seems
well to enter into detailed description of
extracting on a larger scale.

FIRST EXTRACTORS.

There are several inventions that have
revolutionized commercial beekeeping. One
of these is the movable frame ; another, the
honey-extractor. Like many other great
inventions the first idea came as a discov-
ery. In the year 1865 Major D. Hruschka
of Venice accidentally discovered the prin-
ciple which led to his invention of the ex-
tractor in that year. His little boy while
playing was whirling a basket around his
head by means of a short piece of rope. He
happened to have a piece of honeycomb in
the basket and the centrifugal force caused
a few drops of honey to be thrown out into
the air. His father grasped the principle,
which led him to construct a rude machine
that actually extracted the honey without
crushing the combs. Shortly afterward he
perfected the device which was the first
honey-extractor.

Among the early extractors made in this
country was one constructed by J. L. Pea-
body. In this machine the whole can re-
volved, and the honey ran out thru a hole
in the center of the bottom. The same force
that threw the honey from the combs, how-

EXTRACTING

285

ever, held it to the sides of the can, and
none would run out until the machine was
stopped. In 1869 A. I. Root constructed
what he called the Novice honey-extractor.
This was so great an improvement over all
that had preceded that it found a ready
sale at once. Only the inside framework
for holding the combs revolved ; and in or-
der to combine lightness with strength it
was made of folded tin bars and tinned

Novice non-reversing extractor.

wire screen. The crank was geared so that
one revolution made three revolutions of
the combs.

REVEESIBLE EXTRACTOR.

When the honey from one side of the
comb was extracted in the Novice machine
the comb had to be pulled up and turned
around in order to throw the honey out of
the other side. About the time that A. I.
Root was experimenting along this line
Thomas William Cowan, editor of the Brit-
ish Bee Journal, constructed what was then
known and is still called the Cowan reversi-
ble extractor. Several " baskets " holding
the combs hung on hinges like a door, could
be swung from side to side and either side
of the comb could be next to the outside.
The first side could be extracted, and then
the pocket, or basket, swung around so that
the honey could be thrown from the other
side without taking out the comb and re-
versing it.

The illustration does not show the origi-
nal extractor made by Mr. Cowan, but the
Americanized machine. The original mech-
anism has been greatly improved in work-
manship and design.

Two-frame reversible extractor.

Shortly after the two-frame Cowan ex-
tractor was introduced into this country
(1890), there came a demand from the bee-
keepers of the West who produce honey by
the carload for a larger machine. In re-
sponse to this, four-, six-, and eight-frame
Cowan extractors were' made. The same
principle of the swinging pockets was used
in these large machines with this difference,
that all the pockets were geared together so
that when one of them was swung around
they would all move.

THE ROOT AUTOMATIC REVERSIBLE EXTRACTOR.

In using the Cowan extractor when one
desires to reverse, it is necessary to stop
the machine, and with the hand catch hold
of the pockets and swing them around to

Ball bearings.

the other position. The Root automatic
extractor, as its name indicates, reverses
the pockets automatically when the brake
is applied. The lever acts as a brake until
the extractor has been reduced in speed to
a certain point when the hub of the reel is

286

EXTRACTING

held stationary by the brake, and the reel,
which continues to turn, accomplishes the
reversing of the pockets by means of the
reversing levers located on the top of the
reel. This action is always positive and
reliable. The strain of reversing is borne
entirely by the brake, thus relieving the
driving mechanism of all stress.

Practically all extractors built are now
equipped with ball bearings to reduce fric-
tion. In the hand-driven machine this
feature is of considerable importance.

Another improvement is the slip-gear
device. The function of the slip-gear is to
disengage the crank and large gear wheel
from the small pinion that drives the ex-

Slip gears.

tractor reel. After the machine has been
brought up to full speed the slip-gear
lever, shown by the dotted line in the illus-
tration, is thrown down to a horizontal po-

sition. This permits the coiled spring to
disengage the gear, and the reel, now free
from the drag of the crank, may hum like a
top. Mounted on ball bearings as it is, it
will whirl for a considerable time, continu-
ing to throw out the honey without any
effort on the part of the operator, who can
meanwhile be uncapping more combs. As
soon as the honey is all out of one side the
pockets may be reversed, the gears thrown
into mesh again, and the process repeated.

POV^ER-DRIVEN HONEY-EXTRACTORS.

A few years ago a jjower-driven extrac-
tor was a curiosity, only one or two such
outfits being in use. Large extractors driven
by gasoline engines have now become very
common. Where access can be had to
electric current, electric motors are also
used, and in some localities water motors.
However, on account of the fact that ex-
tracting plants are usually in isolated places

#4

Ideal arrangement of extractor, pump, engine, tanks, etc.

EXTRACTING

287

the gasoline engine is
by far the most com-
mon source of power.
The engines have been
perfected to such a
point that they are very
reliable and efi&cient.
Twenty years ago it
took an expert to start
a gasoline engine, and
sometimes another one
to keep it running. Re-
finements in design
brought about by expe-
rience of designers of
automobile engines have
rendered the farm gas-
oline engine a really
practicable and reliable
source of power. There are a number of
makes of very good engines that can be
bought for a very low price; and since
a 1^/2-horse-power engine driving the larg-
est extractor would not consume more than
two or three quarts of gasoline in a day, it
can be seen that such machines are very
economical.

The method of transmitting the power of
the engine to the extractor is shown in the
accompanying illustrations.

In view of the fact that it is not practic-
able to stop and start the gasoline engine
every time the combs are put in and taken
out of the extractor, a friction-drive is em-
ployed with means for engaging the power,
so that the extractor can be stopped and
started. In fact, any
speed desired is ob-
tained simply by the
movement of a cam
lever on the horizontal
shaft of the extractor.
The engine and the
horizontal shaft of the
extractor run all the
tune, the reel being
started as the metal disc
on the horizontal shaft
is moved into contact
with the paper pulley
on the vertical shaft of
the reel.

When the small han-
dle is in a horizontal
position no pressure is JgainTthe^'pIper

The cam lever in a horizontal position, the extractor at rest.

exerted on the horizontal shaft, and the
metal disc does not touch the paper-
rimmed pulley on the reel. As this lever
is moved u:pward into a vertical position
the cam gradually exerts a lateral pres-
sure on the spring, which forces the disc
into engagement with the before-men-
tioned paper-rimmed pulley. The reel
starts smoothly without any jerk. In case
of new fragile combs, when it is necessary
to start very slowly at first so that the bulk
of the honey will be thrown out before the
reel catches full speed, the cam lever may
be moved very slowly into its vertical posi-
tion, or the adjustable collar, against which
the spring pushes, may be set to the left —
that is, toward the metal disc — so that the

a vertical position. Tlie disk is thus crowded over
wheel on the vertical shaft so that the reel turns.

288

EXTRACTING

spring does not push against it so hard.
The lever may then be thrown into its ver-
tical position instantly, and yet the reel
will start slowly and pick up speed gradu-
ally, not reaching full speed until the bulk
of the honey is thrown out.

Where the honey is very thick and the
combs are new and not strengthened, there-
fore, by layers of cocoons always found in
the cells of combs used for brood-rearing,
it is often necessary to start the extractor
slowly and let it run a few revolutions until
perhaps two-thirds of the honey is thrown
out of the first side of the comb; then re-
verse, and extract all of the honey from the
other side of the comb, finally reversing
back again to the first side and extracting
the rest of the honey there. This plan does
away with the danger of comb breakage.
Under such conditions requiring great care
it can be seen that if all the honey were
extracted from the first side, which would
necessitate running at full speed, the entire
amount of honey on the other side would
probably crack the comb. On the other
hand, if the combs have been used for
brood-rearing for a time before they are
put into use for extracted honey, they are
greatly strengthened by the fibrous cocoons.
With su^h combs, and especially if the
extracting is done in hot weather, when the
honey is not likely to be thick and waxy,
it is not necessary to observe so much
caution.

The friction drive has been in use several
years, and has been found the most satis-
factory form of drive for a honey extractor.
It is not adapted, however, for a hand
extractor, as the ratio of drive is about 1
to 1 — that is, equal. The paper-rimmed
pulley on the vertical shaft may be raised
or lowered, thus changing the ratio of the
speed; and while this is of great advan-
tage in case the engine speed is not exactly
right, or the size of the pulley Is too large
or too small, nevertheless it is not possible
to " gear up " enough to drive the extractor
by hand with a crank. In other words, it
would be impossible to turn the crank fast
enough to extract the honey suflaciently.
For this reason some of the smaller pro-
ducers who desire a large extractor, but
who do not wish a gasoline engine, prefer
the older beveled-gear drive, with the ratio
of 2 to 1 — that is, one revolution of the

crank shaft means two revolutions of the
reel carrying the comb. Beveled gears are
not as well adapted for power, however,
since they necessitate a loose belt and idler,
a mechanism that is not quite as easily con-
trolled. The friction drive has practically
supplanted all bevel-gear drives for power
purposes.

Many beekeepers having less than 100
colonies use power outfits, but when there
are more than 100 colonies to be extracted
from a gasoline engine and eight-frame ex-
tractor will almost pay for themselves in
one season.

They do much quicker and more thoro
work. It is impossible to extract all the
honey by hand; and the result is, the
combs go back to the hives very wet. Some
of this honey will be saved by the bees, but
a large part of it is consumed and thereby
as good as wasted.

An important advantage of the larger
extractors is their greater stability. With
the two- or even four-frame size, it is nec-
essary to put combs of equal weight oppo-
site each other. Even then bracing must be
done or else the can will tear itself loose
from the floor. In case of the larger sizes,
the difference in the weight of the combs
does not throw the cans out of balance ap-
preciably, hence no bracing or equalizing is
necessary. j

CHOOSING AN EXTRACTOR FOR THE LARGER
PRODUCER.

For hauling from one outyard to another
the four-frame automatic reversible ex-
tractor is just the thing,, for it is small and
compact. For a central extracting plant
the six- or eight-frame automatic revers-
ing extractor is the one to select, the latter
sizes requiring power for turning, such as
a gasoline engine, for they are too heavy to
turn by hand except in an emergency. The
large extractors have a great advantage
over the small ones in that the combs can
be kept in motion so much longer. For in-
stance, in the large size eight combs can be
kept going until eight more have been un-
capped; and, of course, this longer time
than is practicable, say, with a four-frame
machine, means that the combs are extracted
just that much cleaner. Any honey left in
the cells is wasted.

EXTRACTING

289

HONEY-PUMPS.

Along with the adoption of power honey-
extractors came the demand for pumps that
would elevate the honey into tanks, for it is
not always possible to build a honey-house
on a side hill where the extractor can be
located on one floor and the honey run by
gravity into the tanks on a floor under-

especially designed for honey are now ob-
tainable, and they are perfectly satisfac-
tory. Belted direct from the cross-shaft of
the extractor they run all the time that the
engine is running. Consequently, the ex-
tractor can is kept empty, the honey being
elevated to the tank as fast as extracted.
It is not practicable, ordinarily, to elevate
thick honey more than eight to ten feet.

A closer view of the pump, showing the construction, method of belting,
arrangement of pipe and hose connections and manner of tapping into honey-gate.

neath. The earliest experiments with honey-
pumps revealed the fact that very few
water-pumps, even the rotary pumps, are
suitable for pumping honey, for honey is
verj^ different in consistency from other
liquids usually pumped. However, pumps
10

The use of the honey-pump permits plac-
ing the extractor right on the floor where it
may be firmly anchored, and where it is
far more convenient than if elevated on a
platform, even tho the platform be low.

Some have attempted to drive a honey-

290

EXTRACTING

pump by means of a chain. We do not
regard this as advisable, for occasionally a
bit of wood such as a broken corner of a
frame or other foreign material may be
thrown from the pocket of the extractor
into the extractor can and find its way to
the pump. In case the pump were posi-
tively driven something would be sure to
break. With a belt drive, the belt merely
slips off. Then the pulley may be turned
backward a few revolutions until the for-
eign material, whatever it is, is removed.
Uusually, if the pump is worked by hand,
back and forth, the bit of wood may be
broken up and work may proceed at once.

THE LOCATION OF THE EQUIPMENT.

If possible, instead of elevating the ex-
tractor on a platform a foot or so high, it
is a very good plan to cut a hole in the
floor underneath the gate of the extractor,
making a pit into which a large pail may
be set to catch the honey. This allows the
extractor to stand on the solid floor; and
one who has not tried it can not realize the
convenience of the plan. When the ma-
chine is set down on the floor it is much

the larger producer there are great advan-
tages in having the honey-house built on a
sidehill where there are different floor lev-
els. The simplest arrangement of all is to
have the honey from the extractor run by
gravity into the straining or settling tank,
which must be, of course, in a lower room.
Where this is impossible the honey-pump
is a necessity for a complete equipment.

UNCAPPING THE COMBS.

In dry climates under certain conditions
honey may be ripe enough to extract when
it is but half-capped over — that is, when
only the upper half of the comb is capped ;
but under ordinary circumstances it is
much safer to wait until the combs are al-
most entirely sealed or capped, for the
honey will be thicker and richer. See the
discussion on this subject under Extracted
Honey.

There are various sizes and shapes of
knives used for cutting the cappings from
the combs. Some begin at the top of the
comb and cut down; whUe others, the ma-
jority, perhaps, begin at the bottom and

Pettit honey-strainer.

easier to get the combs in and out, and a
great deal of time is saved. Of course, if
there is a basement to the extracting-house
or to some other buUding close by into
which the honey can be run thru a pipe
into a tank, so much the better.

As is pointed out under Buildings, for

cut upward. No definite rule can be laid
down ; for the way that might be the easiest
for one operator might be the hardest for
the next. Each producer should uncap with
the kind of knife and stroke that seems the
most natural. Some use a common butcher
knife with a long blade. The very great

EXTRACTING

291

The supers of honey loaded on a car, on the wooden track, ready to be pushed to the extracting-house.

majority of producers use a knife original-
ly designed by T. F. Bingham.

Bingham improved uncapping-knife.

The shank connecting the blade with the
handle has a semi-circular projection on
each side, folded at a right angle, to atford
a good grip for the thumb and forefinger.
As the blade is on a different plane from
the handle one can get a better hold and in
a position to exert more leverage by grasp-
ing the shank itself with the thumb and
forefinger, the rest of the fingers encircling
the flat handle, as shown.

A right-handed operator, to uncap, should
hold the frame with top -bar away from
him and one end-bar resting on a nail-
point sticking up about an inch from the
center of a cleat nailed across the top of
the receptacle to hold the cappings. The
combs should be held by the left hand on
the upper end-bar and top-bar. When the
knife first starts cutting the cappings on
the lower end of the comb, the frame should

be held about vertical. As the knife is
pushed upward toward the upper end-bar,
the frame should be leaned to the right so
that the cappings as they are sliced from
the comb may fall directly into the recepta-
cle underneath as they drop from the knife.
If the frame is held straight or leaning

slightly to the left, a sheet of capping may
slide back upon the comb and be held there
by capillary- attraction of the honey, and it
requires extra time and fussing to scrape
it off again.

After one side of the comb is uncapped,
it may be swung around on the nail-point
to expose the other side. Many prefer to
turn the frame end for end rather than to
swing it around in order to keep the top-
bar always to the outside, the idea being
that, the end-bar being narrower, it is not
so much in the way of the knife.

292

EXTRACTING

When uncapping one should not try to
take off merely a very thin layer of cap-
ping, for it does no harm to uncap deep,
since the wax and honej'' cut off are by no
means wasted. A good rule is to uncap
down to a level even with the side of the
top-bar. Combs which have been used for
brood-rearing are a little harder to uncap
the first time, owing to the layers of co-
coons; but when these have once been
shaved down even with the side of the top-
bar they are very easy to uncap on subse-
quent extractings. The cocoons toughen
the comb so that it is not so easily crushed
out of shape by the knife nor broken in the
extractor.

The point of the knife should be started
on the nearest lowest corner of the comb
and pushed toward the top-bar until the
cappings are cut from the end of the comb.
Then the knife should be started toward the
other end-bar by a sawing motion. It is
much easier to uncap bulged combs. There-
fore, in a ten-frame super, for instance, it
is not a good plan to put in the full ten
combs. Eight combs equally spaced in an
extracting super contain the same amount
of honey, or even more, and the comb, be-
ing bulged, can be much more quickly un-
capped since there will be few depressions.

A cold knife must be kept very sharp,
and there is need of constant scraping or

washing to keep the wax from gumming
up the sharp edge, thus interfering with
the work. A dull cold knife or one that is
badly gummed up and very dirty does not
make a clean cut, but tends to crush the
comb.

Because of the necessity for frequent

cleaning and sharpening, an increasing
number of producers prefer to work with
a hot knife, and especially in case of thick
honey there is no question but that a hot
knife will do quicker and faster work with
less strain on the wrist. When ordinary
knives are used it is customary to have two
of them, one to be left in hot water over a
small stove, while the other is used to un-
cap both sides of a comb.

Where the houey is thick and cold some-
times a knife heated in hot water will be
cooled off by the time it is half way thru
the cappings of one side of the comb, so
that it is little better than a cold knife.
In fact, the wax has a tendency to gum up
a warm blade even n;iore rapidly than it
does one that is entirely cold. The blade
should be either hot or cold, therefore, and
not lukewarm.

Because of the necessity of frequent
changes in and out of the hot water a knife
heated by steam, popularly called the steam
uncapping-knife, has become very popular
in the last few years.

Steam-heated uncapping-knife.

A piece of non-rusting metal is soldered
on top of the knife-blade, and steam is in-
troduced thru a tube near the shank of the
knife, circulates over the blade, and blows
out thru a small opening at the point. This
knife keeps hot continuously, the wax melts
off, and, consequently, there is no gumming
up, nor delay necessitated by scraping and
cleaning the edge of the blade. A piece of
rubber tubing containing some fabric in its
make-up conveys the steam to the knife
from a small boiler over a stove. Tubing,
known as air-pressure tubing, carries the
steam satisfactorily, and yet it is flexible
enough not to interfere with the action of
the knife.

A regular copper boiler or other can
may be used for a boiler, if one takes the
precaution of making a safety valve as
shown in the next illustration. Any tinner
can make such an arrangement with a
super spring and small tin cap, and it also
furnishes a very convenient openinp- for
filling the boiler.

EXTRACTING

293

DISPOSING OF THE WET OAPPINGS.

When the eappmgs fall from the uncap-
ping-knife they are saturated, of course,
with honey. There are two different meth-
ods in use of separating the wax and the
honey. The first embodies the principle of
draining the cappings until practically all
of the honey is separated; and the second,

steam honey-knife and boiler, showing construction
of the safety valve, made of super spring at filler hole.

an entirely different principle, which con-
templates melting the cappings as fast as
they are sliced from the combs so that the
melted wax and the honey by reason of
their different weights separate at once, the
wax floating on top of the honey. The de-
vices which operate on the draining prin-
ciple are usually called uncapping-boxes
or cans, while those which melt the cap-
pings are called capping-melters. We will
consider first the uncapping-can. See "Ap-
paratus Needed for a 20 or 30 Colony
Apiary" — page 281.

Dadant uncapping-can and the German press.

In any method of draining cappings it
is very important to stir up the cappings
frequently with a stick. This serves to

break up the small particles of comb, which
would otherwise hold the honey and pre-
vent it from draining out freely. The efiB-
ciency of the draining method depends
upon the thoroness with which the cap-
pings are stirred and punched with a good
heavy stick.

The Dadant uncapping-can, as can be
seen from the illustration, operates on the
same principle as the cracker barrel and
the tub. The upper can containing the
cappings has a screened bottom, in order
that the honey may escape more easily.
The honey, as it drops into the lower can,
may be drawn off from time to time thru
the gate at the bottom. The cappings in
the upper part, after draining over night,
should be dumped out into some other re-
ceptacle for the further draining of the
small amount of honey still left in them.

An uncapping-can which is provided with
a plunger and screw by means of which
great pressure can be applied to the semi-
dry cappings, is the German press.

A burlap sack is supposed to be hung in
the can and held in place by the" comb-rest,
which has notches cut to fit the top of the
can. When the bag is full the top is pinned
together with nails, the comb-rest removed,
and the cross-arm carrying the screw and
plunger put in position. The plunger is
run down slowly, the honey gradually be-
ing pressed out so the cappings are made
nearly dry. The plunger and screw are
removed; a circular cleated division-board
put on top of the first bag of cappings;
another empty sack put in, and the process
repeated. At the end of the day the pres-
sure may be applied to two or even three
sacks of cappings and left on all night.
In the morning the bags of practically dry
cappings may be removed, and later on if
desired the cans may be set over a stove,
steam generated in the lower part, and the
cappings melted into wax.

Several apiarists use for an uncapping-
box a long square tank made of galvanized
metal. It is six feet long, two feet high,
and two feet wide.

The slatted framework at the bottom is
made a little smaller than the can so that
it may be easily removed for washing.
There is only 1^/^ inches space under the
cleats, so the gate at the end of the tank is
left open all the time. In this way nearly

294

EXTRACTING

Townsend uncapping-box.

all of the space inside the tank is available
for the storage of cappings. •

A tank of this size will hold all the cap-
pings for one whole extracting of the aver-
age-sized yard. A short-handle fork is used
for handling the cappings, and each day the
accumulation from the day before is pitched
toward one end of the tank, and in this way
the honey from the new cappings does not
have to drain thru the dry ones again.
. Still another plan, that has come into use
recently, consists of a series of cleated
trays. One tray is supported just high
enough so that one end can rest on the top
of a common wash-boiler to catch the honey.
The cappings fall from the knife directly
on to the tray, and are spread around occa-
sionally. When the first tray holds all the
cappings that can be put on without fall-
ing off, they are spread out somewhat and
another tray put on top of it, and the proc-
ess repeated. The weight of the two trays
above presses the honey out of the cappings
below. The longer the work continues, the
greater the weight on the lower trays. Fi-
nally, the under trays may be removed, the
dry cappings scraped off, and the trays
used over again.

Each tray has a solid tin bottom, two
sides and one end of which are turned up
to prevent the honey from dripping off.
The open end, which should be the lowest,
is placed over the wash-boiler. The cleats
are evenly spaced and rigidly held by per-
forated metal nailed on top. When one
tray is full and the next tray put on top, it
should be so placed that the open end is
perhaps a half -inch beyond the end of the

tray beneath, so that the honey may drip
directly into the boiler, and not on the end
of the tray beneath.

The total outfit of trays is not very ex-
pensive, but this plan, of course, does not
lend itself very well to a portable outfit.

CAPPING-MELTERS.

There is no plan of draining cappings
which secures all of the honey. A small
percentage is always left, for the process
of draining cannot be kept up indefinitely,
owing to the tendency of the honey to
granulate. The cappings after several days,
tho they may look hard and dry, really
contain considerable honey, the exact
amount depending upon the efficiency of
the plan used. Of course, when these cap-
pings are transferred to a solar wax-ex-
tractor the honey and wax are separated,
but the honey is darkened and injured by
the process.

To separate the honey and wax immedi-
ately so that everything can be cleaned up
when the extracting is over, capping-melt-
ers have gradually come into use. It can
not be denied that it is a great convenience
to get rid of the cappings as fast as the
work progresses, for it is hard work to
handle cappings that are heavy with honey.
When the day's work is finished, nothing is
left but a layer of melted wax, which, after
it has cooled over night, needs only scrap-
ing to be ready for market, the honey
meanwhile being in shape to strain and
empty into the main tank with the rest.

EXTRACTING

295

Honey that has been taken from the cap-
ping-melter strains quickly because it is
warm.

If the capping-melter is crowded too fast,
I or if one having a too limited capacity is
used, it may clog up so that a quantity of
the honey will be confined and thus sub-
jected to the heat for a considerable length
of time. Under such circumstances it is
likely to become darkened and scorched
slightly in flavor. With a properly designed
melter, however, or one that is large enough
for the work on hand, there is scarcely any
difference to be noted between the honey
that has gone thru it and that which has
j been extracted from the combs in the reg-
I ular way. It is true that if honey has been

I allowed to cool under the wax, it takes on a
waxy flavor, which, while not disagreeable,
is yet pronounced enough to enable one to
distinguish it from the rest of the honey.
On this account a separating can should be
used to separate the honey from the hot
wax as soon as possible.

There are some localities where honey in
cappings candies very quickly — sometimes
in 24 or 48 hours, and under these condi-
tions a capping-melter is almost a necessi-
ty. When one desires to melt up granu-
lated honey or granulated comb honey, a
capping-melter is the very best arrangement
to use, because there is practically no dan-
ger of scorching the honey, and yet the
work may be done quickly.

One of the simplest capping-melters is a
hot-water jacketed can having a gate at the
bottom for an outlet on the principle of a
double boiler. The melter is not adapted
for the largest apiaries as it is designed
for a single-burner stove only.

The Peterson capping-melter shown in
the illustration, is a simple construction.

Peterson capping-melter.

the long shallow pan having a double bot-
tom, the space between being filled with hot
water. The water compartment is extended
beyond the edge of the table, as shown, so,
if desired, knives may be placed in the
water to heat.

This melter is large enough to be heated
by a two-burner stove, hence it has a much
greater capacity than the round-can design
described above. Furthermore, there is space
at the end of the table for the uncapped
combs to rest upon before they are placed
in the extractor. The open end of the long
trough is about an inch lower than the
other end so that the honey and melted wax
run down into the separating-can beneath.

DISPOSING OF THE WAX AND HONEY THAT
RUN FROM THE MELTER.

When capping-melters fii^st came into use
the stream of hot wax and honey was run
directly into a pail or can, and as soon as
it was full another was put in its place.
This plan is objectionable in that it re-
quires too many cans of hot wax standing
around in the way. Furthermore, the honey
underneath takes on a taste of the wax to
some extent, if it is allowed to remain in
contact with it until the wax cools. To
overcome this difficulty a gate may be pro-
vided at the bottom of the can, so that the
honey may be drawn off whenever the can
becomes full. Care must be taken, of course,
to shut the gate before any wax begins to
run out. In this way the wax remains in
the can until the next day, when it is emp-
tied out in the form of a solid cake.

A much better arrangement, however, is
a separating-can made according to a prin-
ciple first described by R. C. Aikin of
Colorado. As shown in the illustration of
the Peterson capping-melter an ordinary
wash-boiler may be used with a tin parti-
tion soldered near one end, coming to with-
in one-half inch of the bottom of the can.
Some honey should be left in the boiler
before the work is started. When the new
wax and honey run in, the wax floats on
top of the honey in the larger compartment
of the boiler, the honey alone escaping into
the small compartment, since the levels in
the two compartments will be nearly the
same. When the boiler is full the honey

296

EXTRACTING

will escape continuously from an outlet in
the end of the boiler, while the wax will
remain in the large compartment.

In actual use this separating-can should
be insulated by being placed inside a
wooden box, having a cover fitted over the
top with a funnel to receive the wax and
honey. It would be all the better if some
insulating material could be wrapped
around the boiler before it is enclosed in
the box.

E. L. Sechrist of California uses a spe-
cially made separator, as shown herewith.

Scchrist's honej' and wax separator.

He provides a. wax outlet, but if the sepa-
rator is large enough this is not necessary.
A small stream of drizzling wax is a
nuisance. If a can as large as a wash-
boiler is used, it will hold all the wax for
the average day's run even in an extensive
yard, and, therefore, the wax part of the
outfit requires no attention. When the work
is over for the day, the cover of the box is
removed so that the wax will have a chance
to harden, and the next morning it may be
lifted out, the honey drained off, the under
side of the cake scraped to get rid of the
refuse, and the wax will be ready for
market.

STRAINING HONEY.

A convenient arrangement for straining
honey is to have a large piece of heavy
wire screen attached to the top of the
straining tank. This should be pressed
down in the middle so that it is four or five
inches lower than the top of the tank. The
wet cheese cloth may then be laid on this
screen without the necessity of tying around
the top of the tank. When one cloth is
clogged so that the honey strains too slow-
ly it may be drawn over to one side and
left to drain while another cloth is placed
in position without delay.

S. T. Pettit of Aylmer, Ont., Can., de-
vised a very convenient can strainer having
a large surface of cloth supported by a
coarse wire-screen basket as shown.

We have used such a strainer, but find it
is a little more convenient to have instead
of the opening in the center of the bottom
of the strainer a gate soldered to one side
near the ^bottom. If the strainer is used
for filling cans the stream of honey may be
shut off by means of the gate when the can
is full. Fresh cloths can be substituted
for those that are clogged at any time.

To do away with cloth strainers E. W.
Alexander used an ordinary ten-quart milk-
pail, cutting out the sides and bottoms.
These were united by upright tin braces,
as shown in the illustrations.

The open spaces were filled in with a
fine mesh of brass wire cloth securely sol-
dered in place. The honey is poured thru
such a straining pail into the tank. It is

Alexander honey-strainer.

necessary to have two or more pails so that
one may be in use while the other is being
cleaned.

THE GRAVITY METHOD OF STRAINING AND
CLARIFYING HONEY.

• Of late the gravity principle of strain-
ing has received much attention on the part
of honey-producers on account of its sim-
plicity and freedom from vexatious delaj^s
necessitated by changing filled-up cloths
and washing straining surfaces. Briefly,
the plan consists in the use of a relatively
tall tank sufficiently large for holding a
day's extracting and containing nothing by
way of equipment except a suitable gate at
the bottom and a float to break the current
of the honey when it is poured in at the

EXTRACTING

297

top, thus preventing an active circulation
of the new honey with the rest of the honey
in the can. The plan is to draw no honey
from the bottom until the tank is nearly
full. If the honey is not allowed to circu-
late carrying particles of cappings and bits
of comb down to the bottom, the honey
when dra^vn off at the gate is found to be
very clear. The last of the honey can not
be di'awn off in -this way, for it will contain
too much of the cappings. The last few
inches, therefore, should be dipped out and
strained or poured into the uncapping
tank or box.

In extremel}^ hot weather when the honey
is comparatively thin, the gra\aty system
alone leaves little to be desired; but, in cool
weather, or whenever the honey is quite
thick, it is found that, in order to be clari-
fied sufficiently, the tank must stand for
several days. This makes necessary a some-
what elaborate outfit of expensive cans in
order that the work may not be hindered.
For a small outfit one tank alone would be
sufficient.

The only additional equipment necessary
beyond a regular storage tank is an addi-
tional can without a bottom, a little higher
than the regular tank preferably, and
smaller in diameter, altho no exact ratio
between the two diameters is necessary.
Over the lower end of the smaller can
cheese cloth is stretched and tied fii-mly.

The straining can is set inside the large
tank, the cheese cloth resting on the bottom
of the latter. Two or three inches of clear
honey should be poured in at the start to
prevent the cheese cloth from becoming
clogged. As the new honey is poured in it
gradually percolates thru the cheese cloth
into the main tank outside, the level in the
two cans always remaining the same, or
practically the same. As the work pro-
gresses the inner can should be raised so
that the cheese cloth will be several inches
from the bottom of the tank. This should
not be done, however, until the main tank
is half -full. It will be seen that all foreign
material that will float will be kept away
from the cheese cloth. When the work is
over the inside tank may be raised so that
all of the honey in it will strain out. How-
ever, as long as the cheese cloth does its
work the process is continuous, for the
honey may be drawn out of the main tank
as soon as it becomes full. From this time

on it should be drawn off only fast enough
to keep it from running over. The greater
the depth of honey about the cheese cloth
strainer the less the probability of the cloth
becoming clogged.

When the work is over and the main
tank finally emptied the cheese cloth wiU
strain the last of the honey inside the
straining tank without clogging apprecia-
bly. One cloth will last much longer with-
out clogging than if all the honey were
poured thru it in the regular way, for by
this plan the refuse floats to the top and
the strainer really has comparatively little
to do.

HEATIXG THE HONEY TO FACILITATE
STRAIXIXG.

In some localities the honey when ex-
tracted is so cold and thick that it is
almost waxy, and straining or clarifying
even on the principle above described be-
comes something of a problem. Under such
conditions it is necessary to do the extract-
ing in very hot weather, or else in a room
artificially heated. If the extracting is
done late in the season when the weather
has turned cool, it is sometimes necessary
to keep the combs in the heated room 24
hours or longer before the honey is thin
enough to extract and strain quickly.

By means of power extractors, even very
thick honey may be extracted, but a power
extractor does not help much on the strain-
ing problem.

Several large producers have used an
extractor having a double wall, the space
between filled with hot water or steam. As
the honey runs down toward the outlet it is
warmed to such an extent that it strains
easily. If an engine of fairly good size is
used (two- to three-horse power), the hot
water surrounding the cylinder may be
piped to the extractor. In other words, the
space between the two walls of the extrac-
tor serves as a water tank, and the waste
heat of the engine is made use of for
warming the honey.

Ordinarily, a simpler and better plan is
to run the honey from the extractor thru a
pipe, either by gravity or by means of a
pump, which pipe in turn passes thru a
larger pipe containing hot water heated
either by the cylinder of the engine or by
means of a stove.

298

EXTRACTING

Coarse Strainer

-Wdter Jacketed
Heating Tank witli Oil
Stove underneath

Screened Mndow
Covered dtorage Tank

R

Can filler

^^-60 lb Can

E. L. Sechrist, formerly of Fair Oaks,
Cal., pumped his honey into a special tank,
which is water- jacketed, heated by a stove
underneath. The honey is thus heated be-
fore it passes into the strainer. The illus-
trations show the location of this equip-
ment.

Some beekeepers have tried running the
honey as it comes from the extractor thru a
trough having a stove underneath to warm
the surface of the trough and thus raise the
temperature of the honey. This plan is a
little dangerous, for it is necessary to have
considerable heat, since the honey runs

thru the trough rapidly, and there is dan-
ger the honey along the edges may burn.
A better way is to run the honey thru a
pipe submerged in water heated by a stove.

AUTOMATIC DEVICES FOR RINGING A BELL
WHEN A CAN IS FULL.

In drawing honey into a 60-pound can
from a tank, it is a great convenience to
have an automatic alarm that will give due
notice when the can is nearly full. Several
beekeepers have gone still further and
worked out ingenious devices to shut the
gate on the tank automatically when the

Screened Window

Pump

Engine ^

Entr/\ncei.

Wax Separator- j^.

^[cappin

Was f) up Can(f

Extracting End,
Storage for filled
and Empty Supers.

A

Supers

Capping
feeder

Uncapping
end of
box

Box.

l^oiler for Steam Knifi

A

Supers

High Floor!.

Floor Plai^ or Honey House.

(Screened ^indoiv

screened Vlmdow

Heater Tank

"^60 lb. Can.
Can filler

Canning Section.

Storage for Empty
and Filled Packages.

-Low Floor

EXTRACTING

299

can is full. These are quite complicated,
however, and unless one is a natural-born
mechanic they are likely to be more of a
bother than help. A simple alarm, on the
other hand, is of practical benefit.

E. D. Townsend's arrangement of strainer and sealer,
illustrating the Hutchinson automatic alarm.

W. Z. Hutchinson used regular platform
scales with the weight set at about 58
pounds exclusive of the weight of the can.
When the beam rises, the electrical circuit
is completed and the bell rings. The oper-
ator shuts the gate off at just the right
time.

The bell is an ordinary
doorbell, and the current
is furnished by any dry
battery. The method of
making the connection is
very simple. In brief, two
wires run from the bind-
ing posts on the battery to
those on the bell. One of
them, however, is broken,
and one of the ends fas-
tened to the scale beam at
the pivot, and the other
located just above the out-
side end of the beam.

It can be seen that when
the can is full the scale
beam rises and comes in
contact with the copper
wire just above it, and the
bell rings. All the connec-

tions must be kept tight, and occasionally
the end of the scale beam must be bright-
ened with a bit of sandpaper, also the wire
where it makes contact on the scale beam.
Any corrosion at these points would result
in failure of the bell to ring.

In case one has no scales 'a simple bal-
ance may be used of hard wood at least an
inch thick, about 30 inches long, and 12
inches wide, and balanced on hinges or a
knife edge in the middle. A can filled with
honey to within an inch and a half of the
top should be put on one end and an empty
can on the other under the honey-gate.
When the empty can under the gate fills to
the same point — that is, an inch and a half
from the top, it will overbalance and sink
down a couple of inches until it strikes a
block containing the arrangement to com-
plete the electrical circuit and ring the beU.
A mark should be placed at the proper
place on the board, and the empty can al-
ways put in exactly the same place. A
rather large funnel is necessary with this
arrangement ; otherwise, when the can over-
balances and settles doT^^l, the honey might
be spilled, because the opening would not
be exactly in line with the gate. A good
stiff board is necessary that will not curve
out of line with the weight of two 60-
pound cans of honey.

An electric alarm to give warning when the can is nearly full. A can
nearly full of honey is placed on one side of the balance, up close to a box
in the center containing the dry battery and bell. When the can at the left
Dverbalances the one on the right, the circuit is completed and the bell rings.

m

300

EYE, COMPOUND

Fig. 1. — Ommatidium of adult
eye of bee; 1, lens; c. c, crystal-
line cone ; o. p. c, outer pig-
ment cells ; c. p. c, corneal pig-
ment cells, which, in the early
stages, secrete the lens ; r. h. b.,
rhabdome; ret., retinula; ret.
n., nuclei of retinula cells; b.
ni., basement membrance.

Fig. 2. — Ommatidium of pupa ;
lettering as in Fig. 1 ; p. g. m.,
pigment forming in retinula.

In Fig. 1 the pigment is not
shown in the center portion of the
retinula cells.

EXTRACTING-HOUSES.— See Build-
ings.

EYE, COMPOUND.— An examination of
the large compound eyes of a bee will show
that the outside is made of hexagonal areas,
thousands in number. Each of these hex-
agons is the outside of one of the elements
of which the compound eye is composed;
and, since they are all constructed alike, a
description of one will serve for all. Each
of these elements is called an ommatidium.
If, then, we take a section thru one of the
compound eyes parallel with the top of the
head of the bee, we shall get some of them
cut lengthwise, thereby showing best the
structure, altho it is also necessary to cut
other sections at right angles to this plane
in order to get the shape of some of the
parts. The figures which accompany this
show the ommatidium cut lengthwise. An-
other figure shows an ommatidium from
the pupa state.

The outside portion, already mentioned,
is the lens layer I, and is composed of chit-
in, as is all the rest of the outside covering
of the bee. The section shows this cut
open, so that only two sides of the hexagon
are shown.

The next lower structure is the crystal-
line cone c, which is composed of four
cells, of which only two show in the long
section. In the pupa stage the boundaries
are much clearer, and the nuclei larger than
they are in the adult eye. This cone is
clear, and, like the lens above it, gathers in
the rays of light so that they can act on the
nerves below just as the lens in the human
eye gathers together rays of light so they
can affect the nerves behind it.

Directly in line with the cone is a long
rodlike structure which runs clear to the
bottom of the ommatidium, called the

rhabdome," rhh. This probably contains
the end of the nerves, which are sensitive
to light.

Around the rhabdome are eight retina
cells ret, which have poured out a secretion
while in the pupa state to form the rhab-
dome.

Around the cone and retina cells there
are pigment cells o. p. c. and c. p. c, that
keep the light from passing from one om-
matidium to the other, and thus making a
confused image, just as the inside of a

FARMER BEEKEEPERS

301

camera is painted black to avoid reflec-
tions. In the human eye we also find pig-
ment, -which is also located just behind the
nerve-endings, and answers the same pur-
l^ose. There are two kinds of these pig-
ment cells. The ones at the base of the
cone, 0. p. c, are two in number, and do
not extend below the base of the cone. The
other pigment cells, c. p. c, extend from
the lens to the base of the ommatidiiim, and

are generally twelve in number. The pig-
ment in these cells is located principally at
the outer portion of the eye; and the ret-
ina cells also contain a pigment, thus mak-
ing a complete sheath of pigment around
the nerve and nerve-endings in the middle.

The nerve lines in the eye extend down
along the eight retina cells, and at the bot-
tom come together, and the united nerve
extends toward the brain. See cut.

F

FAIRS, EXHIBITS AT.— See Honey
Exhibits.

FARMER BEEKEEPERS.— Sometimes
the professional class of honey-producers
have a feeling of antipathy, if lot disgust,
toward the farmer who keeps a few bees,
especially if he is in the immediate neigh-
borhood. In some cases, at least, there is
some justification for that feeling. Some
farmers have too many irons in the fii*e.
They do a little of everything to make a
little money, but they do nothing particu-
larly well.

A farmer of this class usuaUy has hard
luck. His buildings are in a tumble-down
condition, machinery out in the weather,
his fences down, his stock ill fed, and, on
top of it all, he is in debt. When he keeps
bees he aUows them to take care of them-
selves, his swarms get away from him,
hives are robbed out, and, if weakened by
disease, foul brood is scattered far and
wide. He does not take any agricultural
paper, much less a bee journal, and sells
his honey at any old price.

He never gets any honey unless the sea-
son is extraordinary. It is no wonder that
the real progressive beekeeper finds such a
farmer a menace to his business.

Fortunately, the majority of our farmers
are well-read, comfortably weU off, and if
they keep bees they secure fair returns
from them. There is nothing that will yield
for him larger returns for the money in-

vested than bees. His wife and children
may just as well get a little money on the
side by keeping bees as by keeping chick-
ens; and the chances are two to one that
they will make more money, and at the
same time keep the home supplied with
the most delicious sweet that the world has
ever known. Such a class of farmers are
adding dignity and strength to their call-
ing; and when they keep bees they get a
better seeding from their clover fields;
more and better fruit from theii' orchards
(see Fruit Blossoms axd Pollination) ;
plenty of honey for the family, and a little
extra clean cash.

It is not an uncommon thing for a few
hives on the farm to bring in a net return
of five and even ten dollars per colony.
For the money invested there is nothing
like it.

Of course it is only fair to say that some
years on the farm the bees will not do
much; but it is a poor farmer beekeeper
who cannot make the bees pay their own
way during poor seasons, and even make
handsome returns when the season is good.
The farmer who has an orchard and raises
alsike, sweet clover, or alfalfa, will be able
to keep his few colonies more than busy.

We contend that every up-to-date farmer,
especially if he raises clover seed or fruit,
should keep bees.. See Fruit Blossoms;
Baoklot Beekeeping; Bees and Fruit^
growing: Bees and Poultry; A B C OF
Bkekeepin<?, - ■ • " -

302

FEEDING AND FEEDERS

FEEDING AND FEEDERS.— Feeding
is practiced for one of two purposes — to
stimulate brood-rearing at times of the
year when no honey is coming in from
natural sources, or to supply food to colo-
nies that are short at the approach of win-
ter. These will be referred to later under
separate heads. Whenever possible, feed-
ing should be avoided; for at best it is a
messy job, expensive, and, in the case of
the beginner, liable to cause robbing. In
a good locality it may be possible to avoid
feeding altogether. Especially would this
be true in those places where there is
plenty of buckwheat or fall flowers. To
buy sugar by the barrel every fall is very
expensive, and the beekeeper should lay his
plans to avoid it as far as possible. In
many cases fall feeding is made necessary
by extracting too closely, in some cases
even from the brood-nest. This is bad
practice and decidedly poor economy. But
there are times when it is necessary to give
the bees food either to keep up and stimu-
late brood-rearing or to prevent actual
starvation.

When the honey already in the hives at
autumn is of good quality, and nicely sealed,
it would be folly to extract it, put it on the
market, buy sugar, make syrup, and feed
it to the bees. There would be very little
gained by it, even if the honey sold at a
higher price, and the sugar syrup were
cheaper. Where the natural stores are dark,
of poor quality, or bad honeydew, it might
be advisable to extract and put in their
place sugar syrup. Yet of late years it has
been our practice to let the bees have every-
thing of their own gathering, provided it is
nicely ripened and sealed in the comb, no
matter what the source; and it is very sel-
dom we lose bees in outdoor wintering by
reason of poor food.

Where ones does not have combs of nice
stores sealed, it will be necessary to feed
sugar syrup. The cheapest and best food
for this purpose is ordinary white granu-
lated sugar. Some of the brown sugars may
be used; but experience has shown that
they are not so good, and not so cheap in
the end, altho selling at a lower price.

Sugar syrup when capped over makes an
excellent food for winter. It does not cause
dysentery, and is cheap; but it is not the
equal of good honey for breeding, as it is
lacking in some of the necessary food ele-

ments in honey. (See Honey as a Food.)
On the other hand, sugar syrup is a little
better as a winter food. It is less stimu-
lating— that is, less inclined to start up
premature breeding in late winter or early
spring.

It is usually poor practice to extract good
honey out of the brood-nest. While at times
the natural stores might bring twice as
much as the same weight of sugar syrup, the
labor of extracting and the wear and tear
on the colony itself in feeding and evap-
orating the syrup down are so great that
no economy is effected. Ordinary sugar
stores should be supplied only to make up
the deficiency, if any.

In midwinter, if the bees are short of
food, they should be given candy made of
granulated sugar. See Candy for Bees.

The difference in cost between a first
quality of extracted honey and sugar syrup
when sealed in the comb is so little that, if
there are combs of good natural stores,
rather than extract them it would be bet-
ter to set them aside, and then in the fall
give these combs to such colonies as had an
insufficient supply. But in any case it
would be wise not to use all such combs,
because, in the spring, it is sometimes very
handy to have them ready, in case of an
unexpected shortage, so that they can be
placed right down at the side of the brood-
nest of a colony. If combs of sealed stores
are not to be had, it is advisable to give
cakes of candy, as described under Candy
FOR Bees.

HOV^ TO make the SYRUP.

Something will depend on whether the
bees are to be fed for the purpose of in-
ducing brood-rearing or to give a supply
for winter. For stimulating, a syrup made
of one part of sugar to two of water by
bulk is about right. If the water is hot
the sugar will dissolve more readily. For a
winter food given early in the fall the pro-
portion should be about two parts of sugar
to one of water. For late feeding, just be-
fore cold weather comes on, the ratio should
be about two and a half to one. When
made as thick as this the syrup is liable to
go back to sugar to some extent, and some-
times it is necessary to put in about a tea-
spoonful of tartaric acid to every 20 pounds
of sugar. Others find it better to use honey.

FEEDING AND FEEDERS

303

The proportion then of honey will be about
one-third by bulk of the amount of water
used. If honey is used care should be taken
to see that it comes from hives where there
has never been any foul brood. In our
own practice we have never found it neces-
sary to use either honey or acid.

A syrup made by mixing sugar and
water in equal parts does not necessarily
require heat. The water may be poured
into a receptacle cold, and sugar stirred in
until the volume of the sugar equals that of
the water. The stirring will have to be con-
tinued until the sugar is dissolved. If there
is any quantity to be mixed in that way, an
ordinary honey-extractor serves as a vers"
excellent agitator. The machine is filled
nearly half -full of water, when the sugar is
poured in little by little while the reel is
being turned. It will have to be revolved
until the sugar is all dissolved. After a
vigorous turning of the crank, even after
the sugar is thoroly mixed, there will be a
number of smaU air-bubbles. These will
all disappear if the syrup is allowed to
stand for a while. When the proportion of
the sugar is two to one or two and a half to
one, it is advisable to use hot or boiling
water.

Syrup can be mixed in a common wash-
boiler where heat is employed. In that case
the boiler is put on the stove and filled with
the requisite quantity of water. After it
has come to a boil, the sugar is slowly
stirred in, a little at a time. While on the
stove the mixture must he kept thoroly
stirred to prevent the undissolved sugar
from settling on the bottom and burning.
Care should be taken about that, because
burnt sugar or syrup is liable to be fatal to
the bees.

In many cases syrup has to be prepared
at the outyard. Or perhaps the good wife
objects to having her stove messed up.
While an oil or gasoline stove wiU heat the
water, either one is very slow. Some use
and recoromend a good-sized common gal-
vanized washtub, such as can be obtained
at any hardware store at a comparatively
low price. This is placed outdoors on four
or five stones of suitable size. The right
proportion of water is poured into the tub.
A fire is then built under, and when the
water comes to a boil the granulated sugar
is slowly stirred in. After it is aU dis-
solved, the fire should be scraped out from

under the tub to prevent overheating or
burning. This work should be done on a
cool or rainy day when the bees are not
flying; otherwise one would start robbing.

FEEDERS.

There have been hundreds of feeders in-
vented and put on the market. Some of
them are very complicated, and the more
so the less useful. If one desires to keep
down his investment he may use common
tin pans. These can be placed in the upper
story of the hive and filled with syrup. On

Simplicity-feeder.

top of the syrup should be laid a strip of
cheesecloth that has been dampened in wa-
ter. The bees will crawl up on the cloth
and get the syrup without danger of drown-
ing. One objection to pans is that, after
the feed is all taken, the cloth is likely to be
stuck down by the dried crystals. Boiling
water will, however, very soon clean them.

A feeder that has been used very largely
is the Simplicity trough feeder. It is an
excellent feeder, cheap in price, and occu-
pies very little room on top of the brood-
frames; or it may be used in front of the
entrance at night when the weather is
warm. It should not, of course, be placed
there during the day on account of the
danger of robbing.

Another feeder that has been used very
largely consists of a common wooden but-
ter-dish, or pie-plate, such as one gets at
the grocery when he buys butter. A hun-
dred of these can be nested together so as
to take but very little room, and the price is
insignificant. It is not necessary to use
cheesecloth with the butter-dish. Set it on
the top of the frames, and fill it with syrup.

FEEDERS ON- THE ATMOSPHERIC PRINCIPLE.

The principle of giving chickens water on
the atmospheric principle has been applied
to feeders for bees. A common Mason jar,
for example, filled with syrup, and covered
with a common saucer, when inverted will

ii

304

FEEDING AND FEEDERS

make a very good feeder for bees. But in
order to provide for a proper flow, three or
four toothpicks should be put between the
jar and the saucer. At this time the saucer
will be right side up, and the jar upside
down. As fast as the bees take out the
syrup air will enter the jar, and syrup will
flow into a saucer.

The device is rather crude and unhandy.
A better atmospheric feeder may be made
out of a Mason jar and cap in this way.
Break or remove the porcelain in the top of
the cap, and then punch two or three holes
about the size of a common pin. Fill the
jar full of syrup, screw on the cap, and
invert. In that position it must be held by
some contrivance where it will be secure
from robbers and where the bees can go
under and take the syrup thru the above-
mentioned perforations.

Manufacturers make a special Mason jar-
cap with perforations; and with this cap
they supply a block of wood bored to re-
ceive a Mason jar when inverted. This will
hold the jar % of an inch above the bottom
of the hole in the block. Thru the bottom
is a mortise or slot that communicates with
the entrance of the hive when the feeder is
attached to the hive. This is done by in-
serting the projection into the entrance.

Boardman entrance-feeder.

The Boardman, of all the feeders here
shown, is the handiest. It does not require
the opening of the hive, and, what is of
some importance, permits the apiarist to
see at a glance by looking down a row of
his hives what feeders are empty or nearly
so. One can take a wheelbarrow load of
filled cans, lift the empty ones out of the
blocks, and substitute filled ones. It is the
work of but a few minutes to supply every
colony in the apiary with a filled can of
syrup. This is especially convenient during
a dearth of honey when it is desired to keep

up brood-rearing for increase. For further
particulars regarding this feeder see Feei^.
iNG TO Stimulate farther on.

The pepper-box feeder is another form
of atmospheric feeder that has been adver-
tised quite extensively. While this can be

Pepper-box feeder.

inserted into an entrance block like the
Boardman, it is not so easy to determine
when it is empty. Ordinarily it is used in
an upper story or super above the brood-
chamber.

THE ALEXANDER FEEDER.

This is a very popular feeder, and some
prefer it to anything else. It is on the
principle of the Simplicity trough feeder
and is a little longer than the width of the
hive. The bottom-board is shoved forward
the width of the feeder, and into the space
left vacant is placed the feeder. The pro-
jecting end is used for filling, after which
it is closed by a wooden block.

Alexander feeder.

While this feeder is very handy, it does
not, like the Boardman, regulate the sup-
ply of feed. The bees will empty it in an
hour or two, and then be inclined to rob,
because the large amount given stirs them
up to the point of excitement. One serious
objection to the Alexander feeder is that it
is sometimes difficult, owing to the uneven-
ness of ground, to adjust the feeder to the
back end of the hive. See Feeding to
Stimulate farther on.

FRICTION-TOP FEEDER.

Perhaps about as handy a feeder as any
is the friction-top feeder, which has been

FEEDING AND FEEDERS

305

The 5 and 10 pound friction-top pails that are used
so largely make the simplest and best kind of feeders
for supplying winter stores. Punch the lid full of
very fine holes, fill with syrup, about two parts of
su.gar to one of water (warm if weather is cool), and
crowd the lid down tightly.

Invert the pail over the hole in the escape-board

directly above the cluster in the brood-chamber. There

is plenty of space to permit the bees to work over the
whole surface of the lid.

Or, dispense with the escape-board altogether and
put the pail directly on the top-bars of the brood-
frames. Cover all around with an old sack. The syrup
cannot vm out any faster than t.l^e.tip^s tg.H? it,

coming into favor during recent years. This
feeder is a five- or ten-pound friction-top
pail having a lid punctured with about 130
holes made with a three-penny nail.

The feeders are filled with a syrup, 2 or
2^ parts of sugar to one of water, the
density depending upon the lateness of the
season. In cold weather the syrup should
be quite thick and warm. Over the colony
to be fed, an empty super is placed, and
one of these pails of syrup inverted imme-
diately over the cluster and covered with an
old sack to prevent the heat of the cluster
from escaping above. Some strong colo-
nies will take the contents of a ten-pound
pail in a day. If not taken as rapidly as it
should be, the residue of the cold feed
should be removed and replaced by warm
syrup.

THE DOOLITTLE DIVISION-BOARD FEEDER.

For cool-weather feeding, or fall or win-
ter feeding, the Friction-top feeder and the
Doolittle are superior to those previously
mentioned.

The Doolittle has the same outside di-
mensions as an ordinary brood-frame, but
is two inches wide. It will hold about 6
lbs. of syrup, and usually about four feed-
erfuls will supply a colony with enough

Doolittle feeder.

stores for winter, provided the syrup is
made two and one-half to one as already
described. We often use the Doolittle feeder
during cool weather or in the fall, and, as a
general thing, we fill it with warm syrup.
It may be used as a dummy or a division-
board.

THE MILLER FEEDER.

Where one desires to feed 20 to 25 lbs. of
syrup at a time, all in one feed, the Miller
feeder is the best of anything we have ever
tried. . It is a little less in (dimensions than

306

FEEDING AND FEEDERS

the inside of an ordinary super to a hive,
and is always used in connection with a
super or upper brood-chamber. For late
feeding, where one desires to do the work
all up at one time, he can feed with this
feeder 25 lbs. .of thick syrup. If the

Miller feeder.

weather is cool and the syrup hot when
poured in, the bees will take it down in a
single night. The feeder can then be trans-
ferred to some other hive.

The peculiar merit of this feeder is the
fact that the entrance to it is directly over
the center of the brood-nest. Bees can rise

A

up thru the space E shown in the sectional
drawing, follow the direction of the arrows,
and reach the syrup. The syrup in the
compartments B B will rise to a corre-
sponding level in the two outside passages
under A.

FEEDING VP-ITHOUT A FEEDER TO PREVENT
STARVATION.

If one has been so careless as to allow
his colonies to reach the point of starva-
tion, and has no feeders on hand, he may
feed thick syrup or honey known to be free
from disease by placing a brick under the
front of the hive in order to give the hive a
backward tilt, and then pouring the feed
over the tops of the frames at the back of
the hive. Care should be taken not to cause
robbing by giving a colony so much feed
that it will run out at the entrance or out
between the hive and bottom-board in case
the bottom-board is loose.

FEEDING TO STIMULATE BBOOD-
BEARING.

As previously intimated, feeding to stim-
ulate brood-rearing is 9, very different prop-

osition from feeding to supply the bees
with the necessary winter stores. In the
case of the former, it is desired to get a
large force of bees (not stores) for the
approaching harvest or the approaching
winter, the method of procedure being the
same in either case. To stimulate brood-
rearing, approximately half a pint of syrup
daily should be fed; but' if that amount
be given in an ordinary open feeder, such
as the Simplicity, Doolittle, or Alexander,,
the bees will take it all up in about an
hour's time. The result, if the syrup is
given in the morning or during even the
middle hours of the day, is to excite the
colony unduly. Bees will rush out into the
open air to ascertain where the sudden
supply of food may be obtained. If a
whole apiary is fed in this way, there is a
general uproar of excitement, often fol-
lowed by robbing of some of the weaker
colonies and nuclei, for the bees in the field
will pry into everything. An entrance un-
guarded is immediately attacked; and un-
less there is sufficient force to repel the
onslaught, robbing will get so far under
way that it may result in the robbing-out
of the attacked colony. But this is not all.
When the supply of syrup in the feeders
fails, bees are apt to be cross, sometimes
attacking passers-by or stock in the fields.
This is particularly so if robbing gets un-
der way. For these reasons it is usually
advisable to feed toward night.

Happily we are able to avoid all this
trouble by using a feeder that will make
a quart or a pint of syrup last during the
entire 24 hours of the day. In the case of
a nucleus, the amount can be so regulated
as to last 36 or 48 hours.

When the supply of food comes in very
slowly, about as it would come in from a
very moderate honey flow, enough to give
the bees and queen encouragement to keep
up brood-rearing, they will rear more brood
than if the supply is intermittent. All ex-
citement— that is, uproar in the air — as
well as robbing is avoided. It is impossible
to fix the Simplicity, Alexander, and Doo-
little feeders so that they will not give out
the syrup too fast; but we can regulate
the friction-top, pepper-box and Board-
man entrance-feeders. This is accomplished
by using lids having but three or four
holes or perforations.

FEEDING AND FEEDERS

307

For stimulating this slow feeding is a
great convenience, because one can give his
bees a supply of food to keep up the nor-
mal functions of the colony for two or
three days. For very slow feeding one
hole is better than more. A strong colony
will require more openings than a weak
.one; and in all cases syrup for stimulating
should be in the proportion of about 66
per cent water and 33 per cent sugar,
thoroly stirred until the sugar is dissolved.

Perhaps the reader does not own any
friction-top, pepper-box or Boardman feed-
ers, and yet would like to practice slow
feeding as herein directed. All he needs to
do is to procure a quantity of self-sealing
tin cans that can be readily obtained at
the ordinary grocery. Thru the top punch
a hole just large enough to admit a com-
mon pin. If this hole does not prove large
enough to let out sufficient food, two holes
may be used, or even three, depending
upon the size of the colony. The can should
then be filled with syrup, and the top
pushed firmly in place.

Experiments have shown that this scheme
of slow feeding will raise more brood for
the sugar used than where the same amount
is given intermittently in open feeders like
the Simplicity, Alexander, and the Doolit-
tle. For our work, we prefer the Board-
man entrance-feeders because we can see
at a glance thru the glass when the syrup
has been used up. If the supply has been
taken, it is very easy to put a filled can in
the place of the empty without disturbing
the hive or the bees.

FEEDING FOE WINTER.

If colonies are to be wintered on sugar
syrup mainly, the general practice is to
feed some time in September, and, as a
rule, this is, perhaps, the best time to feed.
Still, in many localities in central United
States, there is warm weather in October
sufficient to start brood-rearing, and much
of the stores fed in September may be con-
sumed so that what is left is not sufficient
to last until the new honey flow. For this
reason it is often unsafe to feed in Sep-
tember and give no further attention to the
bees. There are other cases when, for one
reason or another, feeding may be delayed
until cold weather begins. If one is run-
ning a number of outyards it is impossible,

without hiring a large force of men, to feed
all these yards at once, and by the time the
last yard is reached it may be rather late.

But before we begin the actual work of
feeding we make a preliminary canvass of
the whole apiary. This we do by "hefting"
each hive; that is, we lift up either the
front or back of the hive. A little practice
will enable one to determine approximately
the amount of stores in each hive, provided
there is not too large a force of bees. In
that event, we must allow for a correspond-
ing increase. As we go over each hive we
mark on the cover with a piece of chalk the
number of pounds that will be required. If
the colony is a strong one, we allow for a
total of 25 or 30 lbs. if it is to be wintered
outdoors; or if indoors, about two-thirds
that. We aim to have each colony strong
enough so that it will require an average
of about 30 lbs. each for outdoor wintering.
After all the hives are marked we proceed
to the actual work of feeding.

For this late fall feeding we know of no
better feeders than the Miller. The Miller
feeder will hold at least 25 lbs. of feed at a
time, but the friction-top feeder holds only
ten pounds, so that if one wishes to give a
colony a large feed at one time, two or
more feeders must be given the colony.
Both of these feeders can be quickly put on
or taken off without much disturbance to
the brood-nest. On the other hand, if the
colonies are not quite as strong as they
should be, so that some contraction is nec-
essary, the Doolittle division-board feeder,
holding about 6 lbs. of thick feed at a time,
maj^ serve a better purpose. During the
season, any combs that are too old, or
which, for some reason or other, are not
perfect, whether due to drone-cells or ir-
regularities, can be gradually pushed to
the outside of the brood-frames; then in
the fall, when it is time to put in the
feeder, provided the division-board feeders
are used, these defective combs can be very
easily taken out to be melted up later, and
with no loss of brood. Furthermore, if the
colonies need feeding, these outside combs
will not contain much honey. On a cool
day an outyard can be looked over very
quickly, and the old combs that are on the
outside of the brood-nest removed with
very little trouble. If a follower is used,
the removal of one comb and the follower

308

FEEDING AND FEEDERS

makes room for the feeder; but, if the
combs completely fill the hives, two combs
must be removed.

The best time of day for putting feed
into the feeder is toward the close of the
afternoon. It is not advisable to do the
work in the morning or early in the day,
for the reason that the bees become ex-
cited, and robbing might be started, espe-
cially if it were warm enough for the bees
to fly. Right here is a point in favor of
the chilly-weather feeding, for there is no
such danger of robbing, of course, when
the bees cannot fly on account of the cool
temperature.

We prepare the feed at home and carry
it to the yards hot, in the regular five-
gallon honey-cans, as these are about the
largest-sized cans that can be handled con-
veniently by one person. If two were do-
ing the feeding a larger can might be used.

While the syrup is still hot we load it
into the wagon or auto truck, six or eight
cans at a time, and carry it rapidly to the
yard. When we reach the edge of the
apiary, we take the cans, one at a time, and
locate them thru the yard where the mark-
ings on the hives show that we shall need
them. If the cans have good strong handles
we are able to carry two at a time, one in
each hand; but the difficulty is that the
handles are liable to tear loose from the
can at one end and drag thru the hand,
cutting the fingers. For this reason we
prefer to carry one can at a time in the
arms. If a small rope sling were used, two
cans could be carried without danger.

When we are ready to commence feeding
we fill a large sprinkling-can, with the rose
removed, and proceed at once to pour the
syrup into the feeders. On the covers of
the hives are marked the number of pounds
of syrup which each hive is to receive. It
is likely that not all of the hives will need
feeding a second time, so the second day
the work can be done even more quickly
than the first time. When it is not too
cool the bees will have taken the syrup in
one feeder in 24 hours' time; but if the
weather is very cold they will require 48
hours; but this time can be materially re-
duced if the syrup is given hot. We would
always give it hot if it is cold enough so
that the cluster is contracted. After all
the colonies have been fed we go over them
again, this time making a careful examina-

tion of the brood-nest. If more syrup is
required, we mark the hives again and
later on feed only those that may be short.

FEEDING IN FREEZING WEATHER.

Tho colonies have been wintered well
when fed after cold or freezing weather,
much the safer plan is to have it all done
not later than October, for the Northern
States, that they may have the syrup rip-
ened and entirely sealed. If the weather is
not too cold, one can feed with the friction-
top or Miller feeder as previously inti-
mated. If one has been so careless as to
have bees that are in need of stores, at the
beginning of winter, we would advise
frames of sealed honey if they can be ob-
tained ; and if not, candy. See Candy.

If hot syrup is covered with cushions or
something equivalent, it may be fed at any
time, altho it does not seem to be as satis-
factory under all circumstances as combs
of sealed stores.

When feeding in cool or cold weather,
one is very apt to chill the cluster, or leave
openings that will permit the warmth of
the cluster to pass off. We have several
times had colonies die in the spring after
commencing feeding, and we imagined it
was from this cause alone. When they first
commence raising brood in the spring, they
need to be packed closely and snugly.
Making a hole in the quilt or cushions
above the cluster, and placing the feeder
over this so as to close it completely, does
very well, but is not, after all, as safe as
giving the feed from below. For feeding
in early spring, where the colony is weak,
we would prefer candy or combs of sealed
stores.

FEEDING IN THE SPEING, OR
FEEDING ENOUGH IN THE FALL
TO LAST TILL THE NEXT
HONEY FLOW.

Some years ago it was the general prac-
tice to feed in the spring to stimulate
brood-rearing, such feeding taking place
as soon as settled warm weather came on.
The purpose of this was to get a large
force of young bees for the coming har-
vest; but in later years the tendency on
the part of our best beekeepers has been
toward feeding enough in the fall to last

FEEDING BACK

m

not only all winter but during the spring
and until the honey flow. Experience seems
to show that spring feeding very often does
more harm than good by over-stimulation.
Brood is expanded beyond the capacity of
the bees to cover and keep warm. Robbing
is often induced. Beginners especially are
apt to overdo it; and even a veteran will
sometimes get his colonies so strong before
an extra supply of nectar comes in, that
swarming will be brought on prematurely.

This question of feeding heavily in the
fall to last until the honey flow the follow-
ing year, or feeding moderately in the fall
and stimulating the following spring, de-
pends somewhat on the locality, and very
largely on the man himself. Many bee-
keepers of experience, especially in some
localities, can doubtless practice spring
feeding to advantage ; but as a rule begin-
ners will do better to give all their colonies
enough in the fall.

WHEN ROBBERS ARE BAD, FEEDING AT NIGHT.

During the early fall of 1887 we found
our apiary almost on the verge of starva-
tion, the previous summer having been
very dry. Robbers were unusually vigi-
lant, and it was almost impossible to per-
form any manipulation with the hives with-
out getting a perfect storm of robbers in
the brood-nest. Feeding during the day
was out of the question, and yet the colo-
nies must be fed in order to prepare them
for winter. Accordingly, to circumvent the
robbers we fed at night by the light of lan-
terns. Contrary to what we might expect,
the bees gave us very little trouble by fly-
ing against the lanterns. As the bees took
up all the feed in the feeders during the
night, and the robbers had had no oppor-
tunity to investigate during the feeding,
everything was comparatively quiet the next
morning and also during the following day.
We fed very successfully in this way some
three or four barrels of sugar. Altho in
the preceding paragraphs we have recom-
mended feeding toward night, in the case
above mentioned we fed from about 7 p. m.
in some cases until 10:30 P. m. Perhaps
we should also remark, that, if it is incon-
venient to work at night, feed on the first
rainy day. Put on a rubber hat, coat, and
rubber boots. As long as it rains, bees will

not molest. Rain does not interfere with
work as much as one might imagine.

FEEDING BACK.— This subject is one
interesting a large number of beekeepers in
the comb-honey class, the main object, per-
haps, being to prevent unfinished sections.

Many who attempt to feed back, fail on
account of the many difficulties encoun-
tered. J. E. Hand of Birmingham, Ohio,
has made a thoro study of this subject, and
he finds that, while the work can be profit-
ably done, much attention must be given to
the details, since there are many things to
take into consideration.

It is more practicable, he says, to use a
feeder in which the honey can be given
below the brood-chamber instead of on top,
as this is the more natural way for the
bees, and they take it more readily. The
Quinby feeder has a tin tray, 2 inches deep,
enclosed by a wooden frame of the same
depth, which is the same width as the hive,
but 2% inches longer. The tin tray is ex-
actly the same length as the hive, and when
in use is pushed to the back end of the
frame surrounding it, leaving a space of
inches in front for the bees to pass out
and in the hive. The other end of the tin
tray projects 2^/2 inches beyond the hive at
the back to allow space for filling it. A
framework of slats lengthwise of the feeder
sits in the tray for the bees to travel over
while working in the feeder so that they
may not be drowned. The feeder rests
squarely on the bottom-board, and the hive
covers the feeder except the 2^ inches at
the back end, which space is covered by a
little board. The bees cannot get into the
place where the feed is poured in, and the
honey (about six quarts) flows evenly un-
der all parts of the hive, where it can be
quickly taken up by the bees.

Many fail in their attempt at feeding
back because they select the wrong tune of
the year. It is best to begin right after the
main honey flow has ceased before the
work in the supers is over, and use fresh
honey the day it is extracted. At this time
the bees naturally go right on as tho the
flow had not stopped. It is best to give
about six quarts of thinned-down honey to
each colony every other day. The interval
between the feeding allows the bees time to
remove the honey from the brood-cells,
Avhere it is first placed, to the supers. No

310

FEEDING OUTDOORS

definite rule can be given for thinning
down the honey, since the density varies so
much. For average honey enough water
must be added so that the syrup will be 75
per cent honey and 25 per cent water.
Very thick honey needs more water, while
thin honey needs less.

It is necessary to have the brood-chamber
well occupied by brood, for bees never do
well in supers over brood-chambers con-
taining much capped honey. The first
requisite, then, is a good queen, which will
be able to hold her own against any amount
of feeding. The brood-chamber must be
contracted, furthermore, so that the queen
will be able to keep every comb filled with
brood. In this connection the sectional
hive is very convenient for the reason that
one section msij be removed, thus contract-
ing the brood section and still allowing
brood in the shallow frames to be under
the entire super. It is quite important,
however, to have the combs in the brood-
chamber as new as possible, for the bees
are quite apt to carry up bits of comb to
be used in capping cells in the supers, and
old dark comb will discolor the super-
cappings to quite an extent.

The thinned-down honey should be put
into the feeder just before sundown, so
that there may be no uproar that may
cause robbing. It is not desirable to have
more than two supers of sections on the
fed colonies at a time. As soon as the
combs in the super next the brood-chamber
are nearly capped, this super should be
raised up and the upper one placed under
it next to the brood-chamber. As soon as
the top super is finished and capped solid
to the wood, it may be removed and a fresh
super placed next to the brood-chamber.
Of course it is not essential that combs be
built out and capped solid to the wood.
The combs all capped over, except cells
next to the wood, would grade No. 1.

CAUTION : FED-BACK COMB HONEY LIABLE TO
GRANULATE.

Under Comb Honey, to Produce, sub-
head, " Bait Sections," reference is made
to the fact that bait sections or fed-back
comb honey is more liable to granuate than
ordinary comb honey. Dealers have com-
plained that the former granulates very
rapidly on their hands; and when they

know it they will not accept it unless for
immediate sale. It should be sold in one's
own locality, and sold as early as possible.
While not all of it will granulate, the his-
tory of such honey is decidedly unfavorable.

FEEDING OUTDOORS.— After what
has been said elsewhere in this work re-
garding the danger of exposing sweets in
the open air during the robbing season, it
may seem the height of folly to recommend
what appears to be the same thing that
has been condemned; but, as will be
shown, this outside feeding may be prac-
ticed without the bad results that follow
from the exposure of sweets under other
conditions. It is well known that, when
bees are busy in the field in a natural honey
flow, hives can be opened without any rob-
bing. Now, then, if the bees can be kept
busy by making them go after food, set
outdoors, that is of the consistency of raw
nectar, much the same result will be arti-
ficially accomplished.

But proceeding farther the question may
be asked, "Why feed outdoors at all if the
proper stimulation can be given by placing
the food inside the hives that need it, rather
than supplying all colonies alike, irrespec-
tive of whether they need stores or not?"

While it is ordinarily better to feed each
individual colony according to its needs,'
there are times when one can feed a whole
apiary by placing a weak syrup in an out-
door feeder. At any time when robbers in-
terfere with the manipulations of the colo-
nies, sweetened water outdoors diverts the
meddlers by making a sort of artificial
honey flow. When the bees can gather any-
thing from the fields they are not disposed
to rob. In the same way if the bees can be
kept busy artificially, much the same re-
sults can be accomplished. This can be
done with an outdoor feeder and sweetened
water, as explained farther on. If one
engages in queen-rearing, or desires to ex-
tract when bees will ordinarily rob, an
outdoor feeder can be started so that the
necessary work can be performed easily
and secure from pilfering bees. Agam, it
will sometimes happen that the whole api-
ary is on the verge of starvation, and out-
side feeding can be used to tide the bees
over until the expected honey flow starts,
or until feeders can be installed on the
hives and colonies fed in the regular way.

FEEDING OUTDOORS

311

Outdoor feeding can also be employed to
advantage to "call the bees off" when rob-
bing the neighbors' preserves during the
canning season. The same caUing-off proc-
ess can be used when the bees are robbing
candy-stands or stands where lemonade or
cut melons are on display for sale.

Within a quarter of a mile of our home
yard there is a fairground, and sometimes
we find it necessary, if bees are inclined to
rob, to start outdoor feeding the day before
the fair opens, and keep it up during the
fail". If there is a severe dearth at the
time, bees are inclined to meddle with the
candy-stands and soda-fountains. While
the amount they actually steal is insignifi-
cant, their presence "drives away trade."

DISADVANTAGES OF OUTDOOR FEEDING.

Having said this much in favor of out-
door feeding of a whole apiary, it should
be clearly and emphatically stated at the
outset that it is an expensive way of feed-
ing bees. When a colony can take the
syrup from an ordinary feeder, either at
the entrance or on top of the hive, and
place it in the combs, the wear and tear on
the bees is nothing as compared to that
which takes place when the bees are com-
pelled to leave the hives, fly to the Jeeder,
scuffle with each other, and then rush back
in pellmell haste to their hives to unload.
Nor is this all.

One year, when robbing was very bad,
and when we desired to keep on with our
queen-rearing operations, we fed for sever-
al weeks in outdoor feeders. It was very
noticeable that the field bees had their
wings badly worn, and at the end of the
queen-rearing operations the fielders were
conspicuous by their absence, and only
young bees were left. While outdoor feed-
ing stimulates brood-rearing, it does so at a
large cost. Besides the wear and tear on
the wings themselves, there is the labor of
reducing a nine-to-one sugar syrup or
sweetened water (nine parts of water to
one of sugar) to a well-ripened sugar
syrup of two and one-half parts of sugar
to one of water. When feeding in the hive,
the syrup should be never weaker than one
part of sugar to one of water; and it is
often two parts or even 2^/^ parts of sugar
to one of water. It will be readily seen

that outdoor feeding of bees involves an
enormous drain on the colony.

There are also other serious drawbacks
to outdoor feeding. It feeds aU the bees
in the vicinity, the neighbors' included, and
might perhaps be instrumental in the
spread of foul brood. It also causes a dis-
proportionate amount of syrup to be given
to the colonies. The strong ones will have
a great deal more than their share, and
the weak ones considerably less. By feed-
ing within the hive, one can regulate the
supply for each colony or nucleus.

HOW TO FEED OUTDOORS.

While an expert can set out unfinished
sections for bees to clean, as spoken of
under the head of Comb Honey^ to Pro-
duce^ subhead "Unfinished Sections," the
practice on the part of the beginner should
be discouraged. But he can feed outdoors
without stirring up an uproar by feeding
a very thin syrup, about nine parts of
water to one of sugar. As already ex-
plained, this is virtually sweetened water.
At the beginning a little stronger syrup
will have to be made in order to start the
bees. Then it can be weakened down to
the nine-to-one basis.

We prefer the regular trough feeder for
the purpose — either the Alexander or the
Simplicity. Twenty-five or fifty of them
will be required, all set out in a row on a
couple of 2 X 4 scantling properly leveled
up. When these feeders are not available,
two or three common washtubs can be used,
but the surface of the sweetened water
should be covered over with sticks or corn-
cobs to prevent the bees from drowning;
and there should not be much more than
an inch of liquid in the tubs, or at least not
more than will be required to supply the
bees aU day or as long as it is desired to
keep them busy. If the sweetened water is
left out over night during warm weather, it
is liable to sour, so that a supply greater
than the bees can take up for the day
should never be given.

To prevent the bees from crowding, it is
desirable to use a large surface ; hence it is
recommended to use two or three tubs with
an inch of sweetened water in each rather
than one tub with three inches of liquid.
When the surface is comparatively small,

312

mOHT OF BEES

the bees crowd each other in a way that is
injurious to their wings ; and by spreading
the feed no bee will be compelled to crowd
against its neighbor.

rENCE.— See Comb Honey.

FERTILE WORKERS.— See Laying
Workers.

FERTILIZATION OF FLOWERS BY
BEES. — See Pollination.

FIREWEED.— See Willow-herb.

FIXED FRAMES.— See Frames, Self-
spacing.

FLIGHT OF BEES.— The distance bees
go in quest of stores varies very greatly
according to conditions. Usually on level
country, more or less wooded, they do not
go over one and one-half miles. If, how-
ever, there is a dearth of pasturage within
that distance, and plenty of it along some
river bank three to five miles away, they
may or may not go that far. When bees
go out after stores they evidently try to
find their nectar as near the hive as possi-
ble. They will not go over half a mile if
they can get a sufficient supply within that
distance; but in most cases that range
does not supply enough pasturage, and it is
evident they keep increasing their flight
until they go as far as one and one-half
miles. If they are unable to secure enough,
and if there is forage on beyond, they
often go farther.

Bees will sometimes fly over a body of
water or a valley from an elevation three
or even five miles, particularly if there are
fields in sight that are somewhat showy.
Whether they have a long-range vision or
not has not been proven ; but the fact that
they will find white patches of buckwheat
five miles away across a valley is somewhat
significant. In a like manner they w^ill go
across a valley four or five miles to orange
bloom in California. Whether they are
guided by sight or smell in either case is
difficult to prove; but it is quite probable
that a breeze will carry the odors of a buck-
wheat field or of an orange grove in full
bloom to bees five miles away. While we
might not be able to detect odors at such a
distance, the scent organs of the bee are

much more acute than ours; and they
might and probably would get a knowledge
of its presence in a given locality.

As a general rule, as stated at the outset,
bees do not fly much over one and one-half
miles. Where they have to go greater dis-
tances their wings sometimes show wear, es-
pecially if they have to pass thru shrub-
bery.

We once had one yard located in an aster
district. The supply of nectar gave out in
the near-by fields; but we traced somr- of
the bees of that yard to asters five iles
away. That fall there was a very vA\nd
decimation of bees. Colonies that Avere
strong just before the asters came into
bloom dwindled down to three- and two-
frame nuclei. The surviving bees had their
wings badly frayed. The presumption is
that in dodging thru and over shrubbery in
their long flights they tore their wings more
or less, with the result that large numbers
of them never got back home.

When bees are going to and fi-om the
field, they fly as low as possible to avoid the
wind. Instead of flying over shrubbery
they will dodge thru it for forage on the
other side. At other times they will fly
over it. We have observed, however, at
one of our yards, that bees would go no
farther than a piece of woods half a mile
away. The probabilities are that, on rising'
to the height of the trees, they encountered
a current of wind in the opposite direction.
It is a well-known fact that bees cannot fly
against a strong wind.

the range of flight and its relation to
outyards.

In the location of outyards one should
take into consideration the general lay of
the land and the character of possible bee-
forage. In ordinary white-clover regions
where there are patches of woods, build-
ings, or much shrubbery, bees do not fly
much over one and one-half miles; but
when clover ceases to yield, and basswood
can be found two or three miles away,
those same bees will fly farther; and when
conditions are right, they will fly from
three to five miles, and even seven miles
across a body of water. But locations that
furnish such long ranges are very rare.

The flight of bees will determine some-
what the size of the beeyard. If they do

FOUL BROOD

313

not go farther than one and one-half miles,
probably not more than 50 colonies can be
kept in the location, and possibly 30 would
be better.

In some parts of the country as many as
500 colonies can be kept in one place. The
late E. W. Alexander kept 500 colonies at
Delanson, N. Y., on a hill overlooking a
valley. He traced his bees five miles from
home many times, and secured large crops
of honey. J. F. Mclntyre, at his cele-
brated Sespe apiary near Ventura, Calif.,
kept over 500 colonies. (See Apiary.)
In both of these cases it is evident that the
bees would have to fly at least five miles in
order to get the proper yield per colony.
When an apiary of 50 colonies secures a
good yield, the presumption is that the
bees do not fly very far; and it sometimes
happens that 30 colonies will do better than
50. In that case they should be located
about three miles apart, making a radius of
flight of one and one-half miles.

FIG-WORT {Scrophularia marilandica
L.). — Also called heal-all, square-stalk, and
carpenter's square. A strong-smelling herb,
3 to 6 feet tall, with square stems, opposite
leaves, and small greenish-purple flowers,
growing in woodlands and hedges from
Massachusetts to Kansas and Louisiana.
The abundant nectar is secreted in two
large drops by the base of the ovary. In
1879 a small field of fig wort at Medina,
0., made a remarkable showing. Honey-
bees visited the flowers from morning until
night during the entire period of bloom-
ing. On the average a flower was visited
once a minute. After the nectar was re-
moved other drops would exude in about
two minutes. At one time this plant ex-
cited a considerable furore among beekeep-
ers, as it was thought that for artificial
pasturage it would exceed anything then
known. The honey obtained would not
warrant, however, the large expense of its
cultivation. The flowers are also very fre-
quently visited by wasps. Several other
species of figwort occur in this country.
S. nodosa is a European species.

FOOD VALUE OF HONEY.— See

Honey as a Food.

FOUL BROOD.— The term foul brood
covers two brood diseases — one known as
American, or the old-fashioned diseased

brood, caused by Bacillus larvj3e, and one
the European, a disease of comparatively
recent introduction, caused by Bacillus plu-
ton. There is some evidence to show that
European foul brood was present in this
country as early as 1890; but it was not
until 1899 that the author discovered that
there are two distinct foul brood diseases
here. See Gleanings in Bee Cultuke,
page 858, for 1899. Shortly after, others,
including the foul-brood inspectors of New
York (where the European foul brood was
first found), also recognized the difference.

The American foul brood, often called
"ropy" foul brood, because the dead mat-
ter assumes a gluey, sticky, tenacious char-
acter, was well known in Europe, and has
been referred to by Dzierzon and other
writers. But Moses Quinby of St. Johns-
ville, N. Y., was the first one to recognize
it in the United States and prescribe for its
cure.

The Quinby cure is the basis of the only
successful mode of treatment known and
recognized today, altho some, since Quinby,
have proclaimed themselves as the original
discoverers of it.

Foul brood, either American or Euro-
pean, is (unless it be the careless beekeep-
er) the most serious enemy, not even ex-
cepting severe winters, with which a bee-
keeper has to contend. So serious is it that
the old-time box-hive beekeepers — the kind
who take no bee journal and who read no
bee book — are being practically eliminated.
Localities that once had bees on every farm
have practically no bees today except some
in the hands of specialists who keep bees
for the bread and butter they can get out
of them. There is another class who are
still represented, and they are the pro-
gressive farmer and the professional man
of the towns and cities (the backlot class)
who are well enough posted to know how to
combat foul brood successfully in either one
of its two forms.

Foul brood, chiefly the American, has
wrought such destruction in this country
that the United States census for 1910
shows a large falling-off of bees on the
farms. While there has been an increase of
beekeepers among the professional class in
our cities and towns, there is no denying
the fact that the farmer beekeeper in the
Northern States has been practically driven
out of the business by disease. No more

314

FOUL BROOD

Combs showing the irregular, mottled, scattered cells with their perforated and sunken cappings of American

foul brood.

can it be said that "bees work for nothing
and board themselves." They might have
done so under the old box-hive system, be-
fore foul brood had made its fearful in-
roads, but they can do so no longer. While
the loss of so many farmer beekeepers is to
be deplored, there is some satisfaction in
the fact that the industry of beekeeping is
now being placed on a higher plane — in the
hands of the intelligent and progressive
backlotters and farmers. The reader of
these lines belongs to this class; and he
need have no real dread of any disease that
affects bees, if he will follow the simple
directions for their treatment that are
given in these pages. While, of course, he
will and should fear foul brood (not be-
cause it can put him out of business, but be-

cause it can annoy him), he should not get
the idea that he can not control it, nor
that it can prevent him from securing a
crop of honey. Foul brood does, however,
cause some apprehension in the minds of
the queen-breeder and the men who sell
bees ; for under state laws there are severe
penalties for shipping diseased bees or in-
fected combs into territory where no dis-
ease exists. In this connection it is proper
to remark that some forty States and Prov-
inces have stringent foul-brood laws.

But, perhaps, the most important thing
for the reader now to consider is how to
know foul brood when it shows itself in the
yard. It is comparatively easy to hold
either disease in check at its very start, but
quite another proposition after they get a

FOUL BROOD

315

strong foothold. " Every beekeeper, there-
fore, should know the important symptoms
of both American and European foul
brood. After he actually sees combs af-
fected with either disease, he will have a
much better knowledge of them, of course;
but as seeing the disease involves danger,
especially if the combs are sent hy express
or mail, he will have to depend on photo-
graphic representations and a description
of the symptoms as here given.

In the first place, American foul brood
had a run in our own home apiary some 30
years ago ; and so severe was the attack be-
fore we learned how to cure it that we lost
over half of our colonies and a honey crop,
to say nothing of the ruin of a very profit-
able trade in bees and queens which had to
be summarily discontinued. During the two
or three years that we combated the disease
we acquired an experience that was valua-
ble— of the kind that Josh Billings told
about when he said that " Egsperiense
teeches a good skule, but the tuishun kums
rather hi." And it was "hi" with us. In
addition to this "experience" we have trav-
eled extensively over the United States, vis-
ited apiaries where foul brood, both Amer-
ican and European, was present and under
treatment. The author has seen the two
diseases, each in its incipient and advanced
stages, and he has seen how they can be
successfully combated by the simple meth-
ods that are now recommended by our foul-
brood inspectors. Besides this he has had
hundreds and hundreds of specimens of
affected brood sent from all parts of this
country; and at one time our office seemed
to be the only place to which samples of
brood could be sent for diagnosis. But in
later years the United States government,
thru its Bureau of Entomology, has been
making a study of foul broo^; and its
corps of apicultural experts are now pre-
pared to render assistance in the way of
information, so now it is no longer neces-
sary nor advisable to send samples to our
office. Indeed, we advise against it, be-
cause the Bureau, having trained experts
and a bacteriologist, with microscopes and
laboratory, are able to make a much more
accurate diagnosis of all samples of af-
fected combs or diseased brood sent in.
The sample should be wrapped in oiled or
paraffined paper and inclosed in a strong
wooden box.

AMERICAN FOUL BROOD.

As a general thing, the beekeeper will
not discover it in its incipient stages. He
is not expecting it, and, if it comes, does
not see it. His fii'st intimation of its pres-
ence will be occasional cells of sealed brood
sho\ving sunken, greasy cappings and ceUs

Typical American Foul Brood.

with irregular perforations. American foul
brood is confined mainly to brood that has
died after the cells have been sealed; but
25 or 30 per cent of unsealed cells will
show dead brood, and the dead larvae in
both sealed and unsealed will vary in color
from a yeUowish brown to a dark brown,
and finally to a brownish black. The larva
that has just died holds its shape. As the
disease advances it begins to shrink, and
the dead matter becomes so rotten and
putrid that the skin breaks, and on the
lower side of the cell is seen a melted-down
mass of matter that is very ropy — that is
to say, sticky and tenacious. As this dries
down it forms a hard scale that sticks
tightly to the cell wall. The scale of Euro-
pean foul brood does not adhere so tightly
but may be removed. The worst specimens
of American foul brood are usually found
in the cells that have been sealed, altho the
melted broken-down form of larvae will be
found in some unsealed cells.

The initial stages of American foul brood
are usually confined to the sealed cells.
After the disease has advanced so that 75
per cent of aU the sealed brood in a comb
is affected, there will be found quite a
sprinkling of stray cells of young larvae
that have never been capped over that are
dead. But usually the grub wiU be almost
fully grown before it dies in the unsealed

316

FOUL BROOD

A comb badly affected with the ropy or American foul brood.

cell, tending to show that American foul
brood does not usually kill the larva until
after it is sealed in the cell, or just before
that sealing.

European foul brood in its first stages is
usually confined to the unsealed cells. The
dead larva will have a light-yellow color
instead of a brownish- dirty one verging
on to very nearly black. The American
may be found at any time of the year
when brood-rearing can take place; but
the European is principally a disease of
weak colonies and usually shows up at its
worst early in the season, and before the
main honey flow.

One may find occasional dead larvae just
before sealing that do not indicate disease
of any sort. A few such scattered over the
combs may be due to starvation — that is,
improper feeding. This occurs occasion-
ally when there is too much brood for the
number of nurse bees to the hive. One
will occasionally find dead brood, due to
chilling or overheating. When the brood
area expands too fast in the spring, an oc-
casional cold night will cause the cluster
to contract, leaving some of the brood un-
covered. This chills and dies. All such
dead brood should be carefully distinguish-
ed from brood affected with either Euro-
pean or American foul brood. If, after a
week or two, no dead larvae appear, one
may assume there is no disease.

On the other hand, if one finds larvae
that are dead, and an increasing number
of them as the days go by, he may suspect

trouble. If the dead larvae seem to melt
down, lying on the bottom side of the cell,
and if, further, they turn yellow or brown,
and take on a tenacious, gluey consistency,
it is an indication of American foul brood.
If a common toothpick, thrust into the dead
matter, and given a little twist, and drawn
out, leaves a fine thread two or three inches
long, it is an indication of American foul
brood. If nearly all the dead larvae, espe-
cially those in sealed cells, show this ropy
or stringy appearance the indication of
American is very much stronger. In this
connection it should be stated that Euro-
pean foul brood in some stages will rope;
but the thread is coarser, somewhat lumpy,
and is more of a watery consistency. Only
occasional cells will show a tendency to
rope, and even then after considerable
poking. The occasional ropy cells prove
nothing.

The roping test, alone, must not be con-
sidered as .conclusive that the disease is
American. If, after a few days, some of
the dead matter dries down into a hard
scale so that it can not be removed with-
out destroying the cell to which it is at-
tached, one may conclude that he has real
American foul brood. While the scale of
European will dry down, it seldom or never
adheres tightly to the cell wall. Once
more:

If, on careful examination, one finds
here and there a few pupae — that is, young
bees almost fully developed, — with their
tongues projecting upward, sometimes

FOUL BROOD

317

full length and sometimes half way, he
may be reasonably sure that he has the
American before him. These young bees
will lie on their backs, with their tongues
sticking upward, sometimes extending far
enough so that the end of the tongue seems
to be glued to the upper wall of the cell.
Sometimes it will project upward only
half way; but wherever these projecting
tongues are found it is a pretty sure in-
dication of American foul brood. So far
as the author knows, these projecting
tongues are never found in the European.

The name "foul brood" suggests a foul
odor. In the case of American the smell
is very much like that of a cabinetmaker's
gluepot. With European there is a sour
or musty smell in the first stages. In the
later stages of European the odor is very
bad, reminding one of dead fish or old
carrion that has been allowed to stand for
a considerable length of time. The odor
of American foul brood is not nauseating,
but nevertheless it is quite characteristic.
Sometimes the presence of the disease can
be detected in the apiary by merely walk-
ing through it. Neither is the odor of
European foul brood nauseating in its
early stages. Sometimes it is very hard
to detect any odor. In the later stages of
European the odor is "just awful." It
seems to be a combination of the odor from
dead animals or fish, with the suggestion
of ammonia and of decay.

One who is expert can very often locate
disease by these odors; but it should be
remembered that the odor alone is by no
means conclusive; but in connection with
the other symptoms it is very helpful in
enabling one to decide what form of brood
disease he has.

On one particular occasion we located a
colony having foul brood by an occasional
whiff we could catch at the entrance; but
it was nearly a week after that when we
found one cell containing dead matter. Ap-
parently, the colony had nearly cured it-
self. But there still remained a character-
istic odor which could not be eliminated.
Experience shows that a colony which cures
itself does not ordinarily stay cured. The
stock may be vigorous enough to keep the
disease down: but an occasional cell will
manifest itself for the ensuing 10 or 12
years, and in the mean time be a constant
source of infection to all the rest of the

apiary. There might be some colonies that
would not be able to resist, hence the
danger.

THE ODOR OF DEAD BEES LIKE THAT OF
AMERICAN" FOUL BROOD.

Sometimes one can detect a gluepot odor
at the entrance of one of the hives. He
will be horror-stricken and conclude that,
because he has perceived the unmistakable
smell, the disease is surely present in his
apiary. This fear will be dissipated if he
understands that the same foul-brood odor,
or at least one very much like it, may have
come from a lot of putrid dead bees after a
severe winter. These dead bees may be in
the hive or at the entrance. Again, over-
heated brood or chilled brood, if neglected
until it fairly rots, will give off a similar
odor. The reader will understand, there-
fore, that the odor test is by no means
final; but it is very suggestive, provided
no dead bees are found, and provided thai
one knows that the brood of the hive from
which the odor emanates has not been
chilled nor overheated.

H0V7 FOUL BROOD IS CARRIED TO NEIGHBORING
HIVES.

When a colony is badly affected the dis-
ease has progressed to such a stage that the
probabilities are that other colonies in the
same locality are affected, especially those
having entrances pointing in the same di-
rection or similarly located. At this point
the beekeeper should be warned that colo-
nies next to the one badly affected are very
apt to show the disease. This is explained
on the ground that young bees, and even
the adult ones become more or less con-
fused at their entrances, and so get into
the wrong hive. As they do not ordinarily
show any of the manifestations of ordinary
robbers, they are admitted. If they carry
honey from an infected colony, as many of
them do, they will transmit the disease as
soon as they give pap made out of such
honey to young brood; and that explains
why there will be only a single cell or a
group of cells perhaps, or one square inch
that will have foul brood, while all the rest
of the brood in the hive is perfectly nor-
mal. In one or more neighboring hives with
entrances facing in the same direction a cell

318

FOUL BROOD

A COMB OF AMERICAN FOUL BROOD.

[Notice the characteristic sunken and perforated cappings at the
left. Note that these cappings showing the presence of disease are
scattering.]

or two of foul brood will generally be
found. If one can be sure that the comb
containing the diseased cell or cells is the
only one affected, the removal of that comb
may effect a permanent cure. As will be
stated further on, all such colonies should
receive a thoro treatment.

There is a kind of pinhole perforation
that does not signify anything wrong —
indeed, quite the contrary. As bees seal
up their brood, there is a stage when there
will be a small round hole in the center of
the cap. Sometimes these holes are not
closed up, and then we have what is called
bareheaded brood. But the perforations in
bareheaded brood are very different from
the perforations in cells containing foul
brood, either American or European. The
bad cells will have sunken cappings. The
perforations are ragged, triangular, and
the edges appear to be somewhat greasy,
while in the perforations in barehooded
brood the cappings are slightly convex,
and the hole is circular.

THE TREATMENT AND CURE OF
AMERICAN FOUL BROOD.

At the outset the Quinby meth-
od was spoken of as being the
basis of most successful treat-
ment for American foul brood.
This plan involved the melting-
up of the old combs (shaking
bees into clean hives) and com-
pelling the bees to start anew.
As this treatment was described
before foundation was known,
of course no mention of it was
made. Practically the only im-
provement over the Quinby
treatment is giving the bees
starters or full sheets of founda-
tion instead of empty frames
with mere wooden guides. In
more recent times the late D. A.
Jones of Beeton, Ont., gave out
what he called the " starvation "
plan. It involved the same prin-
ciples as the Quinby treatment,
with this difference, that he shut
the combless bees after shaking,
in a large wire-cloth box, or a
box with wire cloth cover, and
set it in a cool place until the
bees had consumed all the honey
in their honey-sacs. This idea was to elim-
inate all possible sources of infection before
the bees were put on frames of foundation
and fed. The treatment worked admirably ;
but it was found in later years that it was
not necessary to starve the bees — that they
would use up any infected honey that they
might have in their sacs in drawing out
foundation, provided the hive had no
combs. Later, William McEvoy of Canada,
who had then recently been appointed foul-
brood inspector for Ontario, had been very
successful in shaking the bees into their
own hives, and giving them frames of
foundation starters. They were allowed to
build combs on these for four days. His
idea seemed to be to let the bees use up the
infected honey in building the combs and
storing it in the built comb. These combs
supposed to contain infection were then re-
moved, when the colony was given full
sheets of foundation. But experience has
shown in thousands of cases that it is not
necessary to remove the first set of combs

FOUL BROOD

319

built on foundation starters, and that such
removing involves a large amount of waste ;
and that, when the second set of foundation
is given, the bees are in a demoralized con-
dition, and quite inclined to swarm out.

Years ago, when we had foul brood, we
shook 80 colonies and gave them only one
set of frames with full sheets of foundation
in clean hives. The treatment was a success
in every case. Altho we have prescribed
this same treatment in hundreds if not thou-
sands of cases, we have never yet had one
report saying that the disease had returned.
The bees, as a matter of fact, will either
consume or use up all the infected honey in
drawing out the first set of foundation;
and it is very important to give the bees
either a clean hive or disinfect the old one.
When we shook into the old hives the dis-
ease came back in some cases. This disin-
fecting may be best accomplished by burn-
ing the hive out with an ordinary blow
torch, such as is used by telephone men
and painters to remove paint from a house ;
or it may be accomplished by smearing the
inside of the hive with kerosene, touching a
lighted match to it, and letting it burn un-
til the inside of the hive is charred to a
light brown. The fire may be easily quenched
by using a little water and putting on the
cover immediately. The steam, generated
when the cover is clapped down, immedi-
ately puts out the fire. But there may be
an objection to kerosene leaving an offen-
sive odor m the hive. Another plan is to
use a handful of common dry straw, setting
it on fire, and then with a stick poke the
burning straw around the hive so that
every portion of it will be slightly scorched.
The straw should be dumped out and a lit-
tle water dashed in the hive.

The shaking treatment, to be carried out
as it should be, requires some precaution to
prevent absconding. The Bureau of Ento-
mology has recommended a mode of pro-
cedure which we most thoroly indorse. As
government experts have made foul brood
a more careful study than any other men in
the United States, we can not do any better
than to advise our readers to follow faith-
fully the treatment recommended in Farm-
ers' Bulletin 442, entitled "The Treatment
of Bee Diseases," by Dr. E. F. Phillips, in
Charge of Apiculture, Bureau of Entomol-
ogy. For convenience of the reader we
give it here.

SHAKING TREATMENT.

The shaking treatment consists essentially
in the removal of all infected material from
the colony, and in compelling the coJony to
take a fresh start by building new combs and
gathering fresh stores. This is done by shak-
ing the bees from the old combs into a clean
hive on clean frames.

Time of Treatment. — The shaking treat-
ment should be given during a flow of honey,
so that other bees in the apiary will not be in-
clined to rob. If this is not possible the oper-
ation may be performed under a tent made of
mosquito netting. The best time is during the
middle of a clear day when a large number of
bees are in the field. It is sometimes recom-
mended that shaking be done in the evening,
but this is impossible if many colonies are to
be treated. The colony can be handled more
quickly when the field force is out of the hive.

Preparation. — All implements that will be
needed, such as queen and drone trap, hive
tool, and lighted smoker, should be in readi-
ness before the operation is begun. A com-
plete clean hive with frames is provided, as
well as a tightly closed hive body in which to
put the contaminated combs after shaking. An
extra hive cover or some similar apparatus
should be provided to serve as a runway for
the bees as they enter the new hive. The new
frames should contain strips of comb founda-
tion from one-fourth to 1 inch wide. Full
sheets are not desirable, and if combs built on
full sheets of foundation are desired they
may be built later.

Operation. — ^^The old hive containing the dis-
eased colony (Fig. 6, A) is now lifted to one
side out of the flight of returning field bees,
and the clean hive (B) set exactly in its place.
The cover (G) is now taken off and a few
frames (E) removed from the center of the
hive. If unspaced frames are used, those re-
maining in the hive should be pushed tightly
to either side of the hive, thus making a bar-
rier beyond which the bees can not crawl as
they move to the top of the hive after shak-
ing. This largely prevents them from getting
on the outside of the hive. If self-spacing
frames are used, a couple of thin boards laid
on the top-bars on either side will accomplish
the same result. The runway (D) is put in
place in front of the entrance. The old hive
is now opened for the first time. The frames
are removed one at a time, lowered part way
into the new hive, and with a quick downward
shake the bees are dislodged. The frames are
then put into the extra hive body (C) and im-
mediately covered to prevent robbing. After
all the frames are shaken the bees remaining
on the sides of the old hive (A) are shaken
out.

If honey is coming in freely, so that thin
honey is shaken out of the combs, cover the
runway (D) with newspapers and shake the
bees in front of the new hive (B), leaving all
frames in place and the cover on. After the
operation the soiled newspapers should be de-
stroyed. In shaking in front of the entrance

Apparatus for the shaking treatment: A, Hive containing diseased colony (formerly in position of BV
B, clean hive; C, empty hive to receive combs after shaking; D, hive cover used as runway- E frames re
moved from B to give room for shaking; F, queen and drone trap; G, cover for clean hive b' '

the first one or two frames should be so shaken
that the bees are thrown against the entrance,
where they can locate the hive quickly. They
then fan their wings and the others follow
them into the hive. If this is not done the
bees may wander about and get under the
hive or in some other undesirable place.

After the bees are mostly in the new hive a
queen and drone trap (F) or a strip of per-
forated zinc is -placed over the entrance to
prevent the colony from deserting the hive.
The queen can not pass thru the openings in
the perforated zinc and the workers will not
leave without her. By the time that new
combs are built and new brood is ready to be
fed, any contaminated honey carried by the
bees into their new hive will have been con-
sumed and the disease will rarely reappear.
If it should, a repetition of the treatment will
be necessary.

Saving the Healthy Brood. — The old combs
are now quickly removed. If several colonies
are being treated at one time it may pay to
stack several hive bodies containing contam-
inated combs over a weak diseased colony to
allow most of the healthy brood to emerge,
thereby strengthening the weak colony. [Un-
less there is a heavy flow of honey at the time,
the entrance to this colony should be con-
tracted for robbers would be apt to spread the
disease. — Ed.] After 10 or 12 days this col-
ony is treated in turn and all the combs ren-
dered into wax. If only one or two colonies
in a large apiary are being treated it will not
pay to do this.

Saving the Wax. — Any but a very small
apiary should have included in its equipment
a wax-press for removing wax from old combs.
After the contaminated frames are taken to
the honey-house the combs should be kept
carefully covered, so that no bees can reach
them until the wax can be rendered. This
should not be delayed very long or the combs
may be ruined by wax-moths. The slumgum
or refuse remaining after the wax is removed
should be burned. Contaminated combs should
not be put into a solar wax-extractor for fear
of spreading the disease. The wax from con-
taminated combs may safely be used for the
manufacture of comb foundation.

Cleaning the Hive. — The hive which has
contained the diseased colony should be thoro-

ly cleaned of all wax and honey, and it is de-
sirable that it be carefuUy disinfected by
burning out the inside with a common gaBO-
line blue-flame torch. If this piece of appara-
tus is not available several hive bodies may
be piled together on a hive bottom and some
gasoline or kerosene poured on the sides and
on some straw or excelsior at the bottom. This
is then ignited; and after burning for a few
seconds a close-fitting hive cover is placed on
top of the pile to extinguish the flames. The
inside of the hive bodies should be charred to
a light brown. The careful cleaning and dis-
infection of frames always costs considerably
more in labor than new frames would cost, but
these may also be carefuly cleaned and used
again. Frames may be cleaned by boiling in
water for about half an hour, but this fre-
quently causes them to warp badly. The dis-
infection of hives and frames with chemicals
is not recommended, as the ordinary strengths
used are valueless for the purpose.

_ Disposal of the Honey. — If there is a con-
siderable quantity of honey in the contam-
inated combs, it may be extracted. This honey
is not safe to feed to bees without boiling,
but it is absolutely safe for human consump-
tion. If there is a comparatively small quan-
tity it may be consumed in the beekeepers 's
family, care being taken that none of it is
placed so that the bees can ever get it.

To place such honey on the market is con-
trary to law in some States. There is always
danger that an emptied receptacle will be
thrown out where bees can have access to it,
thus causing a new outbreak of disease. It
can be safely used for feeding to bees pro-
vided it is diluted with at least an equal vol-
ume of water to prevent burning, and boiled
in a closed vessel for not less than one-half
hour, counting from the time that the diluted
honey first boils vigorously. The honey will
not be sterilized if it is heated in a vessel set
inside of another containing boiling water.
Boiled honey can not be sold as honey. It is
good only as a food for bees, and even then
should never be used for winter stores, as it
will probably cause dysentery.

The Second Shake. — Some beekeepers pre-
fer to shake the bees first on to frames con-
taining strips of foundation as above de-
scribed, and in four days to shake the colony

FOUL BROOD

321

a second time on to full sheets of foundation,
destroying all comb built after the first treat-
ment. This insures better combs than the use
of strips of foundation, but is a severe drain
on the strength of the colony. Since it is de-
sirable to have combs built on full sheets, the
best policy is to replace any irregular combs
with full sheets of foundation or good combs
later in the season.

The Cost of Shaking. — If the treatment just
described is given at the beginning of a good
honey flow, it is practically equivalent to arti-
ficial swarming, and results in an actual in-
crease in the surplus honey, especially in the
case of comb-honey production. The wax ren-
dered from the combs will sell for enough to
pay for the foundation used if full sheets of
foundation are employed. Since a colony so
treated actually appears to work with greater
vigor than a colony not so manipulated, the
cost of treatment is small. If treatment
must be given at some other time, so that the
colony must be fed, the cost is materially in-
creased. In feeding, it is best to use sugar
syrup, or honey that is known to have come
from healthy colonies.

FALL TREATMENT.

If it is necessary to treat a colony so late
in the fall that it would be impossible for the
bees to prepare for winter, the treatment may
be modified by shaking the bees on to combs
entirely full of honey so that there is no place
for any brood to be reared. This will usually
be satisfactory only after brood-rearing has
entirely ceased. Unless a colony is quite
strong, it does not pay to treat in the fall,
but it should be destroyed or united to an-
other colony. In case a diseased colony dies
outdoors in the winter there is danger that
other bees may have opportunity to rob the
hive before the beekeepers can close the en-
trance. In case bees are wintered in the cel-
lar it is more advisable to risk wintering be-
fore treatment, for if the colony does die the
hive will not be robbed.

DRUGS.

Many European writers have in the past
advocated the use of various drugs for feed-
ing, in sugar syrup, to diseased colonies, or
the fumigation of contaminated combs. In
the case of American foul brood, of which the
cause is known, it has been found that the
drugs recommended are not of the slightest
value.

Advantages and Objections to Shaking.

This treatment has been used very wide-
ly because if no attempt is made to save
the brood, the treatment may be completed
at one operation. There is the chance,
however, that bees of other colonies may
gain access to some of the diseased honey
accidentally shaken out; and also that

11

some of the bees from the diseased colony
may become gorged with honey and then
enter other hives, thus spreading the dis-
ease. Especially is this true in case the
hives are placed too near each other.

Treatment with Bee-escape.

A plan of treating American foul brood
which is less expensive, less exhausting on
the bees, and more certain in its results
than the usual shaking plan, is a simple
method involving the use of a bee-escape;
but there are two methods which make use
of the bee-escape, and these should not be
confused.

In one case the old hive is placed over
the new one with the bee-escape between.
In the other the old hive is placed to one
side of the new one, and the escape at-
tached to the entrance of the old hive. The
latter is the one we recommend. The for-
mer has a number of objectionable feat-
ures. When the bees are confined above a
bee-escape in foul-brood treatment, the es-
cape is about certain to become clogged
with dead bees. The bees of the diseased
hive then, in their efforts to escape from
their imprisonment, raise the temperature
of the hive to such an extent that often-
times the combs melt and honey runs down
the sides of the hive. This is soon found
by robbers, and thus the disease spreads.
Even if the escape does not become clogged,
the employment of this method makes it
impossible for the beekeeper to examine
the lower colony at any time while the dis-
eased colony is above, and the diseased col-
ony would have to stay in place for at least
three weeks in order to allow all of the
brood to hatch. The reason that the upper
story could not be removed to examine the
lower is that at the least jar the bees from
the diseased hive above would load up with
diseased honey, and store this honey in the
cells of the new hive, thus spreading the
disease below.

The second treatment we recommend has
none of these objections, and is as simple
and successful as any treatment we have
tried.

In order that the bees may become ac-
customed to the changed appearance of
their surroundings, a few days before ap-
plying the treatment, it is well to place an
empty hive with its entrance parallel to the

322

FOUL BROOD

left side of the hive containing the dis-
eased bees and extending a few inches in
front of the other entrance. A few days
later, during the time of day when they are
still flying strongly, the queen is removed
and caged and a bee-escape which is fas-
tened to the end of a tin tube is inserted
at the left end of the entrance, the rest of
the entrance being securely stopped up so
there is no room for the escape of any bees

The upper figure represents the tin tube (B) with three
lugs (C) into which the bee-escape (A) is inserted.
The end (D) of the tube is somewhat flattened to
make possible its insertion in the entrance. The lower
figure shows the tube and escape connected and at-
tached to the hive. The bees m leaving the hive follow
the line of arrows thru the tube and thru round
opening (E) of the escape, then up the length of the
escape and finally leave thru the opening between the
two springs at F.

except thru the bee-escape. This hive is
now placed in the position formerly occu-
pied by the empty hive, the latter being
placed on the old stand and filled with
frames containing full sheets of founda-
tion. The caged queen is also left in this
new hive, where she is soon joined by the
field bees who are returning in great num-
bers to what they believe to be their old
home.

The tin tube holding the bee-escape ex-
tends out in front of the new entrance so
that bees leaving the old hive leave from
the same relative position as before, and

Arrangement after the exchange of hives has been
made. A is new hive on old stand and contains
frames of foundation and the caged queen which is
soon released. B is the diseased colony, the bees
of which leave thru the tube and bee-escape. On
returning- they enter the hive A not knowing the
hives have changed positions.

therefore do not realize that the hives have
changed places, and consequently will not
attempt to return to the old hive but will
unhesitatingly enter the hive with the
queen. After a large number of bees have
returned the queen should be liberated.
Altho there are no brood nor larvae present,
it is very seldom that the colony will swarm
out. If this is feared, however, a queen-
excluder may be placed under the hive.
Within two or three days it sometimes hap-
pens that dead bees clog the escape, in
which case the cage should be detached
from its groove in the end of the tube, and
the bees removed, care being taken not to
jar the old hive, for if jarred after the
foundation is drawn in A, the disease
would be spread to hive A. At the time
of applying the treatment bees gorged with
diseased honey may enter hive A but we
have never found the disease spread in this
way for at that time A contains only foun-
dation and the bees either use up the honey
or convert it into comb.

The chances are that no bees will clog the
tube if the tube is elevated a short distance
from the bottom-board. This may be ac-
complished by placing between hive B and
its bottom-board a two-inch rim, and in-
serting the tube in a hole in this rim, the
inner end of the tube being just flush with
inside of the hive.

Just before dark, two or three weeks
later, when most of the brood has hatched,
the few straggling bees that may be left in
the old hive may be sulphured thru a small
opening at the entrance, care being taken
not to allow the escape of a single bee. The
combs may then be rendered, the frames
and the few dead bees burned, and the in-
side of the hive, the entrance, and the
alighting-board, scorched by means of gas-
oline and straw, charring to a light brown.

In very hot climates it may be advisable
to provide special ventilation for the old
hive in order to prevent the combs from
melting down. In this case an empty
super and double screen may be placed
over the colony. If only a single screen is
used, the bees may pass diseased honey
thru the screen to other bees. Except in
very hot climates this arrangement is un-
necessary and unwise for it should be re-
membered that nearly all of the bees are in
the new hive and a mere handful are left
taking care of the brood in the old one.

FOUL BROOD

323

This method is a veiy safe one, since
there is no disturbance at the tiime of the
treatDient and no chance for spreading dis-
ease hj means of the honey or bees. The
bees entering the new hive are not bees that
have been smoked, and are therefore not
gorged with diseased honey, but are field
bees bringing in uncontaminated stores,
straight from the flowers. At first thought
it might seem possible that the young bees
from the old hive might carry the disease to
the new hive; but apparentlj^ they carry
no honey with them, for we have yet to
learn of their spreading the disease in this
way.

FORiyiALDEHTDE FOR CUEIXG FOUL BROOD.

In 1903 and '4 discussion arose in Glean-
ings as to the possible value of formalde-
hyde (or formalin) for curing American
foul brood. Some of the experimenters
who had subjected several combs of honey
and brood from infected colonies to the
fumes of the gas in a tight box reported it
a success. Others tried the same thing only
to find that such combs would transmit the
disease the same as before. Experiments
conducted in the Bureau of Entomology,
Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C, showed that, when combs were sub-
jected to the fumes of gas for 48 hours in a
y^OYj anaerobic jar, all germs of the dis-
ease would be destroj'ed; but as the aver-
age beekeeper could not have the requisite
facilities, skill, and knowledge to carry on
such work, he had better not take his
chances of transmitting any infectious dis-
ease thi'u combs fumigated under condi-
tions such as he is able to provide. In aU
probabilitj' the work would not be com-
plete enough to make disinfection sure. If
any infection at aU were left, the disease
would spread again, and so the work might
just as well have not been done — or not at-
tempted; because melting up the combs
and boiling, or, better, burning up the
frames, would remove all possible traces of
disease.

EUROPEAN FOUL BROOD
DIFFERENTIATED.

As we have already explained, this is a
disease that has some symptoms that are
the same as those of American foul brood;
but it has other symptoms that are quite
different. In its general appearance, espe-

cially in its advanced stages, a comb af-
fected will look somewhat like that of
American foul brood; but a more careful
examination will show a decided difference.

1. Larvae affected with European foul
brood in its fii'st stages are not usually
ropy, but when they do rope the thread is
coarser and does not string out as far.
American will often rope from four to six
inches in a fine thi-ead near the end. The
dead matter of European has more of a
jellylike consistencj'; and, if it clings to a
toothpick, the roping is coarse and will not
extend more than an inch or two at most
and then breaks like a rotten rubber band.

2. European in its fii'st stages comes on
mainly in the early part of the season, and
it is confined largely to the unsealed brood.
The dead larvae fii^st turn gray, then light
yellow. Sometimes a yellow spot shows in
the center of the grub before it turns yel-

Typical European Foul Brood. — First stages.

low all over. It does not finally assume a
shapeless melted-down mass as we find it
in the American disease. It retains its
shape without a break in the skin, finally
shiveling up hito a dry scale which the
bees easily remove. The di'ied scales on
American foul brood, on the contrary, stick
to the side of the ceU like so much glue;
and it is very easy to detect combs prev-
iously affected with this disease, altho it
may be a year or so afterward, because
the lower sides of the ceU look as tho
they had been daubed over with some sort
of gluey substance with a remnant of lar-
val skin.

3. The ordinary gluepot or foul-brood
odor is almost entii-ely lackuig ia combs af-

324

FOUL BROOD

feeted with European foul brood. There is,
in place of it, a sour, musty, or rotten-egg
smell that is not as easily recognized as the
odor of the other brood disease. In the
later stages it takes a dead meat or car-
rion odor with a suggestion of ammonia, in
which stage the sour smell seems to be lost
or obscured by the more pronounced odor
of decay. The color of European foul
brood in its earlier stages is a yellow or
gray or combinations of these two colors.
Later the yellow and gray change to quite
a dark brown.

4. European foul brood seems to spread
much more rapidly than American.- If an
apiary is affected at all, more colonies will
be involved; but in the American disease,
honey seems to be the main source of infec-
tion. In the European type, honey may be
the source, but certainly it does not seem to
be the only means for its transmission.

5. Black and hybrid bees are much more
subject to the ravages of European foul
brood. If the disease is not too far ad-
vanced, the mere introduction of a vigorous
strain of young Italian queens may cure
the whole apiary. There are some locali-
ties in New York and Virginia wh-ere Ital-
ian apiaries are surrounded by apiaries of
black and hybrid bees; and yet the re-
markable fact is that these Italian yards
are almost entirely free from disease while
the yards of common bees around them are
affected with it in spite of treatment by
shaking.

6. There also seems to be a general agree-
ment among authorities that weak colonies
are the ones that are first attacked by Eu-
ropean. It is important, where this dis-
ease gets into a yard, that all the weak
colonies be doubled up ; for it is only the
strong and extra strong that are able to
combat it, even when they are given every
assistance possible on the part of the owner.

7. Again, it has been noticed that, as
soon as a good honey flow is on, European
foul brood begins to disappear ; and some-
times as soon as there is a dearth of honey
it breaks out again, particularly when
brood-rearing is well under way in the
spring, for that is the time of the year
when it usually makes itself manifest.

8. In the case of American foul brood it
has been proven that combs of honey are
sources of infection. While all the honey
could be extracted out of the combs, it has

been demonstrated over and over again that
it is impossible for a colony of bees to re-
move the germs by any process, for the
simple reason that the dead matter sticks
like glue to the sides and bottoms of the
cells. On the other hand, the combs of
European foul brood, because the dried
larvas do not stick, can be readily cleaned
up by a vigorous colony of Italians and
used over again. Before they have been
cleaned up they may transmit the disease.*
Hybrids and blacks, for some reason, do
not effect this clean-up ; and hence it is
either necessary to melt up the combs, or,
better, Italianize.

To recapitulate, combs of American foul
brood must be melted up or burned. Combs
of European foul brood need not necessari-
ly be destroyed, and can be used again,
when given the proper environment. In
the last stages of European where the
combs are rotten the combs should be
melted up or burned.

9. American foul brood seems to be no
respecter of persons, or, more exactly, no
respecter of strains or races. European
foul brood, in the first stages on the other
hand, yields rapidly to a resistant strain
of Italians without the destruction of
combs. But not all Italians are equally
resistant. Some strains, especially the yel-
low, inbred until their vitality has been
weakened, are no better than the ordinary
blacks and hybrids.

It seems to be apparent that bees that
are good workers, and stand wintering
well, are usually found to be very resistant
to European foul brood, altho the rule does
not universally hold true. When Italians,
therefore, are spoken of as "resistant," it
should be remembered that there are Ital-
ians and Italians — some better than others.

10. While the shaking or brushing on to
frames of foundation in clean hives is al-

* I think the disease will not be transmitted by a
diseased larva even tho still undried, ?'/ it is so far de-
cayed that the nurse bees will not eat it. By the way,
this theory, original with me, has never been advanced
by any one else, and, as it has never been objected to
by any one, it is safe to say that it is the best theory
yet advanced to explain how the disease is conveyed,
and at the same time to explain how and why the de-
queening or caging cures. Here's the theory in brief:
When a diseased larva dies, the nurses suck its juices,
feed them to the young larvae, and thus the disease
is transmitted ; but after the diseased larvae become
so far decayed as to be offensive, the nurses will no
longer suck their juices, but leave them to become
dried, or remove them without sucking them. So a
break in brood-rearing that leaves no longer any eat-
able diseased larvae stops the continuance of the dis-
ease.— C. C. Miller.

FOUL BROOD

325

most sure to cure American foul brood, it
is only partially effective with European.
In many cases, European foul brood will
reappear after shaking. It is, therefore,
apparent that, if shaking is employed, ad-
ditional curative measures must be applied
— doubling up and requeening.

CONFUSING SYMPTOMS OF AMERI-
CAN AND EUROPEAN FOUL
BROOD EXPLAINED.

For some time the beekeepers of Califor-
nia, as well as other parts of the United
States, have been greatly confused by a
disease that appeared to be American foul
brood, and yet yielded to European foul-
brood treatment. This even led some bee-
keepers to believe the two diseases identical.

Being greatly interested in these new
symptoms, the author, while in California
in 1919, succeeded in getting Dr. Phillips
to send his bacteriologist, Mr. Sturtevant,
to investigate the matter. After spend-
ing some time there he came to the follow-
ing tentative conclusions.

In American foul brood he almost never
found more than one organism, Bacillus
larvae^ the cause of the disease — a fact that
accounts for the usual uniformity of symp-
toms of this disease. The germ is charac-
teristic in appearance. Under conditions
unfavorable to its active growth it forms a
small egg-shaped resultant body or "spore,"
which resists drying and high temperatures.
Under favorable conditions the germ kills
the larva in a peculiar manner, leaving the
trachea and chitinous parts intact and mak-
ing a gluey substance of the soft parts.
This causes the characteristic sliminess or
ropiness, and, later on, adherence of the
scale to the cell wall. The gluepot, or, as
Mr. Sturtevant says, the fish-glue odor, is
also quite characteristic. However, it is
now found that there may be stages where
the larvae may not have been dead long
enough to have developed the characteristic
ropiness and adherence to the cell wall. At
this stage the partly dried-down mass may
not have even the characteristic odor, nor
adhere to the cell wall, thus leading to the
belief that the disease may be European
foul brood.

The dead larva of European in the un-
sealed cells can usually be distinguished
from the dead larva of American in un-

sealed cells, by the position which it takes.
The former may be coiled in the bottom of
the ceU, or it may be extended, lying more
or less irregularly, somewhat diagonally in
the cell. A careful examination wiU show
the cell.

Again, in the case of American there
may be found pupae, (almost fully devel-
oped bees) lying on their backs, with their
tongues extended out and pointing up-
ward. Sometimes the end of the tongue
will be stuck to the upper side of the cell.
Sometimes it will project upward only
about half way. These dead pupae with
projecting tongues are never found in
European foul brood; and their presence
in any comb showing the general symp-
toms of American, is a strong indication
of American. When one finds almost every
cell of the dead matter will rope, here and
there dead pupae with their tongues pro-
jecting upward, and especially if he finds
scales that adhere tightly, he may con-
clude that he has American.

The germ causing European foul brood,
Bacillus pluton, does not form these re-
sistant spores. The germ also seems to be
less active in the way it decomposes the
dead larvae. According to Sturtevant, in
European foul brood along with the or-
ganization that kills the healthy larvae may
often be found several secondary germs
having no relation to the cause of the dis-
ease, but simply causing the larvge to de-
compose. There is one organism in par-
ticular. Bacillus alvei, originally supposed
to be the cause of the disease, which is
often associated with European foul brood
in large numbers. It appears that, the
more of these organisms there are present
after Bacillus pluton kills the larvae, the
more the appearance will change. Instead
of the typical moist melting stage of the
disease there are found, due to the action
of the Bacillus alvei, more and more larvae
that have not died until after they have be-
come capped. In this stage it is often diffi-
cult to distinguish European from Ameri-
can foul brood, as the dead larvae may, be-
fore they dry down, show a tendency to
sliminess, to rope somewhat, and develop
the coffee-brown color. However, the way
they rope is different from the characteris-
tic fine thread of the American. It is
coarser, at times lumpy, and too moist to

326

FOUL BROOD

stretch far; also, as it becomes a little
more dried it will stretch like an old rubber
band ; and in breaking, instead of snapping
back it will remain stretched out. At this
time the mass has a very disagreeable
spoiled-meat odor. If, however, the case is
watched for a few days longer, allowing the
dead material to dry down, it will be found
that these masses which generally lie very
irregularly in the cells may be easily re-
moved entire, while in the case of American
foul brood it is practically impossible to
remove an entire scale. Furthermore, in-
stead of being brittle, like the American
scale, these irregular masses will bend like
a piece of old rubber.

Owing to the fact that European foul
brood has been so neglected in California,
due to the custom of treating for American,
Bacillus alvei, the secondary decomposing
organism, has increased to such numbers
that it has changed some of the symptoms
of the disease, in its last stages particular-
ly. Therefore it is not safe to jump to
conclusions too hastily in the case of the
brood diseases, since there are stages at
which it is very difficult to differentiate
without the aid of a microscope. If it is
impossible to get a microscopic diagnosis,
Mr. Sturtevant recommends that the best
plan is to treat the case vigorously as if it
were European foul brood by dequeening
the colony and then watching developments.
This kind of treatment with good Italian
stock, and making the colonies strong, is
good beekeeping, disease or no disease, and
the only way to secure a crop. If it is
European foul brood it will clean up under
this arrangement. If it is American foul
brood it will not clean up, and soon the
definite characteristic appearances will de-
velop. This wiU eliminate the melting-up
of combs in European foul brood, and is
the safest course to pursue where European
is known to be prevalent.

To recapitulate, we would state that, so
far, it is apparent from Mr. Sturtevant's
investigation that there are only two brood
diseases the same as we have heretofore
known. In the American foul brood no
new development has arisen. The Euro-
pean, however, takes a later stage some-
what resembling American. At first all the
symptoms that heretofore have been given
for European appear. Later on, if noth-
ing is done to effect a cure a secondary or-

ganism. Bacillus alvei, comes in and modi-
fies the symptoms to such an extent that
European takes on the form similar to
American, but yields to the treatment of
European. The Bacillus alvei apparently
slows up the action of the Bacillus pluton,
which is the real cause of European, so
that the dead matter appears mainly in the
sealed cells, while the unsealed larvas look
a little like the dead larvae of American.

TEEATMENT AND CURE OF EUEOPEAN FOUL
BROOD.

Before proceeding to the actual cure of
a colony after the disease has been con-
tracted, it should be stated that good bee-
keeping, according to the Government offi-
cials, makes it very difficult for European
foul brood to get a start. This is only an-
other way of saying that prevention is bet-
ter than cure. Good beekeeping means
strong colonies of good bees. Not only
that, but they should be strong in the
spring. In order to have such colonies it
means good wintering; and good winter-
ing, in the Northern States at least, implies
an abundance of stores and protection.
This protection, if the bees are wintered
outdoors, may be in the form of double-
walled hives, or winter cases described
under the head of " Wintering Outdoors "
at the close of this work. In connection
with this protection there should also be
a good windbreak. Protection may also
mean putting the bees in a good cellar, the
essentials of which are described under
" Wintering in Cellars."

In the milder climates, strong colonies in
the spring means a larger amount of stores
relatively to the colony; because when the
bees can fly two or three times a week,
many old bees are lost in the fields, never
veturning. The others that do return with
nectar and pollen start breeding, and this
calls for a large reserve of stores — at least
double the amount required in the colder
States. The author is convinced that a
moderate amount of packing could be given
to advantage in addition.

In California and in many of the warm
States, the colonies are so reduced by want
of stores and suitable protection that Euro-
pean foul brood is getting in its deadly
work. Until better methods of beekeeping
are practiced, the European form of foul
brood will continue to make its way.

FOUL BROOD

327

Dr. E. F. PhiUips of the Bureau of En-
tomology, Washington, D. C, has made the
statement that European foul brood may
be a blessing in disguise to the good bee-
keeper. It will eliminate the careless and
the incompetent, leaving the man who main-
tains a good strain of bees, preferably
Italians, and who believes in a large amount
of stores and protection, in complete pos-
session of the field.

The purpose of this work, and of other
works and journals on bee culture, is to
make better beekeepers. While good bee-
keeping will not resist the encroachments
of American foul brood, it will make it
next to impossible for European to get a
very serious foothold. The author has vis-
ited many apiaries of good beekeepers Avho
are situated in localities where European
foul brood was all around them, and yet
these men, by keeping their colonies strong,
particularly so in the spring, have very lit-
tle trouble with this form of the disease.

In the treatments now about to be given
for the cure of European foul brood, after
it once finds lodgment, it will be seen that
the fundamentals are strong colonies ; de-
queening to allow the bees to clean up the
infected material, and requeening with a
resistant strain. Before we proceed to the
exact details of treatment, the history of
how the best methods were discovered is
important.

In 1899 and the early 1900's, when Eui'o-
pean foul brood was known in New York as
a foul brood that was different from the old-
fashioned kind, the shaking method was
applied exclusively. It was soon discov-
ered that the disease was continually com-
ing back. Later it was learned that shak-
ing was effective in most Italian colonies.
Then it was discovered that some Italians
were more resistant than others. Finally
the inspectors advised that shaking and
Italianizing should be applied. If colonies
were not strong it was recommended to
double up until they were. Then a few
beekeepers began to notice that the mere
introduction of a resistant strain of Ital-
ians would effect a cure.

In 1904 E .W. Alexander of Delanson,
N. Y., referred to in many places in this
work, reported to the author that one of his
neighbors had blundered upon a cure which
he thought was effective. At that time he
was not prepared to state whether it would

bring about a cure or not ; but after he had
experimented with it on some 500 colonies
he gave out what has since been called the
Alexander cure, and which is now the basis
of all the modern methods of treatment for
the European foul brood. In brief the Al-
exander treatment is as follows :

Every diseased colony in the apiary not
very strong is doubled up or united with
other weak colonies until all are made
strong. In some cases building up or
strengthening of the weak can be effected
by taking frames of hatching brood from
the stronger and giving them to the weaker.
The next procedure is to remove the queen
from every infected colony, and in nine
days destroy every mature queen-cell, or
any virgin if hatched. In the meantime a
quantity of cells are to be reared from the
best Italian breeder in the yard. These
ceUs, when ripe, are given to the colonies
made queenless 20 days before. During
this interim of queenlessness the bees clean
out the combs, polish up the cells, and when
the new queen starts laying, which will be
on the 27th day, approximately, the new
brood ^T.11 be healthy from that time on.
It is not necessary to remove any combs
from the hives nor apply any kind of dis-
infection. The old queens that were re-
moved in the first place are to be destroyed.

In a series of articles which Mr. Alexan-
der wrote defending his treatment — for he
encountered all sorts of opposition from
those who failed — ^he laid strong emphasis
on the importance of making all colonies
extra strong, using a vigorous resistant
strain of Italians and keeping the colony
queenless for at least 20 days, at the end of
which time a ripe queen- cell or a virgin
just hatched was to be given.

Large numbers were successful in apply-
ing the treatment. Others failed; but for
what reasons it is not known unless they
did not follow directions or were unfortu-
nate in not securing the right strain of
Italians. There is another possible reason.
When European foul brood is scattered all
thru an apiary it is important that every
colony be treated at the same time. In this
way aU sources of infection in the yard are
removed before the new queens begin to
lay. When some colonies are treated at one
time and some another there is a constant
source of infection.

328

FOUL BROOD

S. D. House of Camillus, N. Y., told the
author that a vigorous strain of Italians
would almost alone clean out European
foul brood after the colony had been queen-
less for a period. He showed colony after
colony that had been rotten with the dis-
ease, and which at the time of our visit
were entirely free of it. He stated that
European foul brood was rampant aU
around him in the black and hybrid colo-
nies. In spite of the fact that it was with-
in reach of his bees he had no fear of it.
He wrote a series of articles for Gleanings
in Bee Culture in 1911, and among them
was one, on page 330, giving his method of
treatment that is similar to Alexander's.
This attracted considerable attention at the
time. The editor of Gleanings was severe-
ly criticised by some of the State inspectors
for giving publicity to such heresy; but
old Father Time has demonstrated that Al-
exander and Mr. House were nearly right.

In later years European foul brood broke
out in the apiary of Dr. C. C. Miller of
Marengo, 111., an authority referred to in
many places in this work. The author ad-
vised him to follow the Alexander or the
House treatment, which he did, with marked
success. By accident he discovered that it
was not necessary to have the colonies
queenless more than ten days. That a vig-
orous strain of bees would do a good clean-
up job in the period named. After exper-
imenting with the disease for two or three
years he finally announced the following
modified Alexander-House-Miller treat-
ment, that -is much the same as that used
by S. D. House. Dr. Miller says :

First, no matter whether the case be severe
or mild, make the colony strong. In a severe
ease, kill the queen; and as soon as the colony
recognizes its queenlessness, say within 24
hours, give a ripe queen-ceU, or, immediately
at the time of killing the queen, give a virgin
not more than a day old or a cell in a pro-
tector. That's all; the bees will do the rest.
In a mild ease, make the colony strong, and
cage the queen in a hive for a week or ten
days — only that. But don't expect the dis-
ease to be at once and forever stamped out.
Last year I had the disease in a mild form in
about one colony in four; this year in about
one in twenty.

It will be noticed that Dr. Miller, like
Mr. Alexander, emphasized the importance
of makiQg all colonies strong, either in the
treatment of a severe case or a mild one.
Later on, after considerable discussion, he
added this :

A correspondent asks, ''What do you do to
save the combs V Nothing. Just use them
the same as if there had been no disease.
Vigorous bees with a vigorous queen wiQ clean
them out. Spores may be left, and here and
there the disease may break out again ; but in
the long run the loss wiU be less than if the
combs were destroyed, and possibly the re-
turns of the disease will be no more frequent
than if all combs are destroyed. In my own
apiary I think there were no more fresh out-
breaks where the old combs were left than
where the bees were thrown upon foundation.

A large number have followed Mr. House
and Dr. Miller and have been very success-
ful. This does not mean that every trace
of the disease will be wiped out after treat-
ment, but it does mean that the disease will
be brought so nearly under control that a
case only here and there will show up, and
even then in a very mild form. It is possi-
bly true that some queens of a resistant
strain are not quite so resistant as others.
In that case dequeening for ten days and
requeening again will complete the cure.

Morley Pettit, former provincial apiarist
for Ontario, Canada, carried on some ex-
tensive experiments in the treatment of
European foul brood. His recommendation
is practically the same as that of Dr. Mil-
ler, with this difference : If a colony shows
more than 50 per cent of diseased brood, he
recommends, in addition, shaking.

It is the author's belief that beginners
(if only one or two colonies are involved)
would do well to apply both shaking and
dequeening. The more advanced can fol-
low the Miller plan with comparative safe-
ty. Where the combs are very rotten or
smell of spoiled meat it is advisable to
melt them up. Cases are on record where
such combs, put back into the hive, trans-
mitted disease.

SACBEOOD.

For many years there has been recog-
nized a form of dead brood under the name
of pickled brood that is neither European
nor American foul brood. It comes and
goes at certain seasons, but is never a de-
structive agent like either one of these dis-
eases. Sometimes it has the appearance of
foul brood so far as color is concerned ; but
it is never ropy like the American type;
and, while similar to the European, it sel-
dom gains very much headway in a colony.

It is mildly infectious, and the infected
larvae turn yellow and then brown. Some-

FRAMES

329

times the color is gray. The dead specimens
ma}' be in unsealed cells, but are generally
in the sealed ones. The dead larvaj, says
Dr. White in Circular No. 169, Bureau of
Entomology, are "almost always extended
lengthwise in the cells, and lying with the
dorsal side against the lower wall. . . .
The form of the larvae dead of this disease
changes much less than it does in foul
brood. The body wall is not easily broken,
as a rule, and on this account often the en-
tire larv;B can be removed from the cell in-
tact." . . . "When removed they have
the appearance of a small closed sac. This
j suggests the name of sacbrood."

CAUSE OF SACBROOD.

So far no microbe or fungus has been
discovered as the cause of the disease.
Whatever it is, it is so very small that it
will pass thru a Berkfield filter. Sick and
dead larvae of sacbrood have been macer-
ated and diluted with sterile water. The
product was then passed thru a Berkfield
filter; but it was found that the filtrate
would again give the disease to other colo-
nies. It is evident that the disease is infec-
tious. Dr. White concludes that "sacbrood
is an infectious disease of the brood of
bees caused by an infecting agent that is
so small or of such a nature that it will
pass thru the pores of a Berkfield filter.'^

This led us to the conclusion that the
foul-brood inspectors of the country might
be compelled to quarantine an apiary where
sacbrood might be found; but Dr. E. F.
Phillips, in Charge of Apiculture in the
Bureau, does not think that this would be
necessary. The disease at its worst is not
very destructive; and when it does make
its appearance it affects so few larvae in a
colony that it need cause no great alarm.
While he might at times advise treating or
isolating colonies, he does not believe it
would be necessary to quarantine an apiary
where it was found.

STARVED OR NEGLECTED BROOD.

There is another form of dead brood that
very greatly resembles sacbrood; and that
is, starved or neglected brood. Early in
the spring, when natural pollen is scarce,
and brood-rearing is well under way, some
of the brood will die for the lack of the

nitrogenous element in their food as ob-
tained from pollen. It is starved, not from
a lack of honey, but from a lack of proper
bread-and-milk diet made up of pollen and
honey. Considerable of this dead brood
will be found in the earlj^ spring. The
bees readily pick it out of the cells; and
as soon as natural pollen comes in, the
trouble will disappear.

DEAD BROOD FROM DRONE-LAYING QUEENS OR
LAYING V^^ORKERS.

Under Brood, reference is made to the
fact that drone brood or laying-worker
brood will often be found dead, and a
stinking mass. The cells wiU be perforated,
and the odor will be very much like that
from American foul brood in an advanced
stage. The fact that it does not rope
rather suggests to the inexperienced that it
may be European foul brood; and many
times ABC scholars write us, describing
this trouble, and asking whether it is foul
brood.

The remedy is, of course, to remove the
drone-lajdng queen or break up the laying-
worker colony.

One may rest easy if he finds all worker
brood healthy, and nothing but drone or
laying- worker brood dead.

FOUNDATION.— See Comb Founda-
tion.

FRAMES.— These are devices for hold-
ing combs while in the hive and are some-
times called racks. They make possible
modern manipulation by which every comb
can be inspected, removed, transposed — in
fact, the whole internal economy of the
hive can be determined. The straw skep
and the box hive of olden days had no
frames, nor does the same hive in use to-
day in parts of Europe and the mountain-
ous parts of the United States. See Box
Hives.

As shown under Htves^ Evolution of_,
there were many crude ways of making
combs movable — some better than others.
Perhaps the crudest of all was to cut them
out and put them back again. Later on,
combs were built from single bars. This
necessitated cutting the combs from the
sides of the hive to effect a removal. To
these bars were later attached other bars.

330

FRAMES

making up a complete frame. But such
frames were almost immovable. While they
could be taken out of the hive it required a
great amount of patience and time, to say
nothing about bee-killing.

It remained for the Rev. L. L. Langstroth,
of this country, then a Presbyterian minis-
ter, to discover a principle that would
make every comb or frame removable. To
construct a frame that will inclose a comb
required no great act of invention; but to
make a frame so it could be readily re-
moved from its fellows, without smashing
or irritating bees, required the work of a
genius, and that genius was Langstroth.

Under the head of A B C of Beekeeping,
Hives, Evolution of, and Bee-space, it is
explained that he discovered the principle
of a bee-space — a space that bees respect,
and never fill with comb or bee glue. (See
Bee-space.) Taking advantage of this prin-
ciple, Langstroth saw that, in order to
make his frame movable, he must provide
a bee-space all around. The next problem
that he met was how to support and hold
each frame so that there would be not only
a bee-space all around between it and the
top, bottom, and end of the hive, but also
a bee-space between each and all of the
frames. It is just as important to have
every frame separable from its neighbor
as separable from the hive. This he accom-
plished very nicely by making the top-bar
of his frame long enough to have a projec-
tion at each end. These projections as a
means of support were made to rest in rab-
bets in the upper edge of the ends of the
hive. ( See Hives and A B C of Beekeep-
ing.) Langstroth, therefore, went ahead
of his predecessors in two important points
— in providing a bee-space and in giving a
means of support so that the frames would
not be glued fast to each other nor to the
hive. His predecessors, as will be seen by
a perusal of Hives, Evolution of, made
their frames close-fitting, like drawers in a
bureau, and each frame came in contact
with its neighbor. (See the Huber hive
under Hives, Evolution of.) These early
devices, perhaps, would have been aU right
had it not been for two things — the ever
present bee glue sticking everything fast
with which it came in contact, and the
crushing of the bees whenever parts of the
frames came together. A few crushed bees,
Tiany of them squealing with pain, will in-

furiate a whole colony ; and it is no wonder
that our forefathers resorted to the use of
brimstone and refused to accept the so-
called movable frames that were invented
before Langstroth. The so-called movable
combs of Dzierzon made it necessary to cut
every comb loose. This process necessarily
caused a great deal of dripping honey.
During a dearth of nectar this would cause
robbing. (See Robbing.) When, there-
fore, Langstroth by his great invention of
a really movable frame demonstrated that
he could make every comb movable — that
he could take the hive all apart without
killing a bee and without receiving a sting
• — he revolutionized for all times the meth-
ods for handling bees. While bees always
will sting, and do sting, yet it is now pos-
sible, under favorable conditions and. with
proper use of smoke, to open and examine
a Langstroth hive without receiving a sting.
See Manipulation of Colonies; also see
Stings.

The various crude attempts to make
combs movable are set forth under the head
of Hives, Evolution of. The methods of
adjusting modern Langstroth frames in
modern Langstroth hives are described un-
der Hives and A B C of Beekeeping. -

Langstroth desired to bring out a frame
that would be really movable, and in doing
so went to the limit. His frames had no
point of contact with each other. They
were simply hung or suspended in the hive-
rabbet. They often hung out .of true, and,
worse still, were often badly spaced; but
in spite of all this, many beekeepers prefer
the principle today. There are others who
consider it an advantage to have projec-
tions on the frames, such projections being
a half bee-space beyond the comb. These
self -spacers will always hang true and the
proper distance apart. (See Spacing
Frames.) The advantages of these self-
spacing frames are shown in the article on
Frames^ Self-spaciiJg.

SEZE AND shape OF FRAMES.

There has been endless discussion as to
the best size of frame.. Some prefer one
that is square — approximately a foot wide
and a foot deep. Others consider 12 inches
too great a depth, and prefer to have the
extra comb area extend laterally. A great
majority of modern beekeepers prefer to-

FRAMES, SELF-SPACING

331

day a frame longer than deep, such as we
find in tiie Langstroth dimensions. As the
dimensions of the frame determine the size
and shape of the hive itself, a further con-
sideration of the subject will be found un-
der Hives.

"Whether a frame should be made rever-
sible is discussed under the head of Re-
\^RSixG. Whether a frame should have
the end-bars come in contact the entire
length or only part way is discussed in
the next subject.

FRAMES, SELF-SPACING.— -By these
are meant frames held at certain regular
distances apart by some sort of spacing
device, forming either a part of the frame
itself or a part of the hive. Under Spac-
IXG OF Fraiees, elsewhere, and under Ex-
TRACTixG; we have discussed the distances
that frames should be apart. Some prefer
1% inches from center to center; but the
majority, supported by good reasons, pre-
fer 1% inches. Self -spacing frames, then,
are those that, when put into the hive, are
spaced automatically, either 1% or iVo
mches from center to center. Loose or un-
spaced frames differ from them, in that
they have no spacing device connected with
them, and are, therefore, when placed in
the hive, spaced bj^ eye — or, as some have
termed it, "by guesswork." Such spacing
results in more or less uneven combs; and
beginners, as a rule, make very poor work
of it. The advocates of self -spacing frames
claim that they get even, perfect combs,
comparatively few burr-combs, and that,
without any guesswork, the combs are
spaced accurately and equally distant from

never spaced exactly, often cannot be
hauled to an out-apiar}', over rough roads,
without having sticks between them, or
something to hold them in place.

It is contended by some, also, that spaced
frames can be handled more rapidly. ( See
Frames and Maxipulatiox of Colonies.)
On the other hand, the advocates of the
loose frame urge, as an objection, that the
self-spacers kill the bees. This depends.
The careless operator may kill a good many
bees. If he uses a little common sense, a
little iDatience, applying a whiff or two of
smoke between the parts of the frames that
come in contact, he will not kill any bees.
The fact that some of the most extensive
beekeepers of the world are using self-
spacing frames, and the further fact that
the number of self-spaciag-frame users is
constantly increasing, shows that this sup-
posed bee-kiQing is more fancied than real.
"When frames are handled but two or three
times a year as is now the practice of some
of the best beekeepers, all these objections
lose their force to a large extent.

There are many styles of self-spacing
frames. Those most commonly used in this
country will be described fii'st, and then
some of the others that are now used or
have formerly been used in Europe. Among
the first-mentioned are the closed-end Quin-
by, the Danzenbaker, the Heddon, the Hoff-
man, the thick-top staple-spaced, metal-
spaced Hoffman, and the nail-spaced.

The closed-end Quinby is,, as its name
indicates, one whose end-bars are wide their
entire length. The top and bottom bars
are one inch wide. These closed uprights,
or ends, when thev come in direct contact,

How the Quinbv frame hooks on to the bottom. — From Cheshire.

one another. Self-spacing frames are al-
ways ready for moving, either to an out-
yard, to and from the cellar, or for ordi-
nary carrying around the apiary. Loose
frames, on the contrary, while they are

cause the combs which they contain to be
spaced accurately from center to center.
The. cut at A shows one such frame. Sev-
eral of the closed-end frames are made to
stand, and have very often been called

332

FRAMES, SELF-SPACING

"standing frames." Mr. Quinby, in order
to keep such frames from toppling over,
invented the strap-iron hook on one corner,
as shown re-engraved from Cheshire; h is
the hook that engages the strap iron ip in
the bottom-board; gr is a groove to admit
the hook, and at the same time render it
possible to catch under the strap iron, as
shown in cut on preceding page.

The combined end-bars make the end of
the hive and these hooks are therefore on
the outside of the hive proper, and hence
do not kill bees, nor are they filled with
propolis as they would be if made on the
inside of the hive. A and B (cut preced-
ing page) are respectively the frame and
the follower, altho they are drawn some-
what out of proportion.

The ordinary cLosed-end frames come to-
gether laterally. The Quinby frames may
be placed laterally up against each other;
but the usual practice is to insert them
from the end of the hive, sliding the end-
bars past each other. The movement being
endwise, if it is properly performed, all
bees that may be on the edge of either of
the frames will be brushed aside.

The Quinby frame is a considerable
departure from the Langstroth principle,
because the Quinby hive and frame have no
bee-space back of the end-bars. None is
needed, for the reason that the combined
end-bars make the end of the hive ; but the
frame does have a bee-space above the top-
bars and under the bottom-bars. Without
the top and bottom bee-space Captain J.
E. Hetherington could never have handled
3000 colonies as he did on the Quinby
frame for years in the Mohawk Valley,
New York. P. H. Elwood was, at the time
this was written (1917), using a large
number of colonies on the same frame in
Herkimer Co., New York, and using them
successfully.

With a panel on each side, a cover and
a bottom-board, the Quinby-Hetherington
hive is complete, the ends of the frames
forming the ends of the hive; altho, for
additional protection in the spring the users
have an outside case to set down over the
whole. This makes a very cheap hive that
has many desirable features in it. For
fuller details in regard to this frame and
its manner of construction, the reader
is referred to " Quinby 's New Beekeep-
ing."

THE DANZENBAKER CLOSED END-FRAMES.

Many people prefer what is known as a
"hanging frame," which has decided advan-
tages over the standing frame. The Dan-
zenbaker is a closed-end hanging frame.

Danzenbaker closed-end frames.

The end-bars are pivoted at the center, the
pins resting on hanger cleats secured to the
ends of the hives. These pins make a very
small line of contact, whereas the ordinary
standing closed-end frame resting on tins
secured to the bottom edge at the ends of
the hive will crush a good many bees. The

pins have the further advantage that, if
there is any reduction in the depth of the
hive due to shrinkage, the bee-space above
and below the frames will be affected only
half as much as if the frame were standing.

IMPROVED HOFFMAN FRAMES.

This is a modification of the original
frame used by Julius Hoffman, then of
Canajoharie, N. Y. The top-bars as well
as end-bars had projecting edges at the
ends; but as he used a special hive with-
out a bee-space at the top, that construc-
tion was perfectly practicable. When the
Hoffman-frame principle was applied to
the regular Langstroth hive, with a bee-

FRAMES, SELF-SPACING

333

space on top, it was found that closed top-
bars at the ends were impracticable because
the bees went on top of the frames and
glued the tops together and to the rabbets.
In the Hoffman hives the bees were shut
out from the tops, and, of course, could not
stick the parts together. The modern Hoff-
man frames are, therefore, made having

Improved Hoffman frames.

only the end-bars wide at the top. This
greatly facilitates rapid handling, and pre-
serves at the same time the essential feature
of the original Hoffman by which it was
possible to handle numbers of frames in
lots of two, three, and four at a time, or
space them all at one operation against the
hive side. While the act may kill some
bees, yet this can be avoided by blowing
smoke down between the end-bars, and
shoving the frames all together. In this
respect the modified Hoffman has the great
advantage over the original frame. This
will be shown more clearly imder Feames
and Maxipulatio:^- of Coloxies.

Another feature of this frame is the end-
spacing staple that abuts against the tin
rabbet shown at 6, in the cut. The ends of
the top-bars are cut off so as to leave a
bee-space around them. With the old-style
frames the bees would sometimes glue the
ends of the top-bars to the rabbet. This
objectionable feature has been overcome in
the style shown.

When the top-bar is long enough to
reach and almost come in contact with the
ends of the rabbets, the bees would chink in
bee glue between the ends of the top-bars
and the rabbets. After the ends of all the

frames have been thus glued, it is some-
what difficult to remove any one comb, be-
cause the fastening of each frame must be
loosened before the comb sought can be
lifted out; but when the top-bar is short-
ened, as at 6 in the illustration, and the
staple is used, there is none of this kind of
gluing, the only fastening being that be-
tween the upright edges of the end-bars
themselves ; and this fastening, for the ma-
jority of localities, so far from being a
disadvantage, is useful in that it holds the
frames together while the hives are being
moved, and yet does not hold them so as to
prevent easy handling.

The Hoffman is the most extensively
used self -spacing frame in all the United
States, and there is even a possibility that
it is used more generally than any other
frame whether spaced or unspaced. Most
of the hive-manufacturers supply it as a
part of the regular equipment of their
standard hives.

For details concerning its use, see
Feaz^ies and Maxipulatiox of Coloxies.

^lETAL- SPACED HOFFMAX FRAMES.

All that has been said in favor of the
regular Hoffman will apply with equal
force to the metal-spaced frame here
shown. In some localities where propolis
is ver}' abundant, sticky, or hard, the
wooden projections of the regular Hoff'-

man sometimes split off when the frames
are pried apart. For localities where this
condition prevails the metal-spaced is rec-
oramended. It can be used interchangeably
with the regular Hoffman. The spacers on
this frame are stamped out of metal and
must necessarily be accurate. The form of
its construction in the shape of the letter U
bending over the top-bar projection pre-
vents the latter from breaking thru care-
less handling.

334

FRAMES, SELF-SPACING

Hive-rabbet spacers.

STAPLE-SPACED FRAMES.

There are some others who prefer frames
with staples for side-spacers as here shown.

Others use nails in place of staples; but
the latter with their rounding edges allow
the frames to slide past each other more
readily.

OTHER SELF-SPACING DEVICES.

Various spacing-devices have been sug-
gested at different times. A few of these
are presented here, the reader being left to
judge of their relative merits. It will not
be necessary to describe them in detail, as
the engravings make plain their manner of
construction and use.

It will be noted that there are two kinds
of spacing devices. One is made a part of
the frame and the other a part of the rab-
bet. It would seem at first glance that the
latter would be a very happy solution of
the problem of automatic spacing, as it
would leave the frames without projections
in the way for uncapping ; but the fact is,
rabbet or hive spaces have never been very
popular, and therefore are very little used.
The principal objection to them is that one
cannot move the frames en masse or in
groups, thus saving time in handling the
brood-nest. The advantage of group-han-
dling is made more apparent under Frames
and Ma?^ipulatiox of Colonies.

The very fact that no extensive bee-
keeper is using these self-spacing devices
as a part of the hive, and the further fact
that all others who try them in a small way
sooner or later abandon them, should dis-
courage would-be inventors from wasting
any time over them.

336

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

SELF-SPACIKG FRAMES — ADVANTAGES.

Self-spacing frames make possible
straight, beautiful, and regular combs ; are
practically free from burr-combs; can be
hauled without any special preparation over
the roughest roads, turned upside down,
and rolled over without disturbing the
combs. They permit, to a very great ex-
tent, the handling of hives instead of
frames. Under Frames and Manipula-
tion OF Colonies is shown how frames can
be handled in pairs and trios — in fact, half
a hive at a time. They can also be inverted,
thus causing the combs to be built out sol-
idly to the bottom-bar; and, when once
completed, they can be restored to their
upright normal condition. They can be
handled as rapidly as the loose frame. In-
deed, the late Julius Hoffman of Canajo-
harie, N. Y., when owner of some 600 colo-
nies on Hoffman frames, said he could work
nearly double the number of colonies with
his frame that he could on any frame not
spaced or close-fitting, and he had used
both styles of frames. But not every one
will be able to do this; and very likely
some people would handle them much more
slowly than thev could the loose frames.

self-spacing frames for small
beekeepers.

Whatever may be said regarding the
adaptability of Hoffman frames for the ex-
pert, it is evident that, in almost every
instance, they are better for the beginner,
average farmer beekeeper, or any one who
does not propose to make a specialty of
the bee business, but desires to keep only a
few colonies to supply himself and neigh-
bors with honey. Such persons are apt to
be a little careless, and, with ordinary loose
unspaced frames, make bad spacing. It is
seldom indeed that one can look into the
hives of this class of beekeepers and find
their loose frames properly spaced. In
some instances the combs are so close to-
gether that opposite surfaces are gnawed
down to give the bees sufficient space to
pass between ; and in others they are so far
apart that small patches of comb are built
between. This is because it is an invaria-
ble rule laid down in hive economy, on the
part of the bees, not to leave more than
proper bee-spaces.

FRAMES, TO MANIPULATE. — See

Frames and Manipulation of Colonies.

FRUIT BLOSSOMS. — A very large
amount of nectar is annually gathered by
bees from f mit bloom, apples, pears, plums,
cherries and peaches ; but it is seldom that
more than a small surplus is obtained.
Apple-bloom honey is of great value in
stimulating brood-rearing and in tiding over
a period of scarcity. There is a proverb in
New York State that "As goes apple bloom,
so goes the season." Half a century ago
Moses Quinby of St. Johnsville, N. Y.,
wrote : "In good weather a gain of 20
pounds is sometimes added to the hive dur-
ing the period of apple blossoms." In
1877, at Borodino, N. Y., a surplus of
166% pounds of mostly comb honey per
colony, spring count, was obtained, proba-
bly the largest average of apple-bloom
honey ever recorded. But the weather is
seldom continuously fair at this season:
often it is rainy, cloudy, windy, cool, or
there is even a frost, when instead of a
gain there is a decrease in the stores in the
hives. If there were a larger number of
bees, a much greater quantity of apple-
bloom honey would be gathered. As a rule
the bees do not succeed in getting more
than a living one year in five. Apple-
bloom honey is light in color, a little strong
at first, but acquires, a pleasant aromatic
flavor with age. It granulates about as
quickly as basswood.

A surplus of pear honey is obtained in
California if the weather is warm. At
times the flowers of the pear secrete nectar
so freely that it falls in drops to the ground.
A surplus is also obtained in California
from plums, peaches, and probably from
cultivated cherries. In Florida wild black
cherry {Prunus serotina) yields a surplus
of dark-red, bitter honey with the flavor of
the cherry pit.

spraying during bloom destructive to
bees and brood.

The spraying of fruit trees for the con-
trol of injurious insects and fungi is so
profitable that the practice has become al-
most universal among commercial fruit-
growers and farmers. The quantity of
fruit obtained is larger and the quality is
better. But unless the fruit-grower is ac-

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

337

Apple blossci

quainted with the habits of the injurious
insects affecting his crops the results of
spraying are likely to be very unsatisfac-
tory. Spraying during bloom not only in-
jures the floAvers, but destroys in large
numbers the bees, which are indispensable
for their pollination. Large orchardists
with a spraying equipment too small to
care for the acreage often begin operations
before their trees are out of bloom. An-
other class of offenders are those who make
a business of spraying; and, seeking to
extend their work over as long a time as
possible, spray continuously thruout bloom-
ing time. A third class consists of those
who are ignorant of the harm done by this
practice.

AVheu the trees are sprayed while in
bloom, many bees are killed, much brood
dies and often valuable queens are lost.
Beekeepers in all parts of the country
have reported that as the result of the use
of poisonous spray entire colonies have
been destroyed and others greatly weak-
ened. In 1912 about half the bees in Pecos
VaUey, N. M., were killed in this way. A
smaU apple orchard on the Ohio Experi-
ment Station Farm was sprayed with Bor-
deaux mixture, to which had been added
Paris green at the rate of 4 ounces to 50
gallons of the mixture. Three colonies of
bees were located near by. A few days
later one colony suddenly became extinct
and a second greatly reduced in numbers,

338

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

dead bees being abundant in both hives.
Chemical analj^sis showed the presence of
arsenic in the dead bees.

Experiments conducted at the Cornell
and the Geneva Experiment Stations showed
that the spraying of trees in full bloom de-
cidedly injured the blossoms. The poison
retarded or checked the development of the
pollen and was harmful to the stigma. Pol-
len placed in a thin syrup, about the con-
sistency of nectar, to which was added a
quantity of ordinary spraying liquid, failed
to grow. The fruit-grower can not afford
to injure the delicate reproductive organs
of the flowers. Moreover, spraying when
the trees are in bloom, says the Vermont
Experiment Station, is entirely useless; it
is a waste of both time and spraying
material.

SPRAYIISTG FOR THE CODLING MOTH.

The insect which is most important for
the orchardist to control is the apple worm
or codling moth, a pest which may reduce
the crop of sound fruit by one-fourth to
three-fourths. The moths emerge from their
cocoons during the month of June. The
minute whitish eggs are laid partly on the
leaves and partly on the fruit, and hatch
about three weeks after the trees have blos-
somed. The young worm crawls to the blos-
som end and enters the apple, burrowing
into the interior. After feeding for about
four weeks the worm deserts the apple,
and spins its cocoon under the rough bark
or in a sheltered place. The last of July
or early in August the second brood of
moths appear. These moths in turn de-
posit eggs, which in due time hatch, and
the worms enter the apples thru the side.
There are two broods of worms. The sec-
ond brood of worms do not transform to
moths until the following spring after the
trees have bloomed.

There are thus three well-defined periods
when the trees should be sprayed. Spray
for the first time ten days after the drop-
ping of the white petals, while the green
calyx lobes still remain open and the newly
set fruit stands erect. Direct the spray so
that it will fall into the calyx cup and
lodge there, for, as it is at this point that
the worm enters the fruit, it will eat the
poison and die. This first treatment is
more efficient than all subsequent treat-

ments. Spray for the second time about
three weeks after blooming time, when the
eggs of the codling moth are beginning to
hatch. Spray for the third time during the
last of July or early in August when the
second brood is hatching and preparing to
enter the fruit. If in the first and the sec-
ond sprayings Bordeaux mixture is used as
a carrier of the poison, these treatments
wiU prevent apple scab.

HOW BEES ARE KILLED WHEN THE SPRAY
PALLS ON COVER CROPS IN ORCHARDS.

While many commercial orchardists em-
ploy clean cultivation, — i. e., the ground
under the trees is frequently harrowed and
no vegetation is permitted to grow — other
fruit-growers sow cover crops. In many
localities these crops are of great benefit in
protecting the roots of the trees from sun,
wind, and drouth, and in furnishing both
humus and fertilizer. A variety of legumi-
nous plants are grown for this purpose, as
alfalfa, red clover, crimson clover, vetch
and yellow annual sweet clover.

In western Colorado red clover has been
extensively used as a cover crop. Unfortu-
nately for the beekeepers of this State it
blooms as the petals are faUing from the
fruit trees, and remains in bloom for a long
time. The poisonous spray applied to the
trees falls on the flowers of the cover crop,
and bees visiting them are destroyed in im-
mense numbers. In 1914 and 1915 whole
apiaries were destroyed on the western
slope of Colorado, particularly in the vicin-
ity of Montrose, while other colonies were
so weakened that they yielded no financial
return. (In explanation of the visits of
honeybees to red clover, which is a bumble-
bee fiower and under normal conditions
rarely visited by the domestic bee, it has
been suggested that the corolla tubes were
shorter than usual; but the reason is not
certainly known.) The spraying of cover
crops presents a new and serious problem,
the only remedy for which seems to be the
cutting of the cover crop before it blooms
or ploughing it under. Unless protection
can be afi:'orded to beekeepers they will be
compelled to move their bees away from
orchards where the owners allow spraying
to be done at a time when it may fall on
cover crops which are in bloom.

FRUll BLOSSOMS

339

LAWS AGAINST SPRAYING FRUIT BLOOM.

A number of States have passed laws
against spraying fruit bloom, but they have
not proved entirely effective. Where the
penalty is low, from $15 to $50, it is often
ignored, owners of commercial spraying
outfits preferring to pay the fine rather
than to stop work. Beekeepers, moreover,
hesitate to incur the trouble of enforcing
the law. In general, education will be
found more effective than legislation. Self-
interest will prevent a well-informed fruit-
grower from spraying the bloom. Let him
once fully understand that the production
of fruit depends upon the pollination of
the flowers by bees, as explained in the lat-
ter part of this article, and he will be as
eager for their protection as the beekeeper
himself. But there will always be a few
orchardists who will persistently remain
ignorant and who will resent any restraint
on their operations, insisting that the bees
are not injured or are not needed. A few
unprincipled owners of spraying outfits
and ignorant employers may become a
menace to an entire community. An edu-
cational campaign will not suffice in such
cases, and the beekeeper should be pro-
tected by a law imposing heavy penalties
for spraying the bloom of fruit trees, while
provision should be made for its enforce-
ment by a State official.

POLLINATION OF FBUIT BLOOMS

Not infrequently in the past beekeepers
and fruit-growers came in conflict ; the lat-
ter asserted that bees injured the bloom,
punctured the fruit, and interfered with
the packing, and consequenth^ in some cases
they asked the beekeepers to remove their
bees on the plea that they were a nuisance.
The fruit-growers little realized that they
were di'i™g away the agency necessary
for the proper pollination of fruit bloom.
Happily at the present time the two fac-
tions understand that their industries are
mutually dependent. Fruit-growers, indeed,
derive very much more benefit from bees
than the beekeepers themselves, as they
have been repeatedly taught by costly ex-

* In order to understand better the structure of the
flower it is suggested that the reader turn first to
the subject of Pollination of Flowers. It will also
serve to illustrate the different methods of pollination
referred to in this article.

perience. Some years ago a beekeeper in
Massachusetts was obliged to remove bees
from a certain locality on the complaint of
the fruit-growers that they were a nuisance ;
but after a year or two had passed they
were very glad to have the bees back again,
because so little fruit set on the trees in
proportion to the bloom. The beekeeper
was recalled; and, as was to be expected,
not only more but finer fruit was produced.

The practical application of the discovery
of the agency of insects in the pollination
of flowers in the cultivation of fruits and
vegetables has been of inestimable value to
agriculturists. It can be shown easily that
there are many different kinds of plants
which, in the absence of insects, would re-
main partially or wholly unproductive. In
the work of pollination the services of the
bees, or AntJiopliila (flower-lovers), are the
most important; while among the bees the
honeybees, because of their highly special-
ized pollen-gathering apparatus, great num-
bers, and industry, far surpass all other
species. Fruit orchards cannot be planted
profitably on a very extensive scale without
maintaining in connection with them nu-
merous colonies of honeybees; and it is
estimated by Dr. Phillips, of the Bureau of
Entomology, that beekeeping adds indi-
rectly more to the resources of the country
annually by flower pollination than by the
sale of honey and wax. Several enthusias-
tic horticulturists have even declared that
for all practical purposes in pollination the
honeybee is alone sufficient ; but this asser-
tion must be somewhat modified ; for in the
country as a whole, domestic or hive bee?
are aided hj wild bees, wasps, flies, butter-
flies, and to a less extent by beetles. At the
time of its discovery honeybees did not ex-
ist on the Western Continent, and for many
thousands of years its varied wild flora had
been dependent for pollination on the native
insects, especially the wild bees. Neither
were honeybees found in Australia, New
Zealand, or other Pacific islands when thev
were first visited by Europeans. The in-
digenous insects had in all probability more
or less successfully pollinated the natural
floras of these regions in the absence of the
honeybee. In extensive areas of the unset-
tled wilderness there are still many flowers
which rely chiefly on the wild insects, and
everywhere they are helpful allies of the
fruit-grower.

340

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

But while in every country the indige-
nous insects play an important part in the
pollination of the wild flora, it is neverthe-
less true that modern fruit culture requires
the special agency of the honeybee. In sec-
tions where immense orchards cover many
square miles of territory and fruit is grown
by the ton and carload, the wild insects are
wholly inadequate to pollinate the great ex-
panse of bloom, and many apiaries must be
established to obtain the best results. The
only* pollinating insects under the control
of man are honeybees, and these must be
introduced in large numbers in order to
make fruit-growing commercially profita-
ble. Fruit-growing has a marvelous future
before it, and must ever be associated with
bee culture.

THE NUMBER OF CULTIVATED PLANTS.

Only about 44 species of cultivated plants
were known to the ancient world. In his
"Origin of Cultivated Plants," De Candolle
enumerated 247 species cultivated for their
roots, leaves, flowers, or fruit, of which the
Old World furnished 199, America 45, and
13 were of uncertain origin. While De
Candolle described the majority of plants
most valuable to the human race, Sturtevant
has enumerated in manuscript, according to
Hedrick 1113 domesticated species, which
are cultivated today; and a total of 4447
which are partially edible. Not all culti-
vated plants are pollinated by insects; a
part are pollinated by the wind and a part
are self -fertilized. In order to avoid con-
fusing these different groups it is desirable
to describe briefly the common wind-pol-
linated and exclusively self -pollinated spe-
cies.

CULTIVATED PLANTS POLLINATED BY THE
WIND.

The wind is a much older agency in pol-
lination than insects. (See Pollination
OP Flowers.) The edible nuts of North
America, as the walnut, hickory, acorn,
beech, hazel, butternut, pecan, and chest-
nut, are almost invariably pollinated by the
wind; but the horse-chestnut in the tem-
perate zone, and many tropical species pro-
ducing nuts are insect-pollinated. The com-
mon anemophilous species not only have
the stamens and pistils in different flowers,

but in different flower-clusters, so that in
the absence of cross-pollination, at least,
by different clusters, the species are sterile.
The pecan, chestnut, and hickory are the
only nuts domesticated in this country ; but
since nuts afford a wholesome and nutri-
tious food nut culture is rapidly extending,
and it is predicted that in the South the
pecan groves will rival the cotton fields in
extent. The flowers of the wind-pollinated
nut trees yield pollen but no nectar.

The grasses, or Gramineae, which are all
wind-pollinated, include the common cere-
als, corn, wheat, barley, rye, rice, oats;
also sorghum, sugar cane, and millet. The
flowers are usually perfect, but self-polli-
nation is prevented by the anthers and
stigmas maturing at different times. But
sometimes the stamens and pistils are in
separate flower-clusters, as in Indian corn.
Since human existence depends upon the
grasses, they have been aptly termed the
type of human beneficence. The sedges,
rushes, and reeds are also wind-pollinated.
Mythical stories of honey stored from ane-
mophilous flowers are occasionally circu-
lated; but these reports probably have
their origin in the collection of honeydew
which is common on the foliage of several
species.

The hop vine, the \Ahite and black mul-
berry, the date palm, and many other
palms are also anemophilous or wind-pol-
linated. According to Swingle about one-
half of the trees of the date palm in
nature are stg.minate, or "male," and one-
half pistillate, or "female," so that cross-
pollination is a necessity. Under cultiva-
tion a single staminate tree will serve to
pollinate artificially 50 or more pistillate
trees. In each of the fruiting clusters a
small branch of pollen flowers is tied. The
cocoanut palm, a bountiful source of food
in the tropics, is also wind-pollinated.

HOW honeybees increase the seed crops
OP clover and alfalfa.

While red clover is usually thou.alit to
be dependent upon bumblebees for pollina-
tion, there are certain strains of honeybees
with extra-long tongues that do more and
better work because they are more abun-
dant. In the growing of alsike clover
seed, it has now been well established that
it is almost impossible to get proper seed-

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

341

Apple trees in bloom in A. I. Root's orchard.

ing without large numbers of honeybees in
the vicinity of the fields where the plant is
grown. There are certain areas in Ontario,
Canada, where the farmers request bee-
keepers to put bees on their farms. They
even go so far as to say that if they can
not get the bees that there is no use in their
trying to grow the seed.

Some experiments were made by the Fed-
eral Government, wherein certain patches
of both red and alsike clover were covered
with mosquito netting before they came
into bloom. It was shown that the por-
tions covered yielded a very smaU amount
of seed, while the other portions that the
bees could visit yielded a large amount of
seed.

It was formerly supposed that bees were
of little value in the growing of alfalfa
seed. Indeed, some observations made by
the Department of Agriculture, Washing-
ton, D. C, went to show that honeybees
tripped but very few of the flowers of the
alfalfa. Since then, it has been shown
most conclusively that where the alfalfa
seed is grown by the carload, that seed can

not be grown satisfactorily without plenty
of honeybees. In one locality near Reno,
Nevada, repeated tests show that the bees
have been able to increase nearly threefold
the yield of seed over areas where there
are no bees. The evidence is now so com-
plete as to leave no room for doubt upon
the point.

THE HOXEYBEE AXD TEUIT CULTUEE.

Altho many nut trees, the cereals, the
date trees, and cocoanut trees are pollinated
by the wind, the fig trees by wasps and
several T^ddely cultivated forage and legu-
minous plants are self-pollinated, or polli-
nated by bumblebees and leaf -cutting bees,
it is still true that the honeybee is ^ most
important visitor to the majority of culti-
vated plants. It is an essential factor in
fruit culture, and in the pollination of fruit
bloom its significance becomes paramount
to that of all other insects. When the
value of the fruit crop is considered both
from a hygienic and economic point of
view, who can overestimate the services of

342

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

the domestic bee to the human race? Nu-
merous species and countless varieties of
fruits are already under culture, and with-
in the next century many new forms will
be domesticated and improved, or intro-
duced from foreign lands.

A great variety of fruits were introduced
into this country after its discovery, but
wild fruits have always been abundant in
the western continent. Hedrick calls North
America a natural garden. " More than
200 species of tree, bush, vine, and small
fruits were commonly used by the abori-
gines for food, not counting nuts, those occa-
sionally used, and numerous rarities. There
are now under cultivation 11 American
species of plums with 588 varieties; 15
species of grapes with 1194 varieties; 4
species of raspberries with 28 varieties; 6
species of blackberries with 86 varieties ; 5
species of dewberries with 23 varieties; 2
species of cranberries with 60 varieties ; and
2 species of gooseberries with 35 varieties,
or a total of 45 species of American fruits
with 2014 varieties." This number is des-
tined to be greatly increased in time by the
domestication of other wild fruits. Coville
has recently shown that blueberries can be
cultivated; and it may be expected that
improved varieties will be obtained of blue-
berries, huckleberries, juneberries, elder-
berries, wineberries, ground cherries, thorn
apples, buffalo berries, highbush cranber-
ries, cloud berries, native mulberries, paw-
paws, and persimmons. A beginning in
the culture of the fig, the avocado, and the
date has been made in California ; while the
mango, a delicious fruit, of which there are
more than 500 varieties, has been introduced
into Florida. Hybridizing can multiply new
forms indefinitely and yield such anomalies
as the loganberry and the blackberry dew-
berry. In the vast and splendid future of
fruit culture the importance of the honey-
bee will now be shown by an examination
of the pollination of the more important
fruits.

POLLINATION OF CUCURBITACEOUS FRUITS.

The flowers of the squash, cucumber,
melon, and pumpkin are monoecious; that
is, the stamens and pistils are in different
flowers on the same plant. Self-fertiliza-
tion is thus impossible, and in the absence
of insects the vines cannot (unless they are

artificially pollinated) produce fruit. The
staminate flowers open a few days before
the pistillate, are larger, and are often on
longer stalks. The nectar is secreted within

Cucumber blossom with a bee on it ; caught in the act.

a fleshy cup formed by the fusion of the
base of the calyx with that of the corolla.
In the squash {Cucurhita maxima) and
pumpkin {C. Fepo) this cup is large, and,
except for three narrow slits, is covered in

Interior of cucumber greenhouse ; hive with entrance
inside.

the staminate flowers by the column of sta-
mens. The flowers are pollinated chiefly
by honeybees and bumblebees, which visit
them in great numbers and can reach the

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

343

nectar with their long tongues. On a clear
warm day in August the writer has seen a
staminate flower of the squash visited in
ten minutes by eight honeybees and four
worker bumblebees {Bombus terricola).
Another flower in ten minutes received six
visits from honeybees and six from bumble-
bees. One of the long-tongued wild bees
{Xenoglossa pruinosa) is said to visit only
the flowers of the pumpkin. In the vicinity
of pickle factories there are usually from
five to six hundred acres of cucumbers un-
der cultivation, yielding 75,000 or more
bushels of fruit. The immense number of
blossoms require many colonies of honey-
bees for their proper pollination.

Method of bagging a cluster of flower buds to deter-
mine whether the variety is self-fertile or self-sterile. —
(After Leivis and Vincent.)

Honeybees are also largely used for pol-
linating cucumbers grown in greenhouses
for early market. In Massachusetts some
2000 colonies are required annually to pol-
linate the cucumbers raised under glass, one
large grower using 80 hives. For the crop
of cucumbers, squashes, melons, pumpkins,
watermelons, and kindred fruits we are
thus wholly indebted to bees.

POLLINATION OF THE TOMATO.

The flowers of the tomato are nectarless,
but are visited by bees gathering poUen.
Cross-pollination is favored by the stigmas
maturing two or three days before the an-
thers. The different varieties, as Champion,
Ponderosa, and Peach can be easily crossed,

but are largely self- sterile. At the Ohio
Experiment Station, Green set out in Au-
gust 200 plants of Dwarf Champion in a
greenhouse, and by winter they had made a
fine, thrifty growth and were fruiting nice-
ly. A good crop of tomatoes was expected ;
but when January came and the fruit be-
gan to ripen, the bulk of it was about the
size of hickorynuts and without any seeds.
Fink also states that plants from which
insects were excluded yielded few and small
fruits.

THE POLLINATIQlSr OF BERRY PLANTS.

Grape. — It is well established that many
kinds of grapes are self -sterile ; and, since
in this country an immense area is devoted
to the culture of this fruit, ignorance of the
manner of pollination of the different spe-
cies and varieties must result in great loss.
Some 40 species of grapes have been de-
scribed, of which about 20 occur in North
America. They are widely distributed thru-
out the north temperate zone, but are espe-
cially abundant in the region of the Cauca-
sus and in the Eastern United States. There
are now under cultivation some 16 species,
1194 varieties, of which 790, or three-
fourths, are hybrids. Foreign grapes do not
succeed well in this country when planted
outdoors, but grow satisfactorily in hot-
houses. Grape-growing on a commercial
scale in America takes its beginning in
1849, when Nicholas Longworth of Cincin-
nati, after 30 years of experiment with
foreign grapes, turned his attention to our
native species and planted extensively the
Catawba, a variety of the common wild
Vitis lahrusca.

The flowers of the vine are small and
green and occur in dense thyrsoid clusters.
The calyx is minute, and the five petals
cohere to form a little hood, which falls
away entire when the flower opens. The
flve stamens produce only a smair quantity
of pollen ; alternating with the stamens are
five nectar glands. The flowers are very
sweet-scented with an odor suggestive of
mignonette, which can be perceived for a
long distance. A part of the plants pro-
duce perfect or hermaphrodite* flowers and
a part staminate flowers with a rudimen-
tary ovary.

* See Pollination of Flowers for a definition of
these terms.

344

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

Many varieties of American grapes are
self -sterile. Of 169 cultivated varieties in-
vestigated by Beach of Geneva, N. Y., 37
were wholly self -sterile, and in the absence
of cross-pollination produced no berries;
28 were so nearly self -sterile that the clus-
ters were unmarketable, and thus from a
commercial point of view of no more value
than the previous group ; 104 varieties pro-
duced marketable clusters when self-fertil-

ized, but of this number 66 had the clusters
loose, and only 38 yielded compact perfect
clusters. Among the varieties wholly ster-
ile were Aminia, Black Eagle, Essex, Onei-
da, Eaton, Salem, and Wilder ; nearly ster-
ile varieties were Brighton, Canada, Gene-
va, Vergennes, and Woodruff; wholly or
nearly self -fertile varieties were Delanson,
Moore's Early, Niagara, Worden, Aga-
wam, Catawba, Champion, Clinton, Con-
cord, Isabella, and Victoria. The self-
fertility of a cluster was tested by enclos-
mg it in a Manilla paper bag before any of
the flowers had opened, thus excluding pol-
len from all outside sources. (Beach, S. A.,
"Self-fertility of the grape," Bull. No.
157; "Fertilizing Self -sterile Grapes,"
Bull. 169, et cetera, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta.)

Nearly all the self-sterile varieties are
hybrids; when pollinated by other self-
sterile varieties they yield no fruit, but
when pollinated by self-fertile varieties
they produce marketable clusters. In a
vineyard of self -sterile varieties, therefore,
there must be a sufficient number of strong-
ly self -fertile vines to pollinate them prop-
erly. Care must be taken to select varieties
which bloom simultaneously. Self -sterility

9

is due to lack of potency of the pollen, the
self -sterile varieties always having shorter
stamens than the self -fertile forms.

The grape remains in bloom from six to
ten days according to the temperature of
the air. Both anthers and stigmas mature
at the same time, and the pollen retains its
vitality for at least two weeks. Species
with the stamens longer than the pistils are
usually regularly self -pollinated, and are,
therefore, largeljr independent of insects.
While occasional pollination by the wind
may occur, the flowers are adapted to in-
sect pollination. The strong fragrance
compensates for their inconspicuousness.
In central Europe the five fleshy nectaries
secrete no nectar, but in warmer climates
it is said to be abundant. The quantity of

1, Brighton grape self-fertilized; 2, Brighton grape cross-fertilized. — (After Beach.)

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

345

Brighton grape pollinated by 1, Salem ; 2, Creveling ; 3, Lindley ; 4, pollen of another vine of same
variety; 5, self-pollinated; 6, by Nectar; 7, Jefferson; 8, Niagara; 9, Worden ; 10, Vergennes ; 11, Rochester.
— {After Beach.)

pollen is small, but it is gathered by honey-
bees, bumblebees, and wild bees. Beetles
are sometimes very destructive to the in-
florescence. But where the varieties are
self -sterile, as is the case with the muscatine
grapes (varieties of Vitis rotundi folia)
which have been extensively planted in the
Southern States, bees do not visit the flow-

ers as frequently as would seem to be de-
sirable. Efforts should be made to obtain
vines which secrete nectar freely, and also
a bee-yard should be located in or near the
vineyard.

Strawberry. — A strawberry-grower of
great experience says that more trouble,
failures, and dissatisfaction arise among

346

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

fruit-growers — particularly among small
growers — from ignorance regarding the sex
of strawberries than from any other cause.
In this genus there is a marked tendency
for the stamens and pistils to occur in dif-
ferent flowers. A part of the plants produce
staminate flowers, a part pistillate, and a
part perfect or hermaphrodite flowers, as is
especially well shown by the European
strawberry, the hautbois, or highwood straw-
berry of Grermany. Plants with staminate
flowers are comparatively rare, while the
other two forms are common.

The strawberry grows wild thruout a
large part of Europe, Asia, North America,
and Chile, S. A. Little improvement was
made in the fruit until after the beginning
of the nineteenth century, when by crossing
and selection hundreds of new varieties
were obtained and the berries greatly im-
proved in size and flavor. In Eastern North
America there are only two well-defined
wild species, Fragaria virginiana, the com-
mon field strawberry, and the wood straw-
berry, F. vesca. On the western coast of
both North and South America F. chiliensis
is common. All the American species in-
tercross easily.

Owing to their greater productiveness
preference in field culture is often given to
the pistillate varieties, which are marked
(P.) in the catalogs of nurserymen. Pistil-
late varieties which have been extensively
planted in the past are Crescent, Manches-
ter, and Bubach; while the Sharpless is
perliaps the best known of the older per-
fect varieties. Where pistillate plants are
used in order to provide for their pollina-
tion, every fourth row must be planted with
perfect or hermaphrodite plants : otherwise
the pistillate plants will be barren. It is
not at all rare, according to Fuller, to find
perfect plants which are largely sterile to
their own pollen, altho the pollen is per-
fectly potent to fertilize other varieties. A
variety may have both stamens and pistils,
and yet, owing to self -sterility, 90 per cent
of the plants be barren. It is of the great-
est importance, therefore, to ascertain by
growing individual plants under glass
whether perfect flowers are self-fertile or
not, or, where this is not known, to plant
more than one variety. The best-flavored
strawberry ever produced by Fuller was
discarded because, altho hardy, freely
blooming, and perfect, it was largely ster-

ile both to its own pollen and that of other
varieties.

The pistillate plants are entirely depend-
ent on insects for pollination; no insects,
no berries, except in instances where a few
stamens may be present. The nectar is se-
creted by a fleshy ring at the base of the
receptacle between the stamens and pistils.
It is not abundant, and there is no record
of a surplus of strawberry honey. The
stigmas mature before the anthers. The
flowers are visited by honeybees and many
wild bees, which gather both pollen and
nectar. It is evident that all the flowers
are benefited by cross-pollination and that
an abundance of bees is most desirable in
strawberry-growing.

Raspberry and Blackberry. — The rasp-
berries and blackberries, which belong to
the. genus Buhus, are widely distributed
thruout the north temperate zone of both
hemispheres. The nectar is secreted by a
narrow ring at the base of the receptacle.
In the raspberry it is very abundant, and a
large surplus of white honey with a delicate
comb and exquisite flavor is obtained annu-
ally. (See Raspberry.) The petals, which
drop off on the second day, stand erect
when the flower opens and hold the stamens
closely against the convex mass of pistils,
ensuring self-fertilization in the absence of
insects. When insects visit the flowers, es-
pecially bees, they regularly effect cross-
pollination by rubbing the pollen adhering
to their bodies on the numerous stigmas.
Since the flowers are visited by innumera-
ble honeybees besides a great company of
wild bees, cross-pollination largely prevails.
When the flowers are enclosed in muslin
bags they are self -fertile, but the results
are not so good as when they are unpro-
tected.

The flowers of the blackberry are larger
than those of the raspberry, and the petals
spread out, affording a convenient landing-
place for insects. The stamens bend away
from the center; and, as the outer anthers
dehisce first, the flowers are usually cross-
pollinated before the inner anthers, which
may effect self-pollination, have opened.
In the raspberry and blackberry the an-
thers and stigmas mature at about the same
time. The flowers of the blackberry are
visited by many honeybees, wild bees, flies,
and beetles. On a small piece of cultivated
blackberries growing near the apiary of the

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

347

writer, the insect-visitors were collected
during a succession of days, and the wild
bees were found greatly to outnumber the
honeybees. The latter manifested a pref-
erence for collecting the pollen rather than
the scanty supply of nectar. In the East-
ern States, and even in Michigan, where it
covers large areas from which the forest
has recently been cleared, the blackberry is
a poor honey plant ; but in California it is
reported to yield a surplus of light-amber
honey of excellent flavor. In Spain also it
is listed as a good honey plant.

Currant and Gooseberry. — The currants
and gooseberries, which belong to the genus
Eihes, all secrete nectar and are largely
dependent on insects for pollination. The
Journal of the Board of Agriculture, Eng-
land, says that when insects were excluded
from gooseberries, red and white currants,
practically no fruit was formed. When
artificially pollinated with pollen from the
same flower or variety they all proved self-
fertile, and set fruit perfectly ; but the pol-
len is so adhesive that it is not readily
transferred from the anthers to the stigma
except by the visits of insects.

In the European gooseberry {Bibes gros-
sularia) the anthers open before the stigma
is fully grown and capable of pollination.
Moreover, the flowers hang downward, and,
as the anthers stand at the same level as the
stigma, the pollen cannot, as a rule, fall on
it, and thus in the absence of insects no
fruit is produced. The flowers are adapted
to bees, and honeybees, bumblebees, and
wild bees are very frequent visitors. A bee
v/hile sucking nectar touches the stigma
with one side of its head and the anthers
with the other side, so that in a succession
of visits it cannot fail to effect cross-polli-
nation. The European gooseberries do not
succeed well in this country ; and our native
northern gooseberry {Bibes oxyacanthoides)
has been extensively planted in the North-
ern States under the name of Houghton. It
is easily cultivated and enormously produc-
tive. At the Connecticut Experiment Sta-
tion 72 species of insects have been listed
as visitors.

The flowers of the red currant {Bibes
rubrum) are also usually cross-pollinated
by insects; but, as the anthers and stigma
mature simultaneously and the flowers often
stand sidewise, self-pollination may occur
by the pollen falling on the stigma. Honey-

bees, wild bees, and flies are very common
visitors. In the black currant {Bibes ni-
grum) the pistil is a little longer than the
stamens, and self-pollination may occur
regularly in the absence of insects by the
pollen falling on the stigma. In an Alpine
species of currant {Bibes alpinum) the
stamens and pistils are in different flowers
so that no fruit sets in the absence of in-
sects.

Cranberry. — The cranberries are adapt-
ed to pollination by bees. The anthers
tend to unite to form a cone around the
single style, and are prolonged upward into
long tubes, which open by pores in the
ends, from which pollen falls on the head
of a bee seeking nectar. The stigma pro-
jects beyond these tubes, and thus receives
pollen collected by the approaching insect
from other flowers. Individual flowers re-
main in bloom for more than two weeks.
On a large cranberry bog the flowers are as
numberless as the sands of the sea, and the
indefatigable industry of bees is alone
equal to the work of pollinating them.

The United Cape Cod Cranberry Com-
pany, which has some 700 acres of cran-
berries under cultivation, has discovered
that the wild bees are not sufficiently nu-
merous to do this work satisfactorily; and
that the yield per acre can be greatly in-
creased by placing colonies of bees near the
bogs. "One test," says E. R. Root, "was
significant. The cranberry bog at Halifax
contains 126 acres. On one side of this
there were three or four colonies of honey-
bees last year. It is evident that this num-
ber was inadequate to cover the entire field,
and it is noteworthy that the yield of cran-
berries per acre was in direct proportion to
the proximity of such acreage to the bees.
The yield was heaviest close to the hives,
and became thinner and thinner as the dis-
tance from the hives increased. The show-
ing was so remarkable in this and other
bogs that it is proposed to increase mate-
rially the investment in bees another year.
A small area of cranberry bog was screened
to exclude the bees. The screened portion
had very little fruit, while that free to the
visitation of bees had a large yield. In con-
sequence many cranberry-growers are plan-
ning to go into the bee business for the
purpose of obtaining a greater crop of
cranberries. In our travels over the United
States we never saw a situation that dem-

348

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

onstrated more clearly the value of bees as
pollinators than did this piece of cranberry
bog."

Blueberry and Huckleberry. — The
most valuable of American wild fruits are
the blueberry and huckleberry from which
there are annually gathered several million
dollars' worth of fruit. There are in this
country more than 150 species belonging to
these two genera growing in a great variety
of situations, as dry rocky pastures, swamps,
and woodlands. The inverted urn-shaped
flowers, with concealed nectar, are adapted
to pollination by bees, among which the
honeybee is common; but in remote and
obscure localities the wild bees are often
the chief visitors.

It was long supposed that blueberries
could not be domesticated; but Coville has
recently shown that they will grow in an

A. Self-pollinated blueberries. B. Cross-pollinated
blueberries. These two twigs (reduced one-half), bore the
same number of flowers, and were pollinated at the same
time by hand. But (A) was pollinated with pollen
from other flowers on the same bush, and (B) with
pollen from another bush. The self-pollinated flowers
produced no ripe fruit, all the berries that set remain-
ing small and green and later dropping off ; while the
cross-pollinated flowers produced a full cluster of large
berries. A plantation made wholly of cuttings from a
single bush would produce little or no fruit. (From
Coville.)

acid soil, and thrive best in one composed
of peat and sand. In southeastern New
Jersey there are thousands of acres of
peaty well-watered pine barrens now un-
used for agriculture, but which are well
adapted to growing blueberries. When the
bushes are grown in rich garden soil they
are small and dwarfed. Microscopic ex-
amination shows that there is on the roots

a minute fungus, without the assistance of
which the plants appear unable to nourish
themselves properly. This fungus requires
an acid soil.

Blueberry bushes are propagated from
cuttings rooted by a special method, as they
do not come true to seed. Care must be
taken to select only plants which produce
berries with a good flavor, as some wild
blueberries are sour or even bitter. A blue-
berry plantation will come into bearing in
about four years, and, once well estab-
lished, will last a lifetime. Blueberries
have already been produced of the size and
color of Concord grapes.

When blueberry flowers were self -polli-
nated, only a few berries and seeds were
produced, altho the self-pollinations were
made very carefully by hand. On some
bushes not a berry matured. Berries that
resulted from self-pollination were smaller
and later in ripening than cross-pollinated
berries from the same bush. Neither will
plants raised from cuttings taken from a
single bush pollinate each other success-
fully, but the pollen acts the same as tho
taken from different flowers on one bush,
Coville says: "From these experiments it
became clear that if a blueberry-grower
should set out a whole field with plants
from cuttings of a single choice bush his
plantation would be practically fruitless.
. . . . The best procedure is to make
up the plantation with alternating rows of
plants propagated from two choice varie-
ties. Each will then set fruit in abundance
thru pollination by the other." In such a
plantation bees will be not merely benefi-
cial but indispensable.

THE POLLINATION OF FRUIT TREES.
THE PLUM.

The cultivated plums may be divided into
three groups according to their origin : The
European, the Japanese, and the American.
Familiar varieties of European plums
(Prunus domestica and P. insititia) are the
Yellow Egg, Bradshaw, Lombard, German
Prune, Damson, and Green Gage; of the
Japanese plum (P. triflora), Burbank,
Abundance, and Red June; and of Ameri-
can plums, the wild plum (P. americana),
the Canada plum (P. nigra), and the Wild-
goose plum (P. liortulana) . All the species,
according to Waugh, hybridize, the Japan-

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

349

ese plums crossing easily with the Ameri-
can, but the European and American va-
rieties cross with difficulty. It is believed
that hybrids of great value will eventually
be obtained. The plum has also been crossed
with the peach, cherry, and apricot. -

The pollination of plum trees is a matter
of great economic importance. "When the
native plum trees first began to be culti-
vated in this country," says Waugh, "their
general self -sterility was a drawback, which
in many cases proved fatal to their suc-
cess." Waugh's observations extended over
five years and included many varieties, es-
pecially of native species. All the varieties
of American plums proved self-sterile, with
the exception of Robinson, and this variety
is not wholly reliable when self -pollinated.
The Japanese plums were also found to be
generally self-sterile. Of the European
plums a part seem to be self-sterile and a
part self -fertile, but no satisfactory experi-
ments are on record. All of the hybrids
are self -sterile. The experiments made, says
Waugh, show beyond question that the ma-
jority of plums do not bear well, and most
of them set no fruit at all unless two or
thi'ee varieties are mixed in the same or-
chard. The reason for this is that the blos-
soms of most varieties do not pollinate
themselves. In general the varieties in each
group pollinate each other better than they
do varieties belonging to another group.
(Waugh, F. A., "Plums and Plum Cultui'e,"
also Bulletins 53, 67, 89, etc., Vermont Ex-
periment Station.)

Self-sterility in plums may be due to
several causes. The stigmas may mature
two, three, or even five days before the
anthers. A part of the pistils may be de-
fective, but usually there are enough per-
fect pistils to ensure a full crop. The pol-
len may be impotent. The stamens are
shorter or at least do not exceed the pistils
in length so that pollen cannot fall on the
stigmas unless the flowers stand sidewise.
The plums bloom profusely, and the limbs
of the Japanese varieties are often com-
pletely wi'eathed with flowers. In small or-
chards the ail' is filled with insects hovering
about the trees. In a little over an hour
the writer coUeeted 100 specimens of wild
bees, mostly species of Andrena and Halic-
tus, and this was only a small part of the
number present. Honeybees are also fre-
quent visitors, both sucking nectar and col-

lecting pollen. Wild bees man cannot con-
trol, but he can raise honeybees, and horti-
culturists recommend that he place them
in large numbers in the orchards.

THE POLLINATION OF THE PRUNE.

Prunes are varieties of plums containing
so little moisture that they can be dried in
the sun or in evaporators. Large quanti-
ties of prunes are produced in France,
Spain, Germany, and Serbia. In America
prunes are raised chiefly in California, and,
to a less extent, in Oregon. The Santa
Clara Valley in California is largely planted
with prunes, principally the French variety,
with smaller interplantings here and there
of the Sugar and Imperial varieties. Xo
other di'ied fruit is sold in that State in
such large quantities. During the height
of the blooming season in the Santa Clara
Valley a great scarcity of insects, especial-
ly bees, has been observed. In some locali-
ties one might work for days among the
blossoms without seeing a bee.

To test the value of honeybees as polli-
nators of prune trees a series of experi-
ments has been made by the Berkeley
Agricultural Experiment Station in an or-
chard of 180 acres on the Sorosis Ranch in
Santa Clara County. The orchard con-
tains chiefly French (Agen) prunes, 18 to
25 years old; but there are four rows of
Imperial prunes. In the entire orchard in
1916 there were onl}^ six colonies of bees,
and only 3.6 per cent of the blossoms of
the French variety set fruit; but in 1917,
with 115 colonies 13.2 per cent of the
flowers set fruit. The Imperial variety
\4elded equally weU (7.2 per cent) during
both years, and showed no response to the
increased number of hives. Other orchard-
ists obtained equally favorable results. At
Saratoga 50 hives of bees were placed near
the edge of a 50-acre prune orchard, and
the branches were literally broken down
under the burden of the crop. A cherry
orchard near by also yielded a large crop.
In another orchard in Santa Clara there
were 50 hives, and the trees were loaded to
their full capacity. At Yuba City 113
hives were placed in a mixed orchard, and
all varieties of trees yielded exceptionally
heavy crops, which was attributed by the
owner to the agency of bees. Branches of
trees covered with netting produced no
fruit.

350

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

At the Sorosis Ranch a tree of the French
prune was enclosed alone in a tent of mos-
quito netting, and all insects excluded. Al-
tho covered with blossoms, less than one-
half of one per cent (0.43) of them set
fruit. Under similar conditions only 0.34
per cent of the blossoms of a tree of the
Imperial variety set fruit. The almost total
failure of these trees to mature fruit shows
that bees are a necessity for distributing
the pollen, and that without them the or-
chards would be largely unproductive and
unprofitable.

But when a single tree of the French
prune was enclosed in a tent with a hive of
bees, 19.4 per cent of the blossoms set fruit,
which was some 6 per cent higher than the
average of the orchard, and shows that the
bees very thoroly performed the work of
pollination. This variety is evidently self-
fertile provided there are insects present to
distribute the pollen properly. When a
single Imperial prune tree was enclosed in
a tent of netting together with a colony of
bees, 3.02 per cent of the blossoms set
fruit. As this variety is largely self -ster-
ile, it was a surprising feature of the ex-
periment that enough flowers were stimu-
lated by the numerous visits of the bees to
produce a satisfactory commercial crop.
Possibly, it is partially self-fertile occa-
sionally. This has been observed to be true
in the case of the apple. According to the
Oregon Experiment Station: "Some varie-
ties of the apple have been found to be
self -sterile three years out of five, and self-
fertile the other two." When a French
and an Imperial prune tree were inclosed
in the same tent together with a colony of
bees, cross-fertilization was observed to be
beneficial. In the orchard the results of
three years showed that French trees close
to the Imperials yielded better than those
further away. It would appear from
these experiments that prune trees are al-
most wholly dependent upon bees for pol-
lination.—Hendrickson, A. H., "The Com-
mon Honeybee as an Agent in Prune Polli-
nation, Univ. Cal. Pub., Nos. 274 and 279.

POLLINATION OF THE ALMOND.

The almond {Prunus Amygdalus) can be
grown only in limited areas in California,
as it is injured by frost. While there are
orchards of 100 acres or more, the average

orchard consists of about 30 acres. At
Dunham eight colonies of bees were placed
in a five-acre orchard. As a result, 9,500
pounds of almonds were harvested, or near-
ly a ton per acre, while the other orchards
in the district averaged only about 300
pounds per acre, and some even less. The
orchardists of that locality were so strong-
ly convinced of the importance of bees that
200 or more colonies could have been placed
in groves at once.

THE POLLINATION OF THE CHERRY.

The cherries belong to the sam^e genus
(Prunus) as the plums, and the structure
of the flower is similar. Cultivated cher-
ries are popularly divided into two groups,
the sour cherries and the sweet cherries.
The sweet, heart, mazzard, bird, Bigarreau
are varieties of Prunus avium, a species
found wild in Asia; while the sour, pie,
and morello cherries are varieties of P.
cerasus, also an Asiatic species. The two
groups hybridize.

The sweet cherry [Prunus avium) is in
bloom five or six days. The stigma and the
anthers mature simultaneously; but, as the
flowers are usually pendulous and the sta-
mens diverge from the pistil, self-pollina-
tion rarely occurs. Common visitors are
honeybees and wild bees, and their value in
pollination is well illustrated by the follow-
ing experience. The crop of a sweet-cherry
orchard in 1912 was 13 tons. To secure
cross-pollination, the owner in 1913 cut
branches from seedling cherry trees at
blooming time and placed them in buckets
of water thruout his orchard. In addition,
several colonies of bees were placed in the
orchard. With no better season and with
the trees only one year older, the crop was
39 tons.

Among the orchard trees of Oregon the
cherry ranks fourth in importance, being
surpassed only by the apple, prune, and
pear in the order named. A poor cherry
crop affects the income of many persons.
The rapid increase of the area planted with
cherries has been followed by complaints
that in spite of the heavy bloom there was
not sufficient fruit to be profitable. In
some instances the new orchards have never
paid expenses, while old orchards have be-
come less productive. Altho sorely per-
plexed by these conditions the cherry-grow-

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

351

ers, unfamiliar with the mutual relations of
flowers and insects, have been slow to be-
lieve that lack of proper cross-pollination
is the chief cause of the failure of their
trees to set fruit. But the cherry orchards
of a decade ago were of small size and
inixed varieties ; while recently orchards of
10 to 100 acres have been planted consist-
ing wholly of one or more of the standard
varieties. It has been commonly recognized
that rain, fog, temperature, the condition
of the soil, and the age of the trees were
influential factors; but few in the absence

1, Bing sweet cherry crossed by Napoleon yields no
fruit. — {After Gardner.)

of definite information have considered the
possibilitj^ of self-sterility.

In order to determine the cause and rem-
edy these failures Gardner in 1911-13 in-
vestigated the pollination of the sweet cher-
ries. Thousands of flowers were pollinated
with their own pollen and insects excluded
by bagging. All of the 16 varieties tested
proved self -sterile. The self -sterility was
in no case due to the inability of the pollen
to germinate, for in the case of each of the
varieties tested the pollen was potent in
producing fruit with some other variety.
Ninety per cent of the commercial plant-
ings consist of the varieties Napoleon, Lam-
bert, and Bing, all three of which are inter-

sterile; that is, each of these varieties is
sterile to the poUen of the other two varie-
ties as well as to its own pollen. Napoleon
where planted in solid blocks yielded little
fruit altho interplanted with Lambert and
Bing. But each of these three varieties is ef-
fectively pollinated by Black Republican,
Tartarian, and Waterhouse. (Gardner, V.
R., "The Pollination of the Sweet Cherry."
Oregon Experiment Station, Bulletin 116,
1913.)

" The importance of honeybees as agents
in cross-pollination," says Gardner, "can-

2, Average cluster of Bing crossol Will 'niiie.—
{After Gardner.)

not be over-emphasized." This is clearly
shown also by the experience of cherry-
growers in California. For several years
the cherry crop of Vaca Valley, in Solano
County, Cal., had not been good, altho it
had formerly been quite sure. It was rec-
ollected that formerly, when the cherry
crops were good, wild bees were very plen-
tiful in the valley, and since most of the
bees had disappeared it was thought that
perhaps the lack of fruit might be due to
imperfect pollination. To test the matter
the Messrs. Bassford, therefore, placed sev-
eral hives of bees in their orchard in 1890.
The result was striking, for the Bassford
orchard bore a good crop of cherries ; while

352

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

other growers in the valley who had no bees
■found their crops entire or partial failures.
In 1891 there were some 65 hives in the
Bassford orchard, and H. A. Bassford
wrote to the Entomologist: "Our crop was
good this season, and we attribute it to the
bees. Since we have been keeping bees our
cherry crop has been much larger than for-
merly, while those orchards nearest us, five
miles from here, where no bees are kept,
have produced but light crops."

The flowers of the sour cherry (P. Cera-
sus) closely resemble those of the sweet
cherry, but the petals are flatter and the
stigma matures before the anthers. Self-
pollination is thus at first impossible. The
position of the stamens and the opening of
the anthers outwardly also tends to prevent
automatic self-pollination. Not a single
fruit set when insects were excluded from
cherries, says the Journal of the Board of
Agriculture, England. Neither did any fruit
mature when the flowers were pollinated
with their own pollen, but all the flowers
pollinated from another variety set fruit.
So necessary are the honeybees for cherry
orchards that the growers have imported in
one case a carload of bees from the South.

A very interesting case came under the
observation of the author of this book. He
was asked to put bees in a cherry orchard
about ten miles from his home town.
There were ten acres of trees, and,
therefore, there were ten colonies put in the
orchard. The season was very cold and
backward at the time the trees came into
bloom. There was only an hour or two that
the sun shone and when it was warm enough
for the bees to fly. At the close of the sea-
son, only those trees near the hives of bees
yielded cherries in abundance, while those
remote from the bees had very few or no
cherries at all. It was very noticeable
that the yield of cherries on the trees
was almost in direct ratio to the dis-
tance of the trees from the bees. It was so
noticeable, in fact, that the owner of the
orchard sent for the author to come down
and see for himself.

THE POLLINATION" OF THE PEACH.

The peach also belongs to the genus
Prunus (P. Persiea). The rose-red flowers
appear in early spring before the leaves.
Nector is secreted within a cup-shaped re-
ceptacle and attracts both honeybees and

wild bees. One cold rainy spring a colony
of honeybees was placed in the center of a
small block of peach trees so that the bees
could easily visit the flowers. The result
was that this orchard set all the peaches the
trees could carry thru the following dry
season; while other peach orchards, which
bloomed equally well, but were without bees,
failed to set a crop (20th An. Rep. Mass.
Fruit-growers' Assoc., 1914, p. 52). Ac-
cording to Fletcher, however, 2939 Gold
Drop peach blossoms showed no benefit to
this variet}^ when cross-pollinated with pol-
len from three other varieties.

THE POLLINATION OF THE PEAR.

The pollination of pear trees has been
studied by Waite who was the first in
America to show that many varieties of
orchard trees are self -sterile. In his earlier
experiments clusters of buds were enclosed
in bags of paper or cheesecloth which were
not removed until the blooming period was
over ; but in his later experiments the bags
were opened and the anthers carefully re-
moved and the flowers hand-pollinated.
There were employed in these experiments
144 trees belonging to 38 varieties. More
than one-half of these varieties when self-
pollinated proved to be wholly or nearly
self -sterile and produced little or no fruit.
Among the wholly or nearly self -sterile
varieties were Anjou, Bartlett, Clapp's
Favorite, Howell, Lawrence, and Winter
Nelis ; self -fertile varieties were Angouleme,
Bosc, Buffum, and Flemish Beauty.

A brief summary of Waite's conclusions
is as follows :

Pollen from another tree of the same
variety is no more effective than pollen
from the same tree.

The pollen of a self-sterile variety may
be perfectly effective when applied to an-
other variety.

Even in those varieties which can be
self -fertilized the pollen of another variety
is prepotent, and when insects are not
excluded most of the fruit seems to be the
result of crossing.

Self -fertilized pears contain small vesti-
gial seeds and are smaller and less perfect
than those produced by crossing.

The ineffectiveness of the pollen in self-
sterile varieties is due to no defect in the
pollen.

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

353

Enlarged section of tlie flower of a Bartlett pear ; sp, sepal, the five sepals form the calyx or cup ; petal,
the five petals form the corolla or crown ; the stamens consist of two parts, the filament or thread-liice stem,
and the anther, composed of two sacs which contain the pollen; the pistils consist of three parts, ov, the
ovary, st, the style, and s, the stigma ; d, the disc in which the nectar is secreted. Pollination is the transfer of
the pollen to the rough sticky surface of the stigma. The pollen grains send out slender tubes, which pass down
thru the style to the ovules. From the end of a tube a sperm cell passes into an o^le and unites with an egg
cell — this is fertilization. — {After Waite.)

variety of trees had been very productive,
and the Bartletts near this orchard also
bore well. Waite determined the difficulty
in the following way: After removing the
stamens from a number of unopened buds
he pollinated a part of them with pollen
from Bartlett trees and a part with pollen
from different varieties, and then enclosed
them in paper bags. In the orchard at
large, a week after the petals had fallen,
the young pears all dropped off. Most of
the trees were absolutely barren. Of the
flowers enclosed in bags, not one pollinated
with Bartlett pollen had set fruit, while a
large proportion of the crosses with other
varieties produced pears. As there were a
sufficient number of insects to carry the
pollen, it is evident that, had there been
other varieties of pears scattered thru the
great orchard, the crop would not have

In 1892 Waite visited the large pear
orchard of the Old Dominion Fruit Com-
pany near Scotland on the James River,
The orchard consisted originally of about
22,000 standard Bartlett pear trees. It had
been planted some 18 years previously, but
had never borne a full crop. The maximum
crop was three-fifths of a peck per tree,
while a standard Bartlett tree 12 years old
should easily yield five times that amount.
In 1892 the crop was less than 100 boxes of
three pecks each. The trees in the orchard
had always bloomed heavily, and were every
year snowy white with blossoms. It was
clearly indicated that something was wrong.
In three places in the orchard, where the
trees had died, two Clapp's Favorite and a
Buffum tree had been planted by mistake,
and in their vicinity the Bartletts fruited
heavily. A small orchard containing a
12

354

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

been a failure. The Bartlett pear is large-
ly self-sterile.— Waite, M. B., "The Polli-
nation of Pear Flowers," Div. Veg. Path.
Bull. No. 5, 1895; also Yearbook Dep.
Agr., 1898.

A pear flower remains in bloom seven or
eight days. There are 20 stamens in four
cycles and five pistils. The stigmas mature
two or three days before the anthers, at
which stage self-pollination is impossible.
In the bud the stamens are bent inward,
but gradually bend backward after the
flower opens, the anthers on the outer row
opening first. Self-pollination may occur
by the styles finall}^ bending backward un-
til the stigmas touch the anthers, or in the
case of flowers standing side wise by the
pollen falling on the stigmas. The quan-
tity of nectar secreted within the concave
receptacle is greatly affected by the weath-
er; but sometimes it collects in large drops
which overflow and fall to the ground. A
great variety of insects, as honeybees, wild
bees, wasps, flies, and beetles visit the flow-
ers. Waite collected 50 and Mueller 30
species. At AVashington, D'. C, Rochester,
N. Y., and the Connecticut Experiment
Station, the ground bees belonging to the
genera Andrena and Halictus were found
to outnumber all other insects. The writer
observed a medium-sized pear tree in full
bloom for an hour and a quarter, but dur-
ing this time saw no insects except honey-
bees, which were very abundant. A cluster
of seven blossoms i-eceived eight visits in a
quarter of an hour ; and two other clusters
consisting of 16 flowers received 16 visits.
This was an average of a little more than
four visits to each flower on the tree per
hour.

The great service rendered by insects in
the pollination of pear blossoms is well il-
lustrated by the experiments of V. H. Lowe
at the Geneva Experiment Station, New
York, in 1889. A number of small pear
trees were covered with a hood of sheeting
which came down over the tree like a bag,
and was tied at the lower end around the
trunk of the tree. On all the trees so cov-
ered there was a large number of buds, and
all the conditions were favorable for a
good crop, except that the visits of insects
were entirely prevented. As a result on the
whole lot of trees covered there was just
one fruit. On another set of trees of the
same sort and size, not covered, there were

145 pears. In the case of another tree a
large limb was enclosed in a bag with simi-
lar results.

Extensive experiments on the pollination
of Bartlett and Kieffer pears have also
been made by Fletcher. Thirty thousand
and eighty-one Bartlett blossoms, -earefuUy
deprived of their anthers and pollinated
with Bartlett pollen, produced only six
small fruits as compared with 763 fruits
produced by 7170 Bartlett flowers polli-
nated with Lawrence, Anjou, Dutchess, and
Kieffer. Two large 18-year-old Bartlett pear
trees were completiely covered, just before
the blossoms opened, with muslin sheeting
in such a way that all insect visitors were
excluded; but two limbs on each tree were
permitted to protrude beyond the sheeting
and were open to insect visits. These two
limbs were loaded with fruit ; while the
flowers under the sheeting, which were de-
pendent on self-pollination, produced only
10 small pears. One thousand two hundred
and sixty-eight Kieffer pear blossoms pol-
linated with pollen of the same variety
produced only five pears ; while 2363 Kief-
fer blossoms pollinated with Bartlett pol-
len produced 446 pears. Kieffer is,
therefore, almost completely self-sterile
(Fletcher, S. W., "Pollination of Bartlett
and Kieffer Pears," An. Rep. Ya. Poly.
Inst. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1909-10). As in the
case of the other fruits the importance of
honeybees, which can be imported, is clear-
ly apparent.

THE POLLINATION" OF THE APPLE.

The apple is the most important of all
fruits, and the value of the crop annually
in the United States is at least $100,000,000.
Every orchardist should know what varie-
ties are self-sterile and how they can be
properly pollinated. Of 87 varieties of
apples tested by Lewis and Vincent in Ore-
gon 59 were found to be self-sterile; 15
were self-fertile but gave better results
when pollinated by some other variety ; and
13 were partially self -sterile.* Among the
self -sterile varieties were Bellflower, Grav-
enstein, King, Rhode Island, Greening, Tol-
man Sweet, Wealthy, and Winesap ; among
the self-fertile were Baldwin, Oldenburg,

* The question whether a variety ■ is sterile to its
own pollen varies according to locality. For example,
the bellflowers in the Pejario Valley, Calif., are self-
fertile ; elsewliere they appear to be self-sterile.

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

355

1, Self-pollinated Newtown apples, producing at least one-third of the apples undersized. 2, Newtown apples
pollinated by Grimes Golden; no small apples. — {After Lewis and Vincent.)

Shiawassee, Washington, and Yellow New-
ton; partially self -fertile were Ben Davis,
Stark, Spitzenburg, and Yellow Transpar-
ent. The experiments showed that in the
majority of cases cross-pollination is a ne-
cessity^ to ensure a profitable crop. Cross-
ing always gave better results than self-
pollination, and is the rule, while self-
pollination is the exception. Cross-polli-
nated trees gave larger and finer fruit with
well-developed seeds; while self -pollinated
trees gave smaller fruit with the seed usu-
ally wanting or abortive, as is shown in the
following table :

EFFECTS OP SELF AND CROSS POLLINATION.

Oregon Exp. Station, 1908.
Newtown Apple

Pollinated
by Self
by Esopus
by Grimes

by Self

by Newtown

by Baldwin

Av. wt. fruit

73 grams
147 grams
173 grams

Esopus Apple

100 grams
126 grams
157 grams

Av. wt. seeds
.05 grams
.66 grams
.60 grams

.13 grams
.65 grams
.71 grams

1, Keswick Codlin apple cross-pollinated : 2 and 3, self-pollinated. Notice the absence of seeds in the
self-pollinated apples. — (After Lewis and Vincent.)

356

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

Waite found that hand-crossed Baldwins
were highly colored, well-matuied, and con-
tained many seeds ; while the self -fertilized
fruit was seedless, only slightly colored,
and only one-quarter to two -thirds of the
regular size.

The J ournal of the Board of Agriculture,
England, says that out of 63 varieties of
apples on which unopened blossoms were
enclosed and left untouched the only one
that matured fruit was Irish Peach. Of
those enclosed and pollinated with their
own pollen by brush, only a few matured
fruit. Others failed to yield any fruit
when pollinated with pollen of the same
variety. On the other hand, of the 64
crosses made, 43 were successful. In Illi-
nois there were formerly many large or-

The result of imperfect pollination. Note the shriv-
eled condition of the upper seed and the depression in
the apple on that side.

chards of 40 to 80 acres of a single variety
which seldom or never bore large crops;
while mixed orchards in the vicinity often
gave bumper yields (An. Rep. Mass. F. 0.
Assoc., 1914, p. 47). But under certain
circumstances a single variety planted in
large blocks has been known, according to
Waite, to yield satisfactorily, as the Ben
Davis at the Olden Fruit Farm in Missouri.
In Oregon it has been the practice to plant
two rows of one variety, then two rows of
the variety used as a pollinator, followed
by two rows of a third variety. Varieties
must be selected, of course, that bloom at
the same time.

The flowers of the apple are larger than
those of the pear, partially rose-colored and
pleasantly scented, especially in the even-

ing, when they are attractive to moths. The
stigmas mature two days before the anthers.
The stamens stand erect, so covering the
nectary that the nectar is not as easily ac-
cessible as that of the pear. Bumblebees,
which seldom visit pear flowers, are com-
mon on apple bloom. At the Connecticut
Experiment Station 52 insects were listed
as visitors, among which were 26 species of
bees.

It is a matter of common observation
that where an apiary is located near an ap-
ple orchard honeybees are frequent visitors
to the bloom, and often appear to be the
only insects present. Waite observed that
in large orchards covered with blossoms
there were not sufficient bees to pollinate
the trees; and this is no doubt often the
case in sections where apple-growing is the
principal industry. The president of the
Vermont Horticultural Society found on
examination that in orchards which failed
to produce abundantly there were no bees
or too few to be of much use. Wherever
there were large apiaries there was in every
instance a large apple crop {Gleanings in
Bee Culture, March 15, 1912) . "Plant mixed
orchards," says Waite, "or at least avoid
planting solid blocks of one variety. Be
sure that there are sufficient bees in the
neighborhood to pollinate the blossoms
properly." A large fruit-grower in Cal-
ifornia declares : " Bees and fruit go to-
gether. I can't raise fruit without bees."
(Waite, M. B., " Cross-pollination of Ap-
ples," Year-book Dept. Agr., 1898, Lewis,
C. I., and Vincent, C. C, " Pollination of
the Apple," Oregon Exp. Sta., Bull. No.
104, 1909.)

TnE POLLINATION OF THE QUINCE.

The common quince {Pyrus Cydonia) has
solitary flowers, which are larger and bloom
later than those of the apple or pear. The
stigmas mature before the anthers, but self-
pollination occurs regularly. The flowers
yield nectar, and 30 species of insects have
been enumerated by the Connecticut Ex-
periment Station as visitors.

Experiments in crossing were made by
Waite at Rochester, N. Y., in 1892-93.
Pollen from Orange, Rea, Champion, and
Meach were used, and the flowers (from
which the anthers had been removed) were
enclosed in paper and cheesecloth bags.

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

357

Both the crossed and self -pollinated flowers
produced a fairly good percentage of fruit
and practically an equal quantity. The
experiments showed no striking benefits
from crossing as did those with the apple
and pear. (Waite, M. B., Yearbook of
Dept. Agr., 1898, p. 178.)

THE POLLIXATIOX OF THE ORANGE.

Numerous crosses have been made by the
Department of Agriculture between the
common orange and other species for the
purpose of obtaining hardy and improved
varieties with promising results. The white
flowers of the orange secrete nectar so
freely that at times it drips upon the foli-
age and grass beneath the trees. Indeed,
after a day of fogg^^ or bad weather there
will be such an accumulation of nectar that
the horses as they drag the cultivators be-
tween the trees will be smeared with it.
One extensive grower told the author that
unless there are plenty of bees to take up
the nectar as fast as it is secreted that not
only the horses but their drivers will be
smeared with nectar as they pass down be-
tween the rows. This same grower stated
that when the grove is properly irrigated
it would be possible to put all the way
from 500 to 800 colonies in one location.
The yield of honey from the orange groves
of California is so great that thousands
upon thousands of colonies have been moved
from the sage regions into or near the or-
ange groves of Southern California.

One would naturally suppose that when
nectar is secreted so abundantly as this,
that Nature has a purpose and that pur-
pose is to bring about thoro pollination.
Yet while many of the orchards grow
seedless or navel oranges, the fact stands
out just the same that nectar is secreted
very abundantly from the trees 3delding
that kind of fruit.

At the time of this wi'iting no definite
experiments have been conducted showing
how much the bees are able to increase the
size, quality and number of oranges to the
tree, but some growers are very emphatic in
the statement that they see a marked dif-
ference in the yield per acre when there
are plenty of bees. Other growers claim
that they can see no difference.

In the lemon groves most of the growers
want bees in or near the orchards. Some

of the beekeepers, however, feel that the
nectar is hard on the bees, for as the lemon
trees bloom during the winter it is sup-
posed that many bees going out to get
the nectar get chilled and never get back.

There is every reason to believe that in
the orange, grape fruit, and lemon groves
of California the growers themselves will
do just as they are doing in Florida, ask
to have bees put in or near their places.

Formerly the orange-growers of Florida
opposed the placing of colonies of honey-
bees in the groves, believing that they in-
jured the flowers and fruit. Beekeepers
were obliged to pay for this privilege. But
with a better understanding of the value of
bees in pollination their presence is now
recognized as desii^able. Around Braden-
town the citrus men are actually offering
bee-yard sites free of rent, and in many in-
stances even buy bees to place among the
trees. The Manatee Fruit Company of Pal-
metto has established three bee-yards in
connection with their groves and wish for
more. They declare the nearer the bees to
the groves, the larger the quantity of fruit
and the better the quality. An orange-
grower of Terra Cea for six ^vears or more
has had 40 colonies of bees in his grove and
every year during this time has had a fine
crop of fruit, which has attracted vride at-
tention. The marked increase in the quan-
tity and quality of the oranges raised around
DeLand is largely attributed to the gTeater
number of bees kept near the groves.
Twenty years ago there were not ten hives
and now there are hundi'eds. There should
be at least five hives to the acre. (Bald-
win, E. G-., The DeLand Xeics, Dec. 23,
1014.)

COXCLUSIONS.

(1)

Many nut trees, cereals, and a few fruit
trees are pollinated by the wind ; but the
majority of berry and larger fruit plants
in North America are either pollinated by
insects or are self-pollinated. The few pol-
len grains distributed by the wind are of no
importance. This is clearly shown both by
the structure of the flowers and by repeated
exp elements. A noteworthy example is given
in the bulletin of the Oregon Experiment
Station for 1909. From 1500 blossoms on
a seven-year-old apple tree all the petals

358

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

were removed in order that they might not
attract insects. The result was that only
eight bees were seen to visit the flowers,
while another tree about 20 feet away,
which bloomed profusely, received 40 visits
from bees in half an hour. The stamens
were also removed to prevent self-pollina-
tion. Only five flowers set fruit. Evident-
ly wind did not pollinate a blossom.

(2)

Self -sterility is very common among cul-
tivated fruits. It is partly due to the sep-
aration of the stamens and pistils in differ-
ent flowers and partly to the impotency or
ineffectiveness of the pollen in self-pollina-
tion. Hybrids, as among the grapes, are
usually self-sterile. A variety may be ster-
ile to its own pollen and also to the pollen
of another variety ; e. g., the Napoleon and
Bing sweet cherries are self -sterile and
mutually inter-sterile. A knowledge of
self -sterility is, therefore, of the greatest
importance in fruit-growing.

(3)

Among cultivated fruits cross-pollination
by insects usually prevails, even among
species possessing the power of self-fertili-
zation. Pollen from another variety is
generally prepotent over pollen from the
same variety. Self-pollination in the early
stages of most fruit blossoms is prevented
by the stigmas and anthers maturing at dif-
ferent times (dichogamy), also by their rel-
ative position. Fruits resulting from cross-
pollination are usually larger, better
formed, and contain fully developed seeds.

(4)

In the absence of cross-pollination many
fruit blossoms may be self -pollinated by
the stigmas at the close of the blooming
period, bending backward until they touch
the anthers. According to Waite self -pol-
linated and cross-pollinated flowers of the
quince were equally productive, but this
statement may be modified by further ob-
servation. Fruits from self -pollinated and
self -fertilized flowers are usually smaller,
less perfect, and contain only vestiges of
seeds. Automatic self-pollination is as ef-
fective as self-pollination by hand. At the

Oregon Experiment Station two sets of
flower buds of different varieties of apples
were enclosed in bags. One lot was left .
untouched. The bags of the other lot were
opened, the flowers pollinated by hand, and
the bags then replaced. Both lots gave
practically the same results.

(5)

Beetles, flies, butterflies, moths, sawflies,
wasps, and bees are all useful agents in
pollination; but sometimes certain beetles
and flies do more harm than good. Ants
are invariably hurtful. The bees and wasps
are the most beneficial, next come the flies,
followed by the butterflies and moths, while
the beetles stand last.

(6)

In wild or thinly settled regions and in
small orchards the wild bees are very bene-
ficial; and their visits to plums, cherries,
blackberries, and in some instances other
fruits greatly outnumber those of the
honeybees. But many of the wild bees fly
only from 30 to 90 days ; a part are vernal
and a part autumnal; and as they build
their burrows largely in the ground they
are destroyed or driven away by intensive
culture. They cannot, therefore, be relied
upon in extensive fruit plantations for pol-
lination.

(7)

The pollination of cultivated fruits can
be controlled with certainty only by the aid
of honeybees. This has been repeatedly
pointed out in the preceding pages. It is
confirmed by the practical experience of
hundreds of fruit-growers. As these are
essentially similar and all agree that honey-
bees are a necessity, it will be sufficient to
give a few examples. In a remarkable
statement of Albert Repp of Repp Broth-
ers, owners of an 800-acre fruit farm at
Gloucester, N. J., he says:

"I could not do without bees. I never
take a pound of their honey. All I want
them to do is to pollinate the blossoms.
I'd as soon think of managing this orchard
without a single spray-pump as to be with-
out bees. I've got 50 colonies now, and
am building up the apiary each year."

FRUIT BLOSSOMS

359

About nine miles north of the .plant
where this work is published is a 50-acre
apple orchard operated by J. L. Van Rens-
selaer. This orchard for a number of years
had been neglected in that it had not been
sprayed nor pruned. Mr. Van Rensselaer
finally leased it, sprayed and pruned the
trees, and asked the publishers to put some
bees on the place, which was done. The
first year, 16,000 bushels of perfect apples
were harvested, when, prior to that, scarce-
ly 500 bushels were obtained. Every year
since that, from 10,000 to 15,000 bushels
have been secured. Mr. Van Rensselaer
enthusiastically says the bees play a very
important part in securing these results.

The apple-growers of the country are
waking up to the fact that there must be
bees in the orchards; and beekeepers are
now having a considerable demand from
the large fruit-growers for bees for this
purpose.

The editors of the various fruit journals,
among them The Fruit-grower, of Roehes-
ter, N. Y., and Better Fruit, Hood River,
Ore., have a number of times published
strong editorials in favor of putting bees
in orchards. Among the leading agricul-
tural journals is the Rural New-Yorker,
whose editor makes the following state-
ment : " I have seen the certain results of
the good work of the honeybee in a neigh-
bor's orchard. Those bees break the trees
down just as truly as tho they climbed on
the trees by the million and pulled on
them. The appearance of those trees after
a few years of beekeeping would have con-
vinced any fair-minded man that our little
buzzing friends are true partners of the
fruit-grower.''

It is the unanimous opinion of all pro-
gressive fruit-growers that honeybees and
fruit culture are inseparable.

(8)

Besides pollination the fruit crop is in-
fluenced by the weather, the temperature,
the condition of the soil, and the age of the
trees. Insect pests, fungous growths, dis-
eases, and spraying the trees while in bloom,
are also injurious. Cold rainy weather, by
preventing the flight of insects, interferes
with the proper pollination of the blossoms.

The manufacturer of chemicals for spray-
ing and spraying outfits usually tells not
only how to mix the chemicals for the
sprays, but how to apply them. Only one,
so far as the author knows, advocates spray-
ing when the trees are in bloom. The reader
will, of course, patronize the others, who
follow the recommendations of experiment
stations to spray before and after the pet-
als have fallen.

The suggestion has been made that the
difficulty can be overcome by making a
spraying solution that will be repellent to
insects. It is recommended to add sulphur
(which is said to be repellent to insects) to
the arsenate of lead or copper sulphate.
Full directions for doing this can be se-
cured from experiment stations; but it is
not proved that sulphur is repellent to
bees when there is a dearth of honey. The
author believes that they would still help
themselves to the poisonous nectar in the
blossoms. If so, it behooves the fruit-
growers for their own interests to spray
only before the blossoms open and after
the petals fall.

G

GALLBERRY {Ilex glabra (L.) A. Gray) .
— Also known as inkberry and evergreen
winterberry. The common gallberry is one
of the best honey plants in the United
States. It grows in sandy soil near the
coast from Massachusetts to Georgia and
Florida and westward to Louisiana. In
southern Georgia it covers hundreds of

Common gallberry {Ilex glabra).

acres of the sandy coastal plain, but it will
not flourish in a limestone soil. The gall-
berry is an evergreen shrub, with shining
dark-green small obovate leaves. It multi-
plies both by offshoots and from seed, and
is rapidly extending over the new land
from which the pine forest has been recent-
ly cleared. The diffusely branched bushes
form dense thickets which withstand the
encroachments of all other plant growths
and can be passed thru with difficulty.

The blooming period lasts for about a
month beginning with May and closing
early in June. The small flowers, in a
multitude of little clusters, are produced in
the greatest profusion, and 3000 have been
counted on a bush with a stem only half an
inch in diameter. Innumerable sprays of
white bloom, variegated with green leaves,

Swamp gallberry {Ilex lucida).

toss and wave in the wind like a great
foam-crested sea. Except in one of the vast
northern apple orchards in June no more
attractive sight can be found. The flowers
are largely dicecious; i. e., a part of the
bushes produce chiefly staminate and a part
mostly pistillate flowers; and they are,
therefore, dependent on insects for pollina-
tion. The sterile flowers are in clusters of
three to six, while the fertile are solitary.
The bushes begin to bloom the second year.

GLUCOSE

361

In Georgia the gallberry is the most im-
portant and common honey plant. We have
never failed, says J. J. Wilder, to get a
surplus from it even during the most un-
favorable weather conditions. In over half
a century there is no record of its ever once
disappointing the beekeeper. The largest
surplus that has been obtained from a sin-
gle colony is 147 pounds. During the honey
flow the bees disregard all other bloom,
working for pollen until about eight o'clock
in the morning, when the flow begins and
continues for the remainder of the day.
The honey is light amber, very heavy, and
very mild and pleasant in flavor. When it
is pui'e and well ripened it has never been
known to granulate. Altho the honey is
produced by the hundi'ed tons it is rarely
shipped north, as it is impossible to fill the
demand for it in the Southern markets.
Wilder declares that he has never known a
gallberry section to be overstocked, and in
one location 362 colonies did nearly as well
as 100. In 1907 good gallberry locations in
Georgia were, in his opinion, nearly niun-
berless, and large quantities of this fine
honey were annually lost for want of bees
to collect it. In Xorth Carolina many bee-
keepers give the gallberry as one of the
leading honey-yielders in the eastern part
of the State.

The berries (drupes) are shining black,
and are sometimes used for dyeing wool or
in making a substitute for ink, whence the
name inkberry. They are also caUed winter-
berry because they remain on the bushes in
great numbers during the winter and afford
a never-failing food supply for birds.

Swamp gaUberry {Ilex lucida (Ait.) T.
& G.). — This species is also an evergreen
shrub, resembling the cormnon gaUberry in
leaf, flower, and fruit; but it is a little
larger, blooms a little earlier, and grows
in swamps. It extends from Virginia to
Florida and Louisiana. The honey is also
very similar to that of I. glabra, but, ac-
cording to Livingston, is milder. (A syn-
onym is I. coriacea.)

GLOVES FOR HANDLING BEES.—

Altho a good many apiarists work with bare
hands and bare wrists, there are a few who
prefer to use gloves with long wrists, and
quite a large number who use them with
fingers and thumbs cut off. If the bees are
hybrids, and extracting is carried on during

the robbiug season, it is a great convenience
to use something that protects the back of
the hands and wi'ists, leaving the fingers
bare, so that, for aU practical pui^poses of
manipulation, one can work as well with
protectors as without.

Women beekeepers and men who are at
all timid, and a very small number who
seem to be seriously affected by even one
sting, might use gloves to gi'eat advan-
tage.

A very good glove for working among
bees is one made of kid or dog skin. While
the sting of a bee will often pimctnre the

Bee gloves.

former, one does not get much more than
just the prick of the sting. By removing
the glove, the sting is removed automati-
cally.

Then there is a kind of glove, shown in
the illustration, made of heav;s' drilling
soaked in linseed oil or white-lead paint,
made specially for the purpose. Some pre-
fer to use them plain or uncoated, but where
the bees are especially cross, the fabric will
need to be further reinforced with paint or
linseed oil. After one becomes more famil-
iar vdih. handling bees, he can cut ofl: the
finger tips so that the fingers themselves
come actually in contact with the frames.
One can work better when he can feel as
well as see what he is doing.

For further particulars regarding bee-
di'ess, see Veils,

GLUCOSE. — This name is applied to the
thick viscous liquid obtained by the concen-
tration of a solution coming from the iu-
complete hydrolysis of starch. The word
is misapplied by a great many, especially
in the sugar-cane belt, for the reducing
sugars present in the cane. From a purely
chemical side, glucose means the sugar dex-
trose, so with these various applications of
the word some little confusion exists. In
the commercial world, however, the fii'st is

362

GLUCOSE

the accepted meaning of the word. In the
United States the source of glucose is corn
starch, with a little made from potato
starch, but in Germany all is made from
potato starch.

Its manufacture consists in the heating
of the freed starch with water and a small
percentage of hydrochloric acid under pres-
sure. The process is carefully conducted
and stopped at the proper point of hydro-
lysis. The liquid is neutralized with soda
and concentrated to the desired consistency,
which is a liquid of about 15 to 20 per cent
water. Formerly sulphuric acid was the
acid used for conversion ; but on account of
its carrying arsenic its use was stopped.
The solids of commercial glucose consist of
about one-third dextrose and two-thirds
dextrin. The dextrins present in commer-
cial glucose are of a difi;erent character
from those present in floral honey or
honeydew, and by this property its pres-
ence in honej^ can be easily detected.

By increasing the amount of acid, and
also lengthening the time of heating, prod-
ucts are made which contain more dextrose
and less dextrin. These are known com-
mercially as "70," '*80," and "anhydrous
starch sugar." They are, for the most
part, solid. Their use in honey adultera-
tion is very rare, and, if used, their detec-
tion is comparatively easy for a trained
chemist.

Commercial glucose is sometimes known
as corn syrup.

The ease with which commercial glucose
can be detected when mixed with honey has
led to its disuse except in mixtures so la-
beled. See Adulteration of Honey.

Analysis of American commercial glucose
according to Bryan, published in the Jour-
nal of the Franklin Institute for October,
1911, shows the following average, maxi-
mum and minimum figures :

Average Maximum Minimum

Water 16.47% 20.00% 11.95%

Dextrose 35.51 39.56 30.21

Mineral Matter .52 .91 .24

Undetermined 47.50 52.49 40.46

Direct Polarizations:

At20°C. -f 173.9 4-184.3 -1-155.8

AtST-'C. -f-166.0 -H176.6 -{-150.0

Invert Polarizations:

At20°C. +173.1 -fl83.2 -f 155.6

At 87° C. -f 163.6 -1-174.0 -{-146.4

The undetermined matter, so reported, is
composed of dextrose and partially con-
verted starch products.

The percentage of dextrose given is reaUy
the percentage of reducing (of Fehling solu-
tion) bodies calculated as dextrose. It may
contain the sugar maltose and some of the
reducible dextrin.

German glucose, according to Herzfeld,
published in the above article, shows the
following :

Average Maximum Minimum
Water ' 19.7%, 20.4% 18.0%

Dextrose 40.7 47.4 36.5

Mineral Matter .267 .404 .179

Polarization :

Direct at 20° +161.6 -f 181.2 +149.6
Invert at 20° 4-154.7 4-161.2 4-138.4

Starch sugars show the following compo-
sition according to Bryan (also given in
same paper).

Crystalline sugars (often referred to as
Anhydrous Sugar) :

Average Maximum Minimum
Water 7.42% 9.94% 5.04%

Dextrose 86.33 90.70 81.52

Dextrin .39 .54 .16

Mineral Matter .73 1.06 .48

Undetermined 5.13 7.53 2.77

Polarization :

10 grams to lOOcc —

4-27.89 4-28.65 +27.50

Dextrose calculated from polarization —

91.59% 94.08% 90.31%

" Climax sugar " or 80 sugar :

Water

Dextrose

Dextrin

Mineral Matter
Undetermined

Average Maximum Minimum
9.84% 10.61% 9.06%

77.54 77.84 77.24
1.04 1.15 .96

1.18 1.18 1.17

10.40 10.96 9.83

Polarization :

10 grams to lOOcc —

+27.45 +28.40 +26.50
Dextrose calculated from polarization —

90.12% 93.20% 87.03%

" Nabob sugar " or 70 sugar :

Average Maximum Minimum

Water 16.43% 18.03% 13.77%

Dextrose 69.81 73.16 66.60

Dextrin 1.17 2.42 .57

Mineral Matter .80 1.12 .45

Undetermined 11.79 14.35 9.30
Polarization :

10 grams to lOOcc —

+28.94 +33.45 +24.90
% dextrose calculated
from the polarization

85.05 109.85 81.77

In these tables it is noted that the two
percentages of dextrose given do not agree.
That one calculated from the polarization is

GOLDENROD

363

alwaj-s high on account of the influence of
the amount of dextrin (this having a larger
polarization influence than dextrose).

GOLDENROD {Soli da go) .—The golden-
rods and asters are the most common and
conspicuous of autumnal flowers in eastern
Xorth America. Both genera belong to the

distribution have all been very perfectly
secured. The individual flower is small and
of little significance as compared with the
community. Conspicuousness is gained by
massing a large number of flowers in a head
or capitulum, an arrangement which per-
mits insects to visit them very rapidly.
While in the common whiteweed, or daisv,

ilaiiy goldenrod.

Compositae, the great family which stands
at the head of the plant kingdom. The in-
florescence of the Compositae represents
Nature's greatest triumph in flower-build-
ing. Intercrossing by insects, economy of
time and material, a large number of seeds
well adapted to germinate, and their wide

the number of florets may exceed 500, in the
head of the goldenrod there are only from
16 to 30, according to the species ; e. g., in
the cream-colored goldenrod {S. hicolor)
there are about 16 ray and 14 disc florets,
and in the tall hairy goldenrod {S. rugosa)
about 8 ray and 6 disc florets.

364

GOLDENROD

The stately and beautiful genus of golden-
rods begins to bloom at midsummer, or
earlier in the case of the early goldenrod,
and in November there is still visible the
flower clusters of the Canada goldenrod
and the tall hairy goldenrod, while the salt
marsh goldenrod may prolong the season
until December. There are about 85 de-

Three species of goldenrod.

scribed species, confined chiefly to North
America, with a few in South America and
Europe. Fifty species occur north of Ten-
nessee and east of the Rocky Mountains.
They are closely allied, often hybridize, and
are difficult to distinguish. There is a form
adapted to almost every kind of location.
The woodland goldenrod {S. caesia) is
found in open woodlands, the fleld golden-
rod {S. nemoralis) is very common in dry
fields, the rock goldenrod {S. rupestris)
prefers rocky situations, the swamp golden-
rod {S. neglecta) lives in swamps, while
the seaside goldenrod {S. sempervirens)
thrives in salt marshes.

Altho the individual heads are so small
conspicuousness is gained by massing them
in great plume-like clusters or panicles.
Their bright yellow color renders them visi-
ble both by day and evening; and as the
temperature at night is several degrees
above the surrounding air they sometimes
serve as a temporary refuge for insects. The
floral tube is very short, seldom over one
millimeter in length so that there are few
insects which are unable to gather the nec-

tar. In Wisconsin Graenicher has taken on
the early goldenrod {S. juncea) 182 differ-
ent species of bees, wasps, flies, butterflies,
and beetles either sucking or collecting or
feeding on pollen; and on the Canada
goldenrod (^S*. canadensis) 141 visitors. The
honeybee visits the florets so rapidly that
the number of visits per minute cannot be
counted. A large amount of pollen is gath-
ered both by the domestic bee and by wild
bees. So abundant, indeed, are the flowers,
and so ample the stores of pollen and nec-
tar that four or flve of our native wild bees,
which fly only in autumn, never visit any
other plants. Some of the goldenrods are
pleasantly scented. Others are nearly odor-
less.

In New England many species of golden-
rod grow luxuriantly in pasture and waste
lands, and are almost the sole dependence
of the beekeeper for winter stores. The
bees work on the flowers with great eager-
ness, and the activity in the apiary equals
that of the midsummer honey flow. In
Massachusetts a marketable surplus, ac-
cording to Burton N. Gates, is often taken
in September. Allen Latham states that

Sweet goldenrod (Solidago odora).

once in three or four years strong colonies
in his apiary on Cape Cod would store up-
ward of a hundred pounds from fall flow-
ers. In southern Maine the bees never fail
to flll many frames with goldenrod honey,
which because of its golden-yellow color
and fine flavor is preferred by many per-
sons to white honey. In other sections, as
the South and West, it is of less import-

GOLDENROD

365

ance; but it comes at a time of the year
when it helps to keep the bees busy, and at
the same time serves to make up the loss in
stores during the latter part of the summer.

The species most common and valuable
to Eastern beekeepers are sweet-scented
goldenrod (S. odora), early goldenrod {S.
juncea), field goldenrod {S. nemoralis) ,
Canada goldenrod {S. canadensis), late
goldenrod (S. serotina), tall hairy golden-
rod {S. rugosa), and in great abundance in
salt marshes and along sea-beaches, the sea-
side goldenrod (;S'. sempervirens) . Unlike
most of the other species the inflorescence
of the common bushy goldenrod {S. gram-
inifolia) is in large flat-topped clusters or
corymbs. It is one of the best nectar-yield-
ers, and a favorite with honeybees. Once
in a woodland pasture largely overgrown
with the hairy goldenrod {S, rugosa) a
dozen or more plants of the bushy golden-
rod were 'found. Honeybees were the only
insects present, and they showed a marked
preference for the bushy goldenrod. They
were repeatedly seen to leave the latter
species ; and after flying about, but not rest-
ing on the flowers of the hairy goldenrod,
return to the plants they had left a few
moments before. A plant of each of the
above species was bent over so that their
blossoms were intermingled, appearing as a
single cluster; a honeybee alighted on the
bushy goldenrod, and it seemed very prob-
able that it would pass over to the flowers
of the hairy goldenrod, but such was not
the case, for presently it flew away to an-
other plant of the former. The flowers have
a sweet fragrance, and are visited by over
a hundred different species of insects. All
the goldenrods in New England yield nec-
tar, altho the early goldenrod {S. juncea)
seems to be of less value than some of the
later kinds; but, singularly enough, at
Marengo, Illinois, they are of little import-
ance to the beekeeper.

The quantity of nectar secreted by the
goldenrods varies greatly in different local-
ities. They are most valuable as honey
plants in New England and Canada. In a
large part of New England beekeeping is
chiefly dependent on this genus of plant
and the clovers, and in the absence of either
group would yield little profit. The golden-
rods are also abundant in Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick and in parts of Quebec,
Ontario, and Manitoba. They yield nectar

freely, and 40 or more pounds of honey per
colony from this source may be obtained,
but usually it is mixed with aster honey.
This genus is also listed among the honey
plants of British Columbia, Michigan, and
Tennessee, and is widely distributed in New
York, New Jersey and other Eastern States,
altho not of great importance. It is ap-
parently of more value in Florida, Louisi-
ana, and Texas.

But in the white-clover belt, iti Iowa, Illi-
nois, and the adjoining States, the golden-
rods yield little or no nectar. Great masses
of the clustered flow:ers are visited only oc-
casionally by bees. The conditions which
produce the secretion of a great amount of
nectar in white clover do not produce the
same results in the case of goldenrod. In
the arid cactus region of the Southwest,
and in the semiarid region of the Rocky
Mountain Highlands these plants are either
absent or no help to the beekeeper. Again,
in California ih^y are the source of a small
amount of honey. In New England the
bushy goldenrod {S. gramini folia) and the
taU hairy goldenrod (aS*. rugosa) yield the
most nectar; in Canada, S. squarrosa and
S. puherula; and iu California ^S*. calif or-
nica and aS'. occidentalis.

While the bees are bringiug in the nec-
tar, the whole apiary is filled with a dis-
agreeable sour smell, which on a calm even-
ing can easily be perceived at a distance of
100 feet. The odor observed during a
goldenrod honey flow has sometimes been
likened to that of decayiug carrion, but this
is a mistake. When such an odor is pres-
ent in the apiary, it is caused in most cases
by one or more stiukhorn fungi (Phallus
impudicus) . Where there is decaying or-
ganic matter, as near old stumps, these
fungi frequently spring up in the fall.
They exhale a strong fetid scent like
putrefying carrion, which may easily mis-
lead the beekeeper, as we have learned by
experience. The stem is hollow, and the cap-
like top deliquesces into a sticky, semi-
liquid mass, filled with spores, which is very
attractive to carrion flies. The flies feed on
the thick syrup and thus become an agent
in distributing the spores. As soon as the
fungi are removed the carrion-like odor dis-
appears. The soir- sr^ell of the nectar also
vanishes in a few days.

Goldenrod honey is very thick and heavj
with the golden-yellow color of the blossoms.

366

GRADING COMB HONEY

The quality is poor when first stored, but
when capped and thoroly ripened the flavor
is rich and pleasant. It is the general testi-
mony of New England beekeepers that
many persons prefer this honey to any
other. They regard its color, body, and
flavor as the qualities of an ideal honey.
When served on a plate for table use it is
hardly less attractive than white-clover
honey. Its genuineness is never questioned.
But the flavor is stronger than that of white
clover, which would probably be given the
preference by the majority as the great
universal staple to be used with bread and
butter. Extracted goldenrod honey crystal-
lizes with a coarse grain in about two
months.

We have never known goldenrod to fail
to yield freely even in cold wet weather,
but it does exceptionally well during a
warm dry fall. The honey has always
proven an excellent winter food for bees,
and without it there would be little hope
for bee culture in New England. So far
as the beekeeper is concerned goldenrod is
well named, and it would be a want of
gratitude on his part not to uphold its
claims as our national flower.

GRADING COMB HONEY.— The aver-
age comb-honey producer either does not
grade his honey at all, or else does it so
poorly that it is not worthy of the name of
grading. One large dealer in honey, who
buys and sells hundreds of thousands of
dollars' worth every year, makes the state-
ment that practically all the comb honey
that comes into his hands must be regraded
before it is fit to send out ; and, of course,
he has to chajge this up to the producer.
Even beekeepers who are supposed to be
up to date, he says, apparently pay Yery
little attention to this important matter.
A poorly graded honey, or one that is not
graded at all, brings two to three cents less
per pound on the whole shipment. If the
producer hasn't the time himself, he could
easily find some one who would be willing
to do such work for him for about half a
cent a pound. As a rule the grading should
be done by some member of the family, or
some one interested in the sale of the
honey. A hired man is inclined to be care-
less, and a poor grader reacts on his em-
ployer.

Ordinary marketable comb honey can be
divided into three or four classes: Fancy,
No. 1, and No. 2, or choice. Nothing but
fancy should be put iiito the fancy, and
nothing but No. 1 in No. 1. The author
has personally inspected thousands of
pounds of comb honey that had gone to
market, and it is certainly surprising how
some of the intelligent producers will mix
the fancy among the No. 1 and the No. 1
among the fancy, and even go so far as to
put choice among the fancy. This disgusts
the buyer or commission merchant, and, of
course, he charges up the cost of regrading
to the producer. Or if he does not grade
the honey over at all, it is sent out directly
to the consumer or retail merchant, who
will pay at least two or three cents a pound
less because the honey is of such uneven
quality.

In order to get the largest price possible
for comb honey, it will be necessary to
grade it ; and the more thoroly and honest-
ly the work is done, the higher will be the
price secured. If one is careless in grading
there will be inferior sections mixed in with
sections of a higher grade ; and, if the com-
mission man or buyer discovers this, he is
likely to " knock down the price " of the
whole easeful to the price of the inferior
sections. It is very important to have every
section in a case of the same grade.

Not much will be accomplished if there'
are a dozen different systems or rules of
grading. Various rules have been adopted
by the National Beekeepers' Association;
but they have never been accepted by the
large buyers and commission men of the
country; nor have they received the gen-
eral indorsement of even the beekeepers
themselves. The great difficulty encoun-
tered has been the diversity of conditions
and varietj^ of notions on the part of the
producer. For example, one section of the
country will have only white honey; an-
other will have largely amber and dark.
One locality prefers double-tier shipping
cases ; another single-tier. Some beekeepers
prefer plain sections, and others want bee-
way. The Colorado beekeepers prefer double-
tier cases and 1%-beeway square sections.
Under these diverse conditions it is a little
difiicult to get an agreement on one set of
rules covering the whole country. How-
ever, the Colorado beekeepers have adopted
a set of rules which, with some slight mod-

GRADING COMB HONEY

367

Honey sent by the Ontario Beekeepers' Association to the late King Edward.

Extra Fancy by the Root grading rules.

xYofe. — This would grade as

ifications from time to time, have been ac-
cepted and used by the beekeepers thruout
the great West and to some extent in the
East. After the new net- weight law went
into effect, the rules were modified in that
provision was made for weight of honey
in a section exclusive of section and ship-
ping case. The l«,test revised rules, as put
out in February, 1915, by the Colorado
Honey Producers' Association, are as fol-
lows :

COMB HONEY.

Fancy. — ^Sections to be well filled, combs
firmly attached on all sides and evenly capped
except the outside row next to the wood.
Honey, comb, and cappings white, or slightly
off color; combs not projecting beyond the
wood; sections to be well cleaned. No sec-
tion in this grade to weigh less than 12 1/^ oz.
net or 13% gross. The top of each section
in this grade must be stamped, " Net weight
not less than 12% oz."

The front sections in each case must be of
uniform color and finish, and shall be a true
representation of the contents of the case.

Nv/rriber One. — Sections to be well filled,
combs firmly attached, not projecting beyond
the wood, and entirely capped except the

outside row next to the wood. Honey, comb,
and cappings from white to light amber in
color; sections to be well cleaned. No sec-
tion in this grade to weigh less than 11 oz,
net or 12 oz, gross. The top of each sec-
tion in this grade must be stamped, "Net
weight not less than 11 oz. ' ' The front sec-
tions in each case must be of uniform color
and finish, and shall be a true representation
of the contents of the case.

Number Two. — This grade is composed of
sections that are entirely capped except row
next to the wood, weighing not less than 10
oz. net or 11 oz. gross; also of such sections
as weigh 11 oz. net or 12 oz. gross, or more,
and have not more than 50 uncapped cells all
together, which must be filled with honey;
honey, comb, and cappings from white to
amber in color; sections to be well cleaned.
The top of each section in this grade must
be stamped, "Net weight not less than 10
oz. ' ' The front sections in each case must
be of uniform color and finish, and shall be
a true representation of the contents of the
case.

Comb honey that is not permitted in ship-
ping grades:

Honey packed in second-hand cases.

Honey in badly stained or mildewed sec-
tions.

Honey showing signs of granulation.
Leaking, injured, or patched-up sections.

368

GRADING COMB HONEY

Sections containing honeydew.

Sections with more than 50 uncapped cells,
or a less number of empty cells.

Sections weighing less than the minimum
weight.

All such honey should be disposed of in the
home market.

EXTRACTED HONEY.

This must be thoroly ripened, weighing not
less than 12 lbs. per gallon. It must be well
strained, and packed in new cans; 60 lbs.
shall be packed in each five-gallon can, and
the top of each five-gallon can shall be
stamped or labeled, ' ' Net weight not less than
60 lbs.''

Extracted honey is classed as white, light
amber, and amber. 'The letters ''W, " "L.
A," ''A" should be used in designating
color; and these letters should be stamped
on top of each can. Extracted honey for
shipping must be packed in new substantial
cases of proper size.

STRAINED HONEY.

This must be well ripened, weighing not
less than 12 lbs. per gallon. It must be well
strained; and, if packed in five-gallon cans,
each can shall contain 60 pounds. The top
of each five-gallon can shall be stamped and
labeled, ''Net weight not less than 60 lbs.''
Bright clean cans that previously contained
honey may be used for strained honey.

Honey not permitted in shipping grades:

Extracted honey packed in second-hand cans.

Unripe or fermenting honey weighing less
than 12 lbs. per gallon.

Honey contaminated by excessive use of
smoke.

Honey contaminated by honeydew.
Honey not properly strained.

As stated, the revised rules are modified
to conform to the federal net-weight law,
which specifies that only the comb and
honey inside of the section and not the
section and honey shall be the measure of
the quantity sold by weight. Formerly the
section surrounding the comb was included.
Under the old rules it was permissible to
sell the gross weight of the section and the
honey at so much per pound. It will be
noted, therefore, that the new Colorado
grading rules specify the minimum weight,
net, and one ounce more gross, as the sec-
tions weigh approximately one ounce.

Before a limit was placed on the weight
of the sections, producers put up their
honey in haphazard ways. Heavy and light
sections — good, bad, and indifferent in other
respects — were all put together in one case.
This caused no end of complaint. Under
the new set of rules, this is impossible.

Producers of the country, after the new
net- weight law went into effect, September
1914, were compelled to mark every section
by weight. Sections that are approximate-
ly of the same weight are put in a class by
themselves. But no section in that weight
shall be less than a certain definite figure
in ounces. For instance, under the Colorado
grading rules, for "Fancy," no section may
weigh less than 12^/2 ounces net or IS^^
ounces gross. In grade No. 1 the figures
stand respectively 11 and 12 ounces; in
No. 2, 10 and 11 ounces.

The operation of the federal net-weight
law at first caused a general grumbling on
the part of the producer and the dealer
alike ; but the result has been salutary, be-
cause the dealer and the consumer now
know exactly for what their money is pay-
ing. While the producer at first lost a lit-
tle because any weight in excess of the min-
imum figure was given to the consumer, the
producer soon learned that it was necessary
for him to charge enough more for his
product to cover one ounce per section.

The " fancy " grade provides that the
comb shall be " firmly attached on all sides
and evenly capped" ; No. 1 grade provides
that comb shall be "firmly attached, not
projecting beyond the edge." The No. 2
grade makes no statement as to how the
combs are to be attached, but still provides
that " it shall be entirely capped except the
row of ceUs next to the wood."

The revised rules provide, also, that honey
must not be packed in second-hand cases
nor in badly stained or mildewed sections.
It must not show any signs of granulation
or leaks; must contain no honeydew, and
must not have an undue amount of cells
uncapped.

While these rules are perhaps adequate
for the great bulk of comb honey produced,
they are not quite flexible enough to take in
honey that will be above the Colorado
" Fancy " and No. 1 grade. The A. I. Root
Company have the following set of rules
which, it will be observed, provide for
" extra fancy," fancy. No. 1, and No. 2.

In harmony with the Federal net-weight
regulations and the statutes of many States,
all comb honey we handle is figured with the
weight of the section box as well as the case
excluded. To get the net weight, deduct the
Aveight of the empty case and 1 lb. 8 oz, fgr
the weight of 24 sections (1 oz. each).

GRADING COMB HONEY

369

COMB HONEY.

Extra Fancy. — Sections to be evenly filled,
combs firmly attached to the four sides, the
sections to be free from propolis or other
pronounced stain, combs and cappings white,
and not more than six unsealed cells on either
side. No section in this grade to weigh less
than 14 oz. net. Cases must average not less
than 22 lbs. net.

Fancy. — ^Sections to be evenly filled, comb
firmly attached to the four sides; the sec-
tions free from propolis or other pronounced
stain; comb and cappings white, and not
more than six unsealed cells on either side
exclusive of the outside row. No section in
this grade to weigh less than 13 oz. net.
Cases must average not less than 2.1 lbs. net.

No. 1. — Sections to be evenly filled, comb
firmly attached to the four sides, the sec-
tions free from propolis or other pronounced
stain; comb and cappings white to slightly
off color, and not more than 40 unsealed
cells, exclusive of the outside row. No sec-
tion in this grade to weigh less than 11 oz.
Cases must average not less than 20 lbs net.

No. 2. — Combs not projecting beyond the
box, attached to the sides not less than two-
thirds of the way around, and not more than
60 unsealed cells exclusive of the row adja-
cent to the box. No section in this grade to
weigh less than 10 oz. net. Cases must aver-
age not less than 18 lbs. net.

CULL COMB HONEY.

Cull honey shall consist of the following:
Honey packed in solid second-hand cases or
that in badly stained or propolized sections;
sections containing pollen, honeydew honey,
honey showing signs of granulation, poorly
ripened, sour, or "weeping" honey; sections
with combs projecting beyond the box or
well attached to the box less than two-thirds
the distance around its inner surface; sec-
tions with more than 60 unsealed cells, ex-
clusive of the row adjacent to the box; leak-
ing, injured, or patched-up sections; sections
weighing less than 10 oz. net .

EXTRACTED HONEY.

This must be well ripened, weighing not
less than 12 lbs. per gallon. It must be well
strained; and, if packed in five-gaUon cans,
each can shall contain 60 lbs. The top of
each five-gallon can shall be stamped and
labeled, ''Net weight not less than 60 lbs."
Bright clean cans that previously contained
clean Ught honey may be used for extracted
honey.

EXTRACTED HONEY NOT PERMITTED IN
SHIPPING GRADES.

Extracted honey packed in second-hand cans,
except as permitted above.

Unripe or fermenting honey, or weighing
less thaai 12 lbs. per gallon.

Honey contaminated by excessive use of
smoke.

Honey contaminated by honeydew.
Honey not properly strained.

It will be noted that while these rules are
somewhat similar to the Colorado rules,
they go further in providing an " extra
fancy" or sections weighing not less than
14 ounces net, and a case not less than 22
lbs. net. That of course means some of the
combs will weigh more than 14 ounces in
order to bring up the entire weight to 22
pounds. The " fancy " grade goes a little
further than the Colorado fancy in making
the net weight ounce higher, and provid-
ing that the ^veight of all sections in the

Fanc3' comb honey in 4 x 5 plain sections.

case shall not be less than 21 pounds net.
This means that the average w^eight will be
exactly 14 ounces. This provision of the
net weight per case puts the grading where
many producers will not or cannot meet it ;
but if they can they will get paid for it, as
there is a fancy trade that is willing to pay
for a high standard.

There is no doubt that the Colorado rules
as written will cover 95 per cent of all comb
honey produced; but they do not cover
special lots that will meet certain require-
ments, and for which a correspondingly
higher price will be secured.

370

GRADING COMB HONEY

Grading rules illustrated.

GRADING BY PICTURES.

Some effort has been made to grade
honey by means of pictures; bnt nothing
definite has been accomplished, as it is diffi-
cult to make photos flexible enough to take
m the various comb surfaces and cappings
of honey that can be included in one grade.
It is possible engravings may be used in
connection with the rules, to enable one to
determine what section will grade Fancy,
No. 1, and No. 2. It must be understood
that different persons would have a differ-
ent idea as to whether one section should be
graded as No. 1 or Fancy, and a set of pic-
tures showing the idea of an expert on
grading might be helpful to a novice. A
few half tones are here shown that may
give an idea of what is meant. But it
should be understood that in the pictures
the unsealed cells show black — much more
in contrast than in the actual combs them-
selves; or, to put it another way, in any
thing but an extra fancy, where no empty
cells show, the pictorial representations do
not show up as well as the real article.

The honey sent to the late King Edward
would be what is called "extra fancy
white," according to the Root grading, for
it is white honey put up in plain sections,

and, as the illustration shows, it is evenly
and nicely filled. When cells next to the
wood are all sealed, or nearly so, it should
be designated as " extra fancy " ; but as
such comb honey is the exception rather
than the rule there will be very little "extra
fancy" on the market, altho such honey is
generally shown at exhibitions when com-
peting for a prize.

In the half-tone engraving above shown
the honey in the top case, with its sample
section opposite, would, by the Root grad-
ing grade Fancy; that in the middle case
Fancy or No. 1, according to the amount of
soiled surface, and that in the bottom case
would be about No. 2.

TRAVEL-STAINED AND OTHER SOILED SECTIONS.

There are really four classes of discolored
sections, each due to a distinct and separate
cause. First there is what is called the real
travel-stained section. As its name indi-
cates, the cappings are soiled because the
bees have gone over the surfaces of the
cappings with their dirty feet.

Then there is another lot that are stained
because the sections are capped over in the
vicinity of old comb, dirt, or propolis. If
the faces of such sections are examined

GRANULATED HONEY

371

carefully,, it will be found that the stain or
discoloration goes clear thru. These discol-
orations are due to the bees taking up pieces

. of old black wax, propolis, or an}i:hing that

• will answer as a substitute or filler for pure
wax. The cappings of some sections of this

i sort are filled with bits of old rope, lint
from newspapers, small hard chunks of
propolis, fine slivers of wood — anything and
ever^-thing that is handy. Sections of this

h class often look like those of the fii'st class,
hence the frequent confusion.

In the thii-d class are those with soiled
cappings. due to the pollen dust or possibly
a thin layer of propolis stain.

The fourth and last class takes in all

I those that are called " greasy or " water-

i' soaked," having cappings that lie on the
honey. The covering to each cell is more
' or less transparent, or water-soaked — the
transparent part being half -moon shaped,
or hi the form of a rmg encircling a white
nucleus center that is not greasy or trans-
parent. Some of the traveled sections can
be improved by bleaching. See Bleachixg

COilB HOXEY.

GRANULATED HONEY.— Nearly all
kinds of liquid honey, and most comb
i honey, if given time enough, are liable to
|, cloud and partially solidify at the approach
of or after cold weather ; that is, it assumes
a granular mealy condition, something like
I moist Indian meal, and again like moist
I fine white granulated sugar. The granules
of candied honey may be about the size of
grains of ordinary table salt, or they may
be much finer.. Comb honey granulates less
readily than extracted, and only after a
much longer period. While cold weather is
j much more conducive to solidification, yet
li in some localities, and with some honeys
especially, the granulation takes on the
semi-solid form even in ivarm weather.
Some honeys will candy in a month after
being taken from the comb, and others will
remain liquid for two years. The honey
most likely to candy is extracted alfalfa,
the action taking place in from three to
j five months. Mountain sage from Califor-
I' nia and tupelo from Florida remain liquid
for a year or longer. Ordinary comb honey
hi sections, if well ripened, will usually re-
! main liquid as long as the weather is warm.
' After that time, especially if it has been
subjected to cold, there are likely to be a

few scattering granules in each cell. These
gradually increase in number until the
comb, honey, and wax become almost one
solid mass. In such condition it is unsuit-
able for the market, the table, or for feed-
ing back, and should be treated by the plan
described presently. See Comb Hoxet^

To PRODrCE.

IS GEAXULATIOX A TEST OF PUEITY ?

Ill the eyes of the general public, granu-
lated honey is not pure, many thinking it
has been " sugared." either with brown or
white sugar. But the very fact that it gran-
ulates solid is one of the best proofs of its
purity. If honey granulates only partially,
in streaks, it maa he evidence that it has
been adulterated with glucose. But even
pure honey will assume this condition, while
honey that is nearly two-thii'ds or three-
quarters glucose granulates very little.
Here, again, it must not be taken as positive
evidence that, because honey refuses to
granulate, or does so only slightly, there-
fore it is adulterated. The purity of any
honey can usually be determined thru the
taste by an expert beekeeper who has
tested various grades of honey, and knows
their general flavor. But. again, even taste
must not be considered as infallible. Doubts
can be removed only by referring a sample
or samples to an expert chemist. See Adul-

TEEATIOX OF HoXEY.

CAUSE OF GBAXrLATIOX.

As already stated, the primal cause of
granulation is alternation of cold and warm
weather. During any very cold tempera-
ture, prolonged for days, honey probably
would not candy at all, but chill into a hard
waxy mass, readily softening again in a
warm atmosphere. Honeys that contain a
larger amount of dextrose granulate more
readily than where the reverse is true.
Stirring or violent agitation hastens granu-
lation; and if some granulated honey is
mixed with ordinary liquid extracted, the
action is likewise hastened; for when honey
once starts to cloud, the process goes on
very rapidly, altho it may take from ten
days to six months for the honey to pass
entii'ely from the liquid condition into solid.

Under Bottlixg reference is made to
there being two ways to prevent honey
from granulating. The fii'st method em-

372

GRANULATED HONEY

ploys artificial heat. The second one uses
the actinic rays of the sun, that probably
have some effect in preventing granulation,
aside from the heat itself from the direct
rays of the sun. For full particulars re-
garding this, see Bottling Honey.

THE SCIENCE OF GRANULATION.

While no one knows very much as yet
about the theory of honey granulating, yet
it is known that, while the nectar of flow-
ers may be, chemically, cane sugar, yet after
it has been stored in the hive by the bees,
and partially digested or worked over as
explained under Honey elsewhere, it be-
comes an invert sugar. Ordinary honey is
a combination of dextrose and levulose, in
approximately equal portions, with a little
water. "Honey candies upon standing,"
says Dr. Headen, of the Colorado Experi-
ment Station at Fort Collins, " because of
the ability of its dextrose to assume a crys-
talline form much more readily than the
levulose." At the Colorado State beekeep-
ers' convention some years ago he showed
samples of free dextrose and levulose. The
former looked like very nice light-colored
brown sugar; the latter appeared like a
cheap grade of dark-colored molasses. The
doctor explained that, if granulated honey
were subjected to a sufficient pressure, the
greater portion of the levulose could be ob-
tained, leaving the solid mass largely dex-
trose. The levulose of honey candies slight-
ly, but is very different in appearance
from its dextrose constituent.

FREAKS OF HONEY-GRANULATING.

This problem of honey-granulating is
very interesting. It sometimes happens
that of two lots taken from the same barrel
or can, and placed in two self-sealing pack-
ages, the honey in one will soon granulate
while in the other it will remain liquid,
notwithstanding that both packages have
been subjected to the same temperature and
general conditions. If this happened in the
case of sealed packages only, we might sup-
pose that the sealing of one package was
less perfect than the other; but that the
candying does not depend on the sealing
altogether is shown by the fact that the
two lots of honey may not be sealed at all,
and yet one of them turus to a solid while

the other remains liquid. These instances
are by no means frequent ; indeed, they are
rare; yet they occur just often enough to
excite curiosity.

The author has seen alfalfa honey after
it had been in glass jars seven years, and
was told that it had candied solid within a
few months after being taken from the ex-
tracting-cans. At the time (seven years
after), it was going back to the liquid con-
dition. Some cans were almost entirely
liquid, and others had streaks of granula-
tion reaching out like the branches of an
evergreen tree all thru the package. There
was every evidence to show that so far it
had undergone a slight chemical change.
This change was doubtless due to the con-
tinued effect of light upon the granules.
See " Using the Sun's Rays to Prevent
Granulation," under Bottling.

HEATING LIQUID HONEY TO PREVENT
GRANULATION.

There is no plan that will act as an abso-
lute preventive; but by a method which
will be described, granulation can be de-
ferred for one and possibly two years. Even
after treatment, if the honey is subjected to
a freezing and thawing temperature for a
series of days, it will be almost sure to start
candying again. Continuous cold weather
with the mercury slightly above zero is not
so favorable as alternate cold and warm
weather.

After the first few days the honey will
appear slightly cloudy. This murky ap-
pearance grows more pronounced when the
action proceeds more rapidly, until the
point of solidification is reached. But there
is no excuse for having honey at any time,
either comb or extracted, kept in a zero or
freezing temperature ; for all practical pur-
poses it is possible to prevent extracted
honey candying for a year on the average.

HEATING TO LIQUEFY GRANULATED HONEY.

There are two methods commonly in
vogue to heat honey. One is, to put it in
a double boiler or vat and gradually raise
the temperature to 150 or 160 degrees
Fahr., holding it at that point till all the
honey is melted. It should then be put into
bottles or tin cans, and sealed while hot.
Another plan is to liquefy the granulated

GRANULATED HONEY

375

honey slowly, and keep it at a temperature
of 130 degrees Fahr. for three days. It
should not go above 135 degrees when the
heat is prolonged. The process of melting
will be very slow, and a continuous slow
heat so acts on the honey that it will remain
liquid much longer than when the heat is
applied more rapidly and raised to a higher
point.

For full particulars on bottling honey to
keep it in a liquid condition, see Bottling
Honey.

To liquefy honey in the granulated state,
or to heat it to prevent its getting into that

subjected to a slow heat. When the water

reaches a temperature of 160, or nearly
that, the fu-e is checked; the honey should
not become any hotter because it may other-
wise injure the flavor as well as the color.
Honey should never be brought to a boiling
temperature except to kill the germs of
foul brood, when all such honey may be fed
back provided it has boiled at least one-
half hour with a cover on, after having
been first thinned down with water so it
will not burn. Some recommend again
bringing to a boil just before feeding.
C. W. Dayton of Chatsworth, Cal., has
another and very sim-
ple outfit to liquefy
honey. As it can be
made out of materials
found in any beekeep-
er's yard, at very small
cost, many will, per-

Rauchfuss double boiler for liquefying honey

condition, the honey should be placed in a
double boiler — that is to say, a tank with
double walls, having the space between the
walls filled with water. This may be placed
on the stove and filled with honey. The
double boiler used by the Rauchfuss broth-
ers of Denver, Col., is shown in the engrav-
ing, and its construction will be apparent.

Where one doesn't have such a boiler,
and cannot afford one, he can make a very
good substitute by taking a large wash-
boiler. Into this he puts some blocks about
an inch square. On these blocks he places
one or possibly two 60-lb. square cans of
granulated honey, with caps removed. Or
he may put in two or three tin pails, or as
many as will go into the boiler. Should he
have something larger than a wash-boiler it
would be all the better, especially for
square cans. The honey is then poured
into the tin pails. If granulated solid it
may be handled with a spade. Water is
poured into the wash-boiler until it comes
within two inches of the top of the pails.
The whole is then placed on the stove, and

haps, prefer it to the
Rauchfuss double boiler
just described.

As will be seen from
the following cut, Mr.
Da}i;on makes use of
second-hand kerosene
cans, which may be pur-
chased for five cents
apiece. He cuts off the top at a con-
venient height, then washes out the cans
thoroly. For the purpose of liquefying he
uses eight on top of an ordinary cook-
stove. To keep the honey from burning he
gets some band ii'on, % x 3-16, at some
hardware store, and makes a series of
hoops on which the cans are to stand while

Dayton's outfit for liquefying granulated honey.

heating. Eight of them are placed together
as shown; then, to conserve the heat fur-

GRANULATED HONEY

T

Fig. 1. — Pouder's hot-air oven for liquefying honey in sixty-pound cans. The cans are held upside down, as
shown in Fig. 2 ; and the honey, as fast as it becomes liquid, runs down to the bottom of the oven and from
thence out the gate, away from the heat.

ther, a tin cover large enough to slip down
over the whole is provided.

With the help of this outfit Mr. Dayton
says he can melt up 200 lbs. of honey in a
very short time. These cans would be
more convenient to handle, were he to take
heavy wire, make some bails and hook them

into holes punched on two opposite sides.
He would then have a very serviceable pail
at a small cost; and, when the honey is
melted, he could lift it ofl the stove and
pour it into some other receptacle from the
corner of the cans. This corner makes the
finest kind of pitcher mouth.

aRANTJLATED HONEY 375

Fig. 2. — Pouder method of liquefying granulated honey, shewing the position of cans and gas-burner in the oven.

potjDer^s method of liquefyixg.

Undoubtedly the best arrangement for
liquef j^ing granulated honey in square cans
is that formerly used by Walter S. Pouder,
Here is what he says of it :

^ For years I have depended upon the hot-
water tank for melting five-gallon cans of
granulated honey, but have found many in-
conveniences connected with the method, and
have ^ been obliged to adopt a safer and
speedier method. To take care of the expan-
sion I have used syphons, coal-oil pumps,
funnels soldered to perforated screw caps,
and other methods, but have always found a
lack of tidiness; and in some instances we
have ruined very superior honey by over-
heating. If we overlooked a nail-hole near
the bottom of the can we would find a can of
sweetened water instead of honey; and in
lifting heated cans from the water I have
had the handles pull off; and the can, in fall-
ing back, would cause the hot water to slop
over and scald my toes till I have seriously
wished I did not have to dabble in honey at
aU.

I have longed for a method in which the
liquid honey would flow away from the heat
as fast as it became fluid, and at last I have
such a device in use, and I believe many
readers of this work will be interested. It
is simply a gas oven, made of heavy galvan-
ized sheet iron, and of a capacity for six
cans, three on each side of the gas burner,
cans to be suspended on brackets in an in-
verted position with caps removed. When in
use the honey-gate at the bottom of the oven
is left open; and as fast as the honey be-
comes liquid it flows to the outside tank.
Considerable experimenting was required in
order to maintain proper temperature, and
we have learned to regulate the temperature
by using a thermometer before we place any
honey in the oven. Naturally the highest
temperature is nearest the top of the oven,
and we are able to keep within 180 and 190,
and the temperature declines toward the bot-
tom of the oven, hot air being circulated
thruout. Some heat is slightly radiated against
the lower part of the cans, and I find this in
my favor, as it tends to prevent openings of
cans being clogged with granulated honey.

The two round openings in the front are
for ventilation, and to secure perfect com-

370

GRANULATED HONEY

bustion. There is a three-inch space between
the burner and the bottom of the oven; cans
are suspended with a 12-inch space between
the bottoms of the cans and the bottom
of the oven, and a two-inch space over the
tops of the cans; and there is also a 12-inch
space between the two rows of cans. We also
find the device very convenient in melting
jars of granulated honey without so much as
injuring the label by simply inverting the
open jar on a heavy wire screen.

Such an oven could be constructed for any
capacity — for two, four, or six cans at one
time, and could be used over a gasoline
stove where gas is not obtainable. A thermo-
stat could be added, thus making it an auto-
matic arrangement; but in my business 1
have not found it necessary. The honey, as
it flows into the outside tank, is just right to
be strained into our bottling-tank, and there
is no deterioration, because it could not be
overheated.

Visiting beekeepers pronounce the entire ar-
rangement a model of perfection, and I sub-
mit the above description by request.

Under Bottling Honey will be found a
description of a similar oven using steam.

MELTING HONEY IN A CAPPING-MELTER.

Under the head of Extracting and Comb
Honey the use of a capping-melter is de-
scribed with a set of illustrations. This
outfit is also well adapted for melting
granulated comb honey. Ordinarily granu-
lated extracted will run thru it very readily
without any danger at all of impairing the
flavor, and, what is more, it will be strained
in the process. In the case of candied comb
honey, the wax and honey will be very
nicely separated by reason of the heat caus-
ing the wax to melt.

now TO GET GRANULATED HONEY OUT OF
BROOD-COMBS AND YET SAVE BOTH.

Where honey granulates at all in brood-
combs, it will usually be only partially.
After uncapping, M. M. Baldridge of St.
Charles, 111., recommends placing all such
combs in the extractor, and throwing out
any portions of the honey remaining liquid.
He next lays the combs in the bottom of a
clean wash-boiler, and, from an elevated
dipper, pours water slowly into the cells.
He then turns the comb over and treats the
other side the same way. As fast as the
combs are splashed with water he places
them in a hive or super. After they have
all been doused he takes them out and sets

them over strong colonies. He says the
bees, by aid of the water, liquefy the whole
mass, clean the combs, and save both the
combs and honey.

Granulated comb honey in sections can
scarcely be treated in this way, as it would
be impracticable to uncap the cells. These
should be treated in a capping-melter, as
directed above.

HOW TO MAUKET GRANULATED
HONEY.

Some years ago attempts were made to
put up granulated honey in small packages
for retail purposes; but it was not until
the year 1901 that any real progress was
made. At that time R. C. Aikin of Love-
land, Col., began to put up his honey in

Aikin's paper-bag package dissected for the table.

cheap lard pails. He allowed it to granu-
late, and then sold it direct to consumers.
As the packages were cheap he could afford
to put the honey on the market at a price
that would compete with ordinary sugar.
A little later on he conceived the idea of
using stout paraffin-paper bags instead of
pails, and made a complete success of it.

Alfalfa honey, as is well known, granu-
lates very rapidly. As soon as the grain-
ing begins to show he draws the honey off
into the bags, and allows them to stand in
a cool place, when it soon candies. The
illustration shows the solid cake of granu-
lated honey after the bag is torn away pre-
paratory for the table. It readily granu-

GRANULATED HONEY

377

Aikin's paper-bag honej'-package for granulated honey.

lates into bricks, and will stand all kinds
of rough treatment. The only expense is
for bags, which can be bought in various
sizes. It was thought for a time that East-
ern clover and basswood honeys would not
granulate solid enough when put up in this
shape; but experience shows that they as
well as alfalfa can be handled in that pack-
age, provided they are already graining
when the bags are being filled, or if a little
old candied honey is mixed in to expedite
the process. This point is very important
in putting up such honey in bags or pails.

On each paper package are printed direc-
tions for liquef jdng, reading like this :

The solid condition of this honey is proof
of its purity. If preferred liquid, put it into
a pail, and the pail into warm water, but not
hotter than you can hold your hand in.
Never let it boil, for boiling spoils the honey
flavor. To remove the bag, cut from top to
bottom, then peel it around.

Granulated honey in paper bags should,
if possible, be sold before hot summer
weather comes on.

378

GRANULATED HONEY

GRANULATED HONEY IN OYSTER PAILS.

Another package, somewhat similar to
the Aikin bag, is the ordinary oyster pail.
When honey begins to granulate it can be

Square oyster pails for granulated honey.

drawn off into pails of proper sizes, the
covers put on, and the honey allowed to
stand. In the course of a few weeks in
cool weather it should become quite solid;
but it should be remembered that at an ex-
tremely cold temperature honey will not
granulate so readily as during alternate-

dition without fear of leaking. They can
also be handled quite roughly. If the
honey should granulate, so much the better.

GUTTING GRANULATED HONEY INTO BRICKS.

Honey in 60-lb. square cans that is gran-
ulated solid requires a considerable amount
of treatment before it can be gotten out,
put into bags, and candied again. The
cans must be immersed in a boiler of water
about 160 degrees, and kept th^re for hours
at a time, before the honey melts enough
to be poured out. Jesse A. Warren con-
ceived the plan of stripping the tin away
from the honey within, leaving it in the
form of a solid cake. With a pair of snips
he cuts off the top and bottom of the can,
then slits it down at one corner. He next
takes a strand of steel wire, attaching a
handle to each end and slips it under the

Round oyster pails filled with granulated honey.

ly warm and cool weather. Oyster pails
have the advantage that beekeepers can
buy them at any grocery, and they are al-
most as cheap as the Aikin paper bags.
They have the merit, also, that honey can
be sold in them in a practically liquid con-

Slab of honey nearly cut thru by wire.

cake of honey about two inches. The wire
is then folded around the cake, the two
ends crossed, and with a handle in each
hand the operator draws slowly, sinking the
wire gradually into the cake from all four
sides, until continuous pulling causes it to
pass clear thru. A thin-bladed knife is
now inserted in the slit where the wire en-
tered, and slabs off a chunk like that shown
in cut next page. Other pieces are slabbed
off in like manner. These are then cut up
into bricks, using the same general plan —
bricks all the way from 5 oz. up to 2 lbs.
They are wrapped in paraffin paper, on
which are general directions explaining
how to liquefy.

GRANULATED HONEY

379

Slab of hon

consistency as hard-granulated honey, the
same machine will slice up a cake of gran-
ulated honey in uniform bricks, and do it
more quickly and neatly than can possibly
be done with a single strand by hand.

In using the machine, care should be
taken not to crowd the frame holding the
strands of wrre too fast, as it is a job that
cannot be rushed without danger of break-
ing the wires. A gentle continuous pres-
sure is what is requii^ed.

For the perpendicular cuts two hea\^
weights are applied in such a way that,
after the cake of honey is put in place, the
horizontal frame and its wii^es gradually
work their way thru the mass. When the

ctjTTing granulated hoxey with a

MACHINE.

The plan just described can be used in
only a very limited way. It has the fur-
ther disadvantage that it is almost impossi-
ble to cut the cakes in regular sizes. A far
better apparatus is the ordinary butter-
cutter shown in the illustration, and sold
bv the ClevelanrJ H-alvanizing Works, Cleve-

Butter-cutter for cutting granulated honey into bricks.

land. The same thing, or something like it,
can be obtained of any dealer in dairy sup-
plies. This butter-cutter employs the same
principle — a wire di-awn taut for cutting
butter. Since butter has about the same

Machine for cutting granulated honey.

cake is cut the other way, on the horizontal
line, the operator takes hold of the gate, as
it were, pulling gently.

All that then remains is to take a thin-
bladed knife, pick up each brick and lay it
on a piece of paraffin paper. The brick is
then neatly wi^apped, when it is slipped
inside of a special carton made just large
enough to receive it. The carton is then
covered with another wi-apper, neatly let-
tered, and containing directions how to
liquefy the honey when desired. As a rule,
the consumer is advised to use the honey in
the solid form by explaining that it can be
spread on bread like so much butter.

It is advantageous to adopt the 1^-lb.
brick or 48 to the 60-lb. cake from the
square can.

380

GRANULATED HONEY

CAUTION".

The tin should not be cut off from the
can of candied honey unless the honey is
very solid. If it is slightly mushy there
will be trouble. The mass of granulated
honey will squash out of shape, and run all
over everything. There is no use in trying
to cut up honey like this into bricks. It
should either be melted or put into oyster
pails, where the process of solidifying can
be completed.

It may be questioned whether it pays to
cut off square cans and take the honey in a
solid chunk ; but it enables one to fill rush
orders for granulated honey on short no-
tice. Second-hand cans are worth only a
few cents; whereas to melt the honey out
and re-candy is out of the question.

GENERAL REMARKS ON HOW TO MAKE HONEY
CANDY QUICKLY.

As we have already explained, continu-
ous zero weather is not so favorable as
weather somewhere near the freezing-point,
now moderating up to the thawing-point,
then freezing, then thawing again. When
the weather remains continuously cold, set
the honey out in pails or bags in a room
where the temperature goes a little below
freezing, leaving it for a day or two, then
bringing it into a warm room. After it is
thoroly warmed up, put it into the cold
room again, and so continue with changes
of temperature. Stir the honey occasion-
ally, and always make it a rule to have
some granulated honey mixed with that
which is to be brought to a solid condition.

EDUCATING THE PUBLIC TO GRANULATED
HONEY.

The question may arise whether it would
be everj^where practicable to sell granu-
lated honey in any one of the forms de-
scribed. It could hardly be deemed advis-
able to furnish buyers or commission houses
that know neither the shipper nor the real
character of such honey. The packer or
producer must first introduce it to his own
customers — people who know him. The
nature of the honey must be explained;
how put up ; that only the purest and best
can be solidified in this manner; that it
can be liquefied by putting the pail in

water about as hot as the hand can bear,
etc. In short, the trade must be educated
to it. The fact that no unripe or glucosed
honey can be put up in bags or bricks will
be a strong " talking-point " on the purity
of the honey. When the facts once become
known J old prejudices give way.

In the early days the author cut up some
brick honey with a wire into packages
weighing 5 ounces. These sold for a nickel.
They went off so fast the demand could not
be supplied. For the sake of experiment
one 60-lb. can of granulated honey was
cut into 160 cubes. The honey cost 6V2
cents per pound. These cubes were retailed
at 5 cents each, or 13^/^ cents a pound —
doubling on the money.

After the trade gets educated to buying
honey in this form no effort at all is neces-

sary^ to sell it. The cost of the package is
practically nothing, and all trouble from
the honey candying again is overcome, be-
cause the trade has been educated to know
that such honey is the pure article.

The time may come when granulated
honey will be known on the market as a
common article of commerce ; because when
the public generally understands that such
honey must be of the best quality, and ab-
solutely pure, it will sell without any
trouble.

For particulars on how to prevent comb
honey from granulating and how to dispose
of it when it does granulate see Comb
Honey, To Produce.

H

HANDLING BEES.— See Manipula-
tion OF Colonies; FrameS;, Self-spacing;
Anger of Bees; also StingS; and Hives.

HAULING BEES.— See Moving Bees.

weed, is naturalized from Europe, and is
widely distributed over Eastern and Cen-
tral North America, particularly in Illi-
nois, Kansas, and Nebraska. In the last-
named State it reaches a height of from

Heartsease or smartweed.

HEARTSEASE {Polygonum Persiearia
L.). — This is one of a large family of nec-
tar-bearing plants of which the common
buckwheat is one. Heartsease, sometimes
known as lady's thumb, knotweed, or heart-

three to five feet, and grows luxuriantly on
all waste and stubble lands. The flowers in
oblong clusters are generally reddish pur-
ple, and, in rare instances, white. It yields
in Nebraska, and other States in that sec-

382

HIVE-MAKING

tion of the country, immense quantities of
honey. One beekeeper, T. R. Belong, at
the North American convention held in
Lincoln, Neb., in October, 1896, reported
two of his colonies yielded each 450 lbs.
extracted honey, and that the average for
his entire apiary was 250 lbs. per colony —
all heartsease. While perhaps these yields
were exceptionally large, quite a number of
other beekeepers reported at the same con-
vention an average of 200 lbs. from the
same source. There are in Nebraska acres
and acres of this honey plant extending
over the plains as far as the eye can reach ;
and, as it secretes nectar from August until
frost, the enormous yields are not sur-
prising.

Heartsease.

The extracted honey varies in color from
a light to a dark amber; and the flavor,
while not quite up to that of white honey,
is very good. Heartease comb honey, in
point of color, is almost as white as that
of clover. The extracted granulates in very
fine crystals, and looks very much like the
candied product of any white honey. Care
should be taken in liquefying, as hearts-
ease honey is injured more easily by over-
heating than any other honey.

HEAT. — See Artificial Heat.

HERMAPHRODITE BEES.— These are
nothing more nor less than freaks of na-
ture— that is to say, one will sometimes see
worker bees having drone heads and drones
with worker heads. They are not very com-
mon, it is true ; but about once a year there
is sent in to the author specimens of either
the one or the other kind of bees that have,
apparently, appropriated the wrong head.
The beginner needs to be reminded that the
head of a drone is very di:fferent in appear-
ance from that of a worker or queen. The
two compound eyes of the former are
large and well developed, while in the lat-
ter they are much smaller.

Under the heading of Drones^, to which
the reader is referred, mention is made of
another freak of nature — namely, drones
with variously colored heads.

HIVE-MAKING.— Unless one is so sit-
uated that freights are high, and unless,
also, he is a mechanic, or a natural genius
in " making things," he had better let hive-
making alone. Hives can be bought usual-
ly, with freight added, for much less than
the average beekeeper can make them him-
self, if spoiled lumber, sawed fingers, and
the expense of buzz saws are considered;
moreover, hives made in the large factories,
where they are turned out by the thou-
sands, by special machinery run by skilled
workmen, are generally much more accu-
rately cut.

The following letter from a practical
planing-mill man, who ought to know and
does know what he is talking about, sets
forth the actual facts as they are :

ELIAS BAMBERGER

Manufacturer of

SASH, DOORS, BLINDS
Contractors' and Builders' Supplies
including all kinds of Window Glass

Cor. Exchange and Adams Sts.
Estimates Furnished on Application

Freeport, Ills., June 11, 1907.
The A. I. Root Co., Medina, Ohio.

Gentlemen: — I received five of your AE
525-10 hives yesterday, and find that I can
not make my own hives and supplies as cheap
as yours and use the same quality of lumber.
You can see by the head of this letter that if
any one can make hives cheaper than your
prices or any of the so-called trust-hive "
manufacturers, I ought to be able to do it;
but, using the same quality of lumber, I can
not. John H. Bamberger.

I HIVE-;

But there is fun in making things, even
if they are not so well made; and there
are some rainy or wintry days in the year,
when, if one is a farmer, for instance, he
can as well as not, and at little or no ex-
pense for time, make a few hives and other
equipment. Again, if one lives in a for-
eign country, he may not be able to get the
hives here recommended.

REQUISITES OF A GOOD HIVE.

While it is very important to have good
well-made hives for the bees it should be

I clearly understood that the hive will not
insure a crop of honey. As the veteran
Mr. Gallup used to say, "A good swarm of
bees will store almost as much honey in a
half -barrel or nail-keg as in the most elab-
orate and expensive hive made, other things
being equal." This is based on a good
colony in the height of the honey season.
If the colony were small, it would do much
better if put into a hive so small that the
bees could nearly or quite fill it. This
would economize the animal heat so that
they could keep up the temperature for
brood-rearing and the working of wax.
Again, should the bees get their nail-keg
full of honey, unless more room were given
them they would have to cease work or

■ swarm, and either way a considerable loss
of honey would be the result. The thin
walls of the nail-keg would hardly be the
best economy for a wintering hive, nor for
a summer hive either, unless it were well
shaded from the direct rays of the sun.

P. H. Elwood of Starkville, N. Y., who
owns over 1,000 colonies, said in Gleanings
in Bee Culture some time ago, "A good
hive must fill two requirements reasonably
well to be worthy of that name. 1. It must
be a good home for the bees. 2. It must in
addition be so constructed as to be conven-
ient to perform the various operations re-
quired by modern beekeeping. The first of
these requirements is filled very well by a
good box or straw hive. Bees will store as
much honey in these hives as in any, and in
the North they will winter and spring as
well in a straw hive as in any other. They
do not, however, fill the second require-
ment ; and to meet this, the movable-frame
hive was invented."

Under A B C of Beekeeping, subhead,
The Modern Hive, are shown the general

iKING 383

features of a hive, and under Hives and
Frames will be shown styles and the spe-
cial features that belong to each. But
there is only one hive that is used largely
thruout the United States, and that is the
Langstroth — that is, it embodies the Lang-
stroth dimensions. The frame is 17% long
by 9% deep, outside measure. This estab-
lishes the length and depth of the hive. As
to width, that depends upon the number of
frames used. It is the rule to allow 5-16
bee-space between the ends of the frames
and the inside ends of the hive. This wiU
make the inside length of a Langstroth
hive 18^ ii3ches, or the outside length 20
inches if made of yg-^'^^'h planed lumber.
It is the rule to make the depth of the hive
% inch deeper than the frame — % inch
under the frame and ^ inch on top. For
dry climates a greater allowance should be
made on account of shrinkage. The selec-
tion of the frame, the number to the hive,
and the distance they are spaced apart,
then, determines the dimensions of the hive
itself.

As stated, the Langstroth is the standard
thruout the United States; but there has
been a tendency on the part of a very few
toward a frame of the same length, but two
inches deeper. There is also a tendency to
go to the other extreme in adopting a
frame of Langstroth length, but two or
three inches shallower, using two stories of
such a hive for a single brood-nest.

On account of the diverse notions of
beekeepers and the peculiarities of locality,
it would hardly be w^orth while to give gen-
eral directions for the manufacture of any
one hive; and, besides, no printed direc-
tions will give as good an idea of the con-
struction of a hive as the very thing itself.
For these and other reasons it would be far
better for the one who intends to make
hives to send to some manufacturer for a
sample in the fiat, all complete. With the
several pieces for patterns he will then
know exactly the shape and dimensions,
how to make rabbets, and in general how
the hive is constructed in every detail. If
one does not find on the market just such a
hive as suits his notion, of course he sees,
or thinks he sees, " in his mind's eye " just
what he wants to make; but in that case
the author would advise • him to make a
sample or fcwo before he makes very many
of them; for nine times out of ten — yes,

384

HIVES

ninety-nine times out of one hundred — he
will discard the one of his " own get-up,"
and adopt some standard made by manu-
facturers generally.

HIVE ON SCALES.— See Scale Hive.

HIVES.— The word "hive," broadly
speaking, covers any sort of inclosure in
which bees make their home. In the prim-
itive days these consisted of hollow logs
two or three feet long with a board for the
cover and another board for the bottom.
Later, boxes were constructed. (See Box
Hives.) In early times straw skeps were
used, and are still used in parts of Europe
today. See Skep.

The modern hive consists, first, of a
brood-body, a box without top or bottom,
to hold a series of frames. (See Frames.)
Each frame incloses a comb. But no hive
is complete without a roof or cover, and a
bottom, usually called a bottom-board. In
addition to the roof and hive body, with its
frames and bottom, there are upper stories,
or supers. A super, just as its name indi-
cates, is an upper story — a box without
cover or bottom to hold either a set of
frames, the same as in the brood-nest or
shallower, or a set of holders to support
section honey-boxes in which bees store
honey. For a further description of mod-
ern hives, see A B C of Beekeeping^ espe-
cially the drawing showing the interior and
exterior of the hive. For particulars re-
garding comb-honey supers, see Comb
Honey, Appliances for. For directions
to make, see Hive-making. For a descrip-
tion regarding the hives of early days, lead-
ing up to the present, see Hives, Evolu-
tion OF.

dimensions of hives.

Hives based on Langstroth dimensions
are the standard. Some 30 years ago there
were in use the American, Gallup, Lang-
stroth, Adair, and Quinby frames. All of
these required, of course, hives of different
dimensions. Between the Adair, the Gal-
lup, and the American there was but very
little difference, comparatively, as they
were cubical, and very nearly of a size.
The Langstroth was long and shallow — the
shallowest frame that had then been intro-
duced; and the Quinby, having about the
same proportions, was the largest frame in

general use. By consulting the diagram
containing the different sizes of frames it
will be seen that there are practically two
classes — the square and the oblong. As
there would be but very little difference,
theoretically and practically, between the
results secured with a Gallup, American,
and Adair, we will consider the arguments
for the square frame.

square frames.

In nature, bees have a tendency to make
a brood-nest in the form of a sphere;

Gallup. ^

18]^
Quinby.

13^8
A3AIR. Ji^

12

American.

19/8

Closed-end Quinby.

Heddon,

5% X 18iV

Danzenbae
X 17.

17^8

Jumbo.

patches of brood are more inclined to be
circular than square or oblong. Theoreti-
cally, then, a circular frame would be the
best ; but as that would not be practicable,
owing to the difficulty in the construction
of the frame and hive, obviously the square
frame would come the nearest in conform-
ing to nature and a perfect cube for the
hive. The square frame, as a rule, calls
for a hive in the exact shape of a cube. If,
for instance, the frame was 12 inches'
square, outside dimensions, then the hive,
if the combs were spaced 1% inches apart,
and 12% inches wide inside, should take in

HIVES

385

just nine American frames. Sueli a hive,
it was argued, would conserve the heat of
the bees to the best advantage, would give
the greatest cubical contents for a given
amount of lumber — barring, of course, the
perfect sphere. As it economized heat in
winter, it would winter bees better than a
hive having oblong frames.

All of this seemed to be very pretty in
theory ; and there are some users of square
frames who insist that the theory is borne
out by actual experience. But the great
majority of beekeepers, after having tried
the square and the oblong frame, finally
decided in favor of the Langstroth for the
following reasons :

THE LANGSTROTH FRAME AND HIVE AND
WHY IT BECAME THE STANDARD,

1. A shallow frame permits the use of a
low flat hive that can easily be tiered up
one, two, three, and four stories high. This
is a great advantage when one is running
for extracted honey, as all that is necessary
when the bees require more room is to add
upper stories as fast as the bees require
them, and then at the end of the season ex-
tract whenever it is convenient. Square or
deep hives cannot be tiered up very high
without becoming top-heavy and out of
convenient reach of the operator.

2. The long shallow frame is more easily
uncapped because the blade of the uncap-
ping-knife can reach clear across it.

.3. The shape of the Langstroth frame
favors an extractor of good proportion.

4. A deep frame is not as easily lifted
out of a hive ; is more liable to kill bees in
the process of removing and inserting
frames.

5. The shallow frame is better adapted
for section honey. It is well known that
bees, after forming a brood-circle, are in-
clined to put sealed honey just over the
brood. In a frame as shallow as the Lang-
stroth, there will be less honey in the
brood-nest and more in the boxes ; for bees,
in order to complete their brood-circle in
the Langstroth, will, with a prolific queen,
often push the brood-line almost up to the
top-bar, and, consequently, when honey
comes in, will put it into the supers or
boxes just where it is wanted.

6. When bees are left to themselves they
wiU generally form a cluster late in the
13

season, immediately over the entrance of
the hive, and down two or three inches
from the top of the frames. As the season
progresses the cluster eats into the stores
above it; and on reaching the top it works
backward. It therefore transpires that the
cluster reaches the top of the hive where it
is the warmest during the coldest part of the
year. In the case of the ordinary square
frame the bees will be found just over the
entrance, but four or five inches from the
top ; but in the midst of the coldest weather
the bees may not and probably will not be
near the top of the hive; but on reaching
the top they can progress backward only a
comparatively short distance because the
top -bar of a square frame is relatively
short. In the case of the Langstroth hive,
the bees during the entire cold part of win-
ter stay in the top of the hive, where it is

The original Langstroth hive.

the warmest. As the stores are consumed
they move backward and gradually reach
the back of the hive, and by that time
warmer weather will probably prevail.

In actual experience bees seem to winter
just as well on a Langstroth as any other;
and, as the shallow frame is better adapted
to section honey, beekeepers naturally
turned toward the shallower frame, with
the result that now probably 99 per cent
of all the frames in the United States are
of Langstroth dimensions; and whatever
advantage there may be in favor of the
square shape, the beekeeper is able to buy
standard goods so much cheaper that he
adopts the Langstroth frame.

386

HIVES

FRAMES SHALLOWER AND DEEPER THAN THE
LANGSTROTH.

A few years ago there was a tendency
toward a frame still shallower than the
Langstroth, which resulted in what is called
the Heddon; but as eight or ten of these
frames, or one super, make too small a
brood-nest, two sets of such frames are
used to accommodate a whole colony. Of the
Heddon hive more will be given further on.

There is another and growing class of
beekeepers who feel that the Langstroth is
not quite deep enough, and who, therefore,
prefer the Quinby. They argue that 10
such frames, or frames Langstroth length,
and two inches deeper, are none too large
for a prolific queen, and that these big col-
onies swarm less, get more honey, and win-

Onginal dovetailed hive, Langstroth dimensions.

ter better. Of these, more will be said un-
der the subject of "Large vs. Small Hives."

The old original Langstroth hive that the
Rev. L. L. Langstroth put out contained 10
frames 17% x 9%.* Each hive had a por-
tico, and cleats nailed around the top edge
to support a telescoping cover, under which
were placed the comb-honey boxes, or big
cushions, for winter. There was a time
when this style of hive was the only one
used ; but owing to the fact that it was not
simple in construction, that the portico was
a splendid harboring-place for cobwebs and
gave the bees encouragement for clustering
out on hot days instead of attending to
their work inside of their hives, a far
simpler form of hive was devised. The
Simplicity, first brought out by A. 1. Root,
having Langstroth dimensions, was the re-
sult. Instead of having telescope covers

* The length for nearly 50 years has been 17%
instead of 17%.

the contiguous edges of the hive were bev-
eled so as to shed water and give in eifect
a telescoping cover. The cover and bottom
of this hive were exactly alike, the entrance
being formed by shoving the hive forward
on the bottom, thus making an entrance as
wide or narrow as seemed most desirable.

But it had one serious defect, and that was
the beveled edge. It was found to be prac-
tically impossible at times, on account of
the bee-glue, to separate the upper story
from the lower one without breaking or
splitting the bevel. Finally there was in-
troduced a hive very much the same, hav-
ing straight square edges, and along with
it came the feature of dovetailing or lock-
cornering, as shown in the hive previous.

Modern hive based on Langstroth dimensions.

This hive was introduced in 1889, and
seemed to meet with the general approba-
tion of beekeepers. It embodied in the
main the Langstroth dimensions, but used
eight instead of ten frames; for at the
time it was introduced, nearly every one
preferred eight frames. The original Dove-
tailed hive had a flat cover, and a bottom-
board made the same as the cover, except

HIVES

387

that there were side-cleats to raise the hive
off the bottom-board.

Since that time there have been modifica-
tions of the hive, and it is now made in
eight, ten, and twelve frame sizes. While
the eight was used almost exclusively, the
ten-frame size has nearly supplanted it-
There is also a tendency toward the twelve-
frame size. See The Twelve-frame hive
further on in this article.

The cover is made single or double. The
body is locked at the corners, and the bot-
tom-board is made in several styles. See
Entrances.

The Hoffman self-spacing frames, de-
scribed under Frames^ Self-spacing^ and
Frames, to Manipulate, also Frames, are
used in the Dovetailed hive almost exclu-
sively. The supers for this hive are the
same as those shown under Comb Honey.

As now constructed the hive embodies
the very latest developments in hives and
hive-construction. It can be handled rap-
idly, and is especially adapted for out-
apiary work, where frequent moving from
one field to another is necessary. It is
standard, being made by all the supply-
manufacturing concerns, and is for sale
everywhere. The lock corner is especially
well adapted for hot climates ; and for any
place it is far superior to corners depend-
ing on nails alone. The ordinary miter or
halved joint is inclined to pull apart in
parts of California, Texas, Florida, and
other portions of our country subject to
extremes of heat, or hot dry winds.

Having discussed hives in a general way,
it will now be in order to take up covers.

Flat cover, old style.

A very important requisite of a good
hive is a good cover. While the flat cover
— one making use of one flat board and
two cleats — was a good one, yet, owing to the
width of the single board, and increasing
scarcity of such lumber, something made of
two or three narrow boards had to be used.
Accordingly, the Excelsior was devised. It
consists of boards not exceeding 6 inches in
width, because narrow boards can be easily

secured, and because they will not shrink
and check under the influence of the
weather like the wide ones. The two side
boards, B, B, are beveled or chamfered on
one side so that the one edge is left only

Excelsior flat cover.

about three-fourths the thickness of the
other edge, but the ends are left full thick-
ness of the boards to shed water away from
the edge and to give more nail-room for the
grooved end-cleats, E, that slip over and
bind the whole together. The purpose of
the chamfering is to shed water to the sides
of the hive and away from the centerpiece,
AD. Of this centerpiece AD, the part D
projects beyond A. It is tongued and
grooved to fit a corresponding tongue and
groove edge of the two side-boards that
were beveled to shed water. The space
under D is filled with a thin board ^ inch
thick, the ends of which project into the
%-inch groove of the end-cleats, E, where
it is securely held in place.

Gable cover.

In very hot climates a two-thickness or
gabled cover is used. The lower part of
the cover is flat, and the upper part ga-
bled, as shown in the accompanying cut.

388

HIVES

TELESCOPE COVERS.

There is a strong tendency at the pres-
ent time toward a double or telescopic
cover, as is shown in the illustrations below.

The lower cover consists of two or more
tongued-and-grooved boards, % inch thick,
with rim of % x %-iiich wooden strip
around the edge. At the center there is a

Telescope cover.

hole for a Porter bee-escape, so that by in-
serting the escape the inner cover can be
used as an escape-board. This inner cover
takes the place of the metal-bound super-
cover as used formerly. It lies directly
over the frames, and over this is placed a
shallow telescoping cover made of % lum-
ber, and covered with sheet metal or roofing
paper.

A top protection of this sort is not only
better than a single-board cover, but it
shuts out the weather. The air-space be-

Inner cover.

tween the two covers gives the bees better
protection from the direct rays of the hot
sun if the hives are out in the open, and,
if kept painted, such a cover will last in-
definitely. The lower cover will be sealed
down by the bees. The upper one cannot
blow off because the downwardly project-
ing sides hold it in place. Of course such
an arrangement makes extra handling in
opening and closing the hive; but the
majority of beekeepers are beginning to
see that this is more than offset by the
greater durability and better protection.

This cover is so far superior to all the
other covers previously shown that it is
rapidly superseding them. It is warmer
in winter and cooler in summer. It is also
more durable.

HIVE BODIES OR BROOD-NESTS.

These are plain boxes without top or bot-
tom, preferably lock-cornered. They are
rabbeted at the upper inside ends to re-
ceive the projections of the frames referred
to later on. Under head of "Frames" and
"A B C of Beekeeping" there will be
found a diagram showing the position of
the hive body or brood-nest, and how the
frames to hold the combs hang in the rab-
bets before mentioned. Practically all of
the hives sent out by the regular beehive

factories are lock-cornered for additional
strength. When made in local planing-
mills the corners are usually "halved" by
cutting out a rabbet in the sides or ends;
but the lock-cornering is much preferable
for the reason stated.

HIVE BOTTOMS^ OR FLOORS.

The general practice is to make the bot-
tom or floor of the hive separate from the
hive body. Bodies are made to sit down
upon raised edges of the floor or bottom.

This floor should preferably have a deep
side and a shallow side. During hot weather
it is customary to use the deep side so as to

HIVES

389

r

give more space under the hive, affording a
larger entrance and better ventilation. This
deeper side is usually % i^ch in depth ; the
shallower side, onh^ % inch, is used by
those who prefer to have a shallower space
under the hive. When the wide space is
used it is customary to have a contracting
entrance-cleat. When colder weather comes
on, or where the colony is weak, it is good
practice to contract the entrance down to
the space of ^ inch by anywhere from ^/^
to 8 inches wide. (See Entrances.)

There are different styles of floor-boards
or bottoms; but the kind used by those
who have factory-made hives is like that
shoT\TL in the illustration on the preceding
page.

BROOD-FEAMES.

ordinary loose hanging frame, peimit of
currents of air around the ends of the
frames, and (it is claimed), as a conse-
quence, bees are not so much inclined to
bring their brood clear out to the end-bars
as they do when closed ends are used. The
difference is more theoretical than real.

THE BINGHAM HI^^E.

Mr. Quinby was the &st to apply Hu-
ber's principle of closed-end frames in this
coimtry (see Hrnes, EvOLrTiox of). This
he introduced shortly after the appearance

The modern hive consists not only of the
parts already mentioned — cover, body, and
bottom — but a series of frames, all of
which hold a comb. In a modern hive the
top of the frame has projections at each
end that hang in the rabbets of the hive
body. Each of the frames is removable,
and may or maj^ not be self -spacing. Some
frames have the same width all around.
Some have the end-bars made a little wider
near the top, and some have end-bars that
make contact with the adjacent end-bars
their entire length. The latter are called
"closed-end" frames.

For particulars regarding frames the
reader is referred to the A B C of Bee-
keeping at the beginning of this work, and
Frames and Frames, self-spacing.

As the closed-end frames make up a part
of the inner walls of the hive in which they
are used, a description will be given at this
point.

CliOSED-END FRAMES.

Closed-end frames may be divided into
two classes — the standing and suspended.
The Quinby, already spoken of under
Frames^ Self-spacing^ the Bingham, and
the Heddon, are of the first-mentioned
class; the Danzenbaker belongs to the lat-
ter class. It is generally considered that
frames with closed uprights, while not so
convenient, perhaps, for general manipula-
tion, are better adapted to wintering.
Frames with partly closed end, like the
Hoffman, or open aU the way up, like the

The Bingham Hi'

of the Langstroth hive. Xot long after.
Mr. Bingham in 1867 brought out his hive
with closed-end frames with a narrow top-
bar and no bottom-bar, but still embody-
ing the chief features of Huber's hive of
1789. But the peculiar feature of the
Bingham was that it made use of shallow
frames only five inches deep, a series of
them being lashed together by means of a
^vil^e loop and stretcher sticks, said loop
drawing on the foUower-boards in such a
way as to bring tight compression on
frames inclosed in the manner shown. Seven
of these brood-frames in the hive made up
a brood-nest, and an entii'e brood-nest
might consist of one or two sets of frames.
The top-bar was drojDped down from the
top of the end-bars a bee-space, while the
bottom-bars were flush with the bottoms of
the end-bars. With a bottom-board having

390

HIVES

a %-inch strip on each side, the ordinary
bee-space is preserved thru the several divi-
sions of the hive.

The super is like any ordinary one
adapted to comb honey, except that it uses
coiled springs to produce the necessary
tension.

Altho Mr. Bingham used this hive for
a great many years, and quite successfully
too, no one else seems to have done much
with it; but a modification of the hive is
shown in the Danzenbaker and the Heddon.

THE DANZENBAKER HIVE.

The Danzenbaker consists of a brood-
chamber of the same length and width as
the ten-frame Langstroth Dovetailed hive,
but deep enough to take in a depth of

frame of only 7^ inches. The rabbet, in-
stead of being near the upper edge, is
dropped down about midway; or, more
strictly speaking, there is a cleat or board
nailed on the inside of the ends of the hive.

On this support hang the closed-end brood-
frames, pivoted at the center of the end-
bars by means of a rivet driven thru from
the inside, as shown at I in the diagram.
Ten of these frames fill the hive. As these
frames are pivoted in the center, as shown

at C, they can be reversed; and this feat-
ure, while it costs nothing, is something to
be desired, as it enables us to have all
frames filled solid with comb.

The bottom of the hive is the same as
that for the Dovetailed hive, already de-
scribed. The super for comb honey takes
in the 4x5 plain section, and makes use of
the fence-separator system. The sections
are supported in section-holders; indeed,
the whole arrangement is the same as the

-- ---

section-holder super already described in
Comb Honey.

This hive was designed primarily for the
production of comb honey. As a comb-
honey hive it is a very good one; but on
account of handling the brood-frames it
has become so unpopular that it has almost
gone out of use. The hive with Hoffman
or with the unspaced frames, will, in a
given time, permit the examination of
three or four times the comb surface of the
closed-end frames unless we make a single
exception of the closed-end Quinby, illus-
trated and described under the head of
FRAMES, Self-spacing. Where bee glue
(propolis) is very abundant the closed-end
frames become so badly gummed up that
it is almost impossible to separate them at

HIVES

391

times. For that reason the foul-brood bee
inspectors generally advise against their
use.

The same general criticisms above men-
tioned would apply with equal force
against the Heddon hive next described,
which likewise, and for the same reasons,
has all but gone out of use.

THE HEDDON HIVE.

This hive was patented and introduced
in 1885. Its peculiar and distinguishing
feature was in the use of one brood-
chamber divided into halves horizontally,
each half containing a set of eight closed-
end close-fitting brood-frames, 5% inches
deep by 18 1-16. The end-bars, as already

The Heddon Hive.

stated, were close-fitting — ^that is, the brood-
frame slid into the hive with just enough
play to allow of its easy removal and inser-
tion. On the bottom inside edge of the
ends of each case were nailed strips of tin
to support the frames, and the whole set of
eight were squeezed firmly together by
means of wooden thumbscrews as shown.
Under the head of Comb Hoxey mention is
made of the value of compression for
squeezing sections or section-holders or
wide frames. The more tightly the parts
are held together, the less chance there is
for bees to chink propolis into the cracks.

The bottom-board of this hive was much
like that used on the standard hives, in
that it had a raised rim on the two sides
and end to support the brood-chamber, and
a bee-space above the bottom-board, and at

the same time provided for an entrance at
the front. The cover was the ordinary flat
one-board, cleated at the ends.

The purpose of the inventor in having
the hive divided in this way was to afford
more rapid handling, and to accomplish
contraction and expansion by simply tak-
ing from or adding to the brood-part of
the hive one or more sections. This divisi-
ble feature of the hive, according to its in-
ventor, enabled him to handle hives instead
of frames, to find the queen by shaking the
bees out of one or both of the shallow sec-
tions. The horizontal bee-space thru the
center of the brood-nest he considered an
advantage in wintering, in that the bees can
move up and down and laterally thru the
combs.

THE DADANT HIVE.

Almost the very opposite of the Heddon
in principle and general construction is the
Dadant hive. While Mr. Heddon divided
the brood-chamber into one, two, or three
separate portions, the Dadants have it all
in one large complete whole. The frames
are 18^ x 11^ — that is to say, they have
the Quinby dimensions. There are ten to
the hive. Such a hive has about the equiv-
alent capacity of a twelve-frame Lang-
stroth, regular depth. The Dadants have
always insisted that their ten-frame Quin-
bys, when compared with the ten-frame
Langstroth, averaged up year after year,
would give far better results, both in honey
and in economy of labor. This opinion is
not based on the experience of two or three
years, but on a period covering a good
many years. The large hives, they claim,
swarm less, produce more honey, and win-
ter better. They claim they do not have to
exceed two per cent of swarming, and this
average has been maintained year after
year. Apparently the colonies in these
large hives have very little desire to swarm ;
but when they do swarm the swarms are
enormous. In regard to this point, m an
article that was published in Gleanings in
Bee Culture, C. P. Dadant says:

Don't understand me to say that, with large
hives, you will have no swarms, for this is
incorrect; but if you want to prevent swarm-
ing to the greatest possible extent, you must,
first of all, have large hives. Other things
are required, such as the removal of the
excess of drone combs, plentiful ventilation.

392

HIVES

a supply of surplus combs, etc.; but the sine
qua non, in our eyes, is large hives.

With a little care it is not difficult to keep
swarming down to such a point that the
natural increase will barely make up for
winter losses. In our case we find it insuf-
ficient, and we resort to artificial swarms, or
dividing, which we find much more satisfac-
tory, for w^e can breed from the queens that
we prefer, and, at the same time, keep our
best colonies for producing honey. Every
practical beeman will agree that it is the
large colonies that give the large crops,
whatever may be his opinion as to the size
of hive needed.

exceptions. And I hold that you cannot do
this as fully with a two -story eight-frame
hive as with a hive that may be enlarged,
one frame at a time, till it contains all the
room that the queen may need. Your eight-
frame hive gives her too much room at once
when it is doubled in size. If the season is
a little cool, there is a chance of delaying
the breeding by chilling the combs. The bees
will then concentrate themselves upon the
brood and keep it within narrow limits, for
the queen will seldom go out of the cluster
to lay.

As to the matter of wintering, these

Dadant-Quinby hive. — "From Langstroth on the Honeybee," revised by Dadant.

But if we must have swarms, with large
hives they will be large, take my word for it.

The Dadants have claimed that the ordi-
nary eight and ten-frame hives are not
large enough for good prolific queens ; that
a brood-frame of Langstroth depth is too
shallow; that one never knows that a good
queen can do till she is given a large hive
and a large frame. Again, in one of their
articles for Oct. 1, 1898, in Gleanings in
Bee Culture, C. P. Dadant says:

With the large hives we found queens that
had a capacity of 4500 eggs per day. Excep-
tions, you will say? Certainly, but it is a
very nice thing to give a chance for those

Jumbo hives seem to offer exceptional ad
vantages. Mr. Dadant, in one of his arti-
cles, says :

The facts upon which I base my conclusion
are those facts that we have seen under our
own eyes, of better success in wintering with
the large deep hive. We have thus stronger
colonies for winter, which is in itself a great
advantage, as the number of bees has much
to do with their ability to keep warm, and
their ability to retain the heat has also much
to do vsdth their honey consumption. A weak
colony suffers much from the cold, and is

compelled to eat more But to me the

greatest advantage of the deep large frame
is the greater ease bees have in reaching the
honey while preserving a more compact cluster.

mvES

393

The Dadants have a considerable follow-
ing in their vicinity; and in France the
Dadant-Quinby has become almost the
standard hive. But it should be remem-
bered that the Dadants are extracted-honey
producers ; and in France liquid honey has
rather the preference. There can be no
sort of doubt that these large hives, for
extracted honey, have some advantages
over the smaller ones; but vrhen it comes
to the production of comh honey, there is a
question, and a big one too : Is such a large
hive as good as a smaller one? In some
localities the bees might fill only a brood-
nest in such a hive ; whereas if a shallower
one were used, like the Langstroth, the
available comb space below would be filled
with brood; and the hone}', when it did
come in, and what little there was of it,
would be forced into the supers. In the
selection of a large hive, then, a good deal
depends on the localitj", and whether one
proposes to run for comb or extracted
honey.

THE TEN-FRAAIE HRT: OF EXTRA DEPTH.

2Ys inches deeper, with Langstroth top-
bar, would give the hive equal capacity.
Such a hive would take regular Langstroth
ten-frame bottom-boards, covers, supers,
honey-boards, winter-cases — in fact, every-
thing adapted to the regular ten-frame
Langstroth Dovetailed hive. As the ten-
frame hive is one of the standards, it seems
reasonable to suppose that, if the large
hive is really better, such a hive would be
more simple and cost less than to adopt
regular Quinby-frame dimensions, and
make the hives as the Dadants show it.
Indeed, we have been told that the Dadants
would favor such a hive rather than the
one they have adopted, if they were to start
anew. The supply-dealer will make the
brood-chamber for about 25 per cent more
than the regular ten-frame Langstroth
Dovetailed; the super, covers, and bottom-
boards would, of course, cost no more.
AVhere one by reason of locality or prefer-
ence desires such large hives, the Jumbo
ten-frame Langstroth of extra depth, suit-
able for taking standard ten-frame fix-
tures, is the hive to select.

It was suggested by A. IST. Draper, for-
merly of Upper Alton, 111., one of Mr.
Dadant's followers, that, instead of making
a hive after the Quinby dimensions, and on

The comparative difference in size between a regular
eight-frame hive and a ten-frame jumbo.

the Dadant pattern, a hive be constructed
after the pattern of the regular ten-frame
Dovetailed, having Langstroth dimensions
save in one measurement — that of depth.
He would add to the hive and frame
inches. As the Dadants ordinarily use nine
frames in their Quinby hives, ten frames

THE TV^EL^'E-FRA:^IE LAXGSTROTH HRT:.

There are some others besides the Da-
dants who belieA^e that the ordinary ten-
frame Langstroth hive body makes too
small a brood-chamber ; that a good queen,
such as ought to be in every hive of the
up-to-date honey-prodtieer, will easily fill a
twelve-frame hive with brood. There is no
use in denying the fact that the ordinary
user of a common ten-frame hive often
wishes he had a hive of two frames more
capacity. To put on an upper story to
take in the extra frames sometimes gives
too much room.

R. F. Holtermann of Brantford, Canada,
operates something like 700 colonies on
twelve-frame hives. He is one of the best
and most extensive honey-producers in
America. He tried out the ten and twelve
frame hive side by side, and gives his ver-
dict in favor of the latter.

THE THIRTEEX-FRAZSIE LAXGSTROTH HR'E.

There are a few who use a thii'teen-frame
Langstroth hive, which is practically the
same as the twelve-frame hive that has
been in use so long. The advantage claimed
is that the hive is larger and exactly

394

HIVES

square. This makes it possible to reverse
the position of the frames with reference
to the entrance, during summer or winter,
by merely turning the hive around one-
quarter-turn on the bottom. During the
winter it is an advantage to have the sides
of the frames exposed to the entrance.
During the summer it is certainly better to
have the e7ids of the frames next to the
entrance, because then the air can blow in
clear thru the hive, cooling it in hot weather.

The advocates of the thirteen-frame hive,
like those of the twelve-framers, claim al-
most immunity from swarming, and a hive
large enough to accommodate practically
all of the best queens. It is very seldom
that any queen will go beyond 14 frames of
brood, so that the thirteen-frame reaches
the maximum capacity of most queens.

TWO-STORY TEN-FRAME OR EIGHT-FRAME
LANGSTROTH HIVES.

Where the eight- or ten-frame hive is
used, it is customary to have the colony
breed in two stories. As already explained,
the average queen will go beyond ten
frames. If she or the bees are not given
unlimited room for breeding, cells may be
started and a swarm may follow. To pre-
vent this it is usually customary to put on
another hive body, or upper story contain-
ing combs. In order to start the queen
above, one or more combs of brood are put
upstairs, and the empty ones from the up-
stairs are put downstairs, preferably on
either side of the brood-nest. The brood in
the upper story induces the queen to go
above when she might not otherwise do so,
and thus expand the brood-nest, with the
result that there may be thirteen or four-
teen frames of brood, the other frames con-
taining honey or pollen. In the production
of comb honey it is customary, at the be-
ginning of the flow, to put all the sealed
brood in the lower story, removing the up-
per story and putting the other combs of
brood in a weak colony. A super of sec-
tions is then put on the lower story, from
which the upper story was removed. See
" Comb Honey " and " Swarming," partic-
ularly the subjects of prevention and con-
trol of swarming. When producing ex-
tracted honey the practice is to put a
queen-excluder between the upper and
lower stories after the flow starts.

One reason why the ten-frame hive is so
popular is because many beekeepers believe
that the twelve- and thirteen-frame hives
are too heavy to lift — that the ten is large
enough ; that by the use of two stories, and
raising brood in the upper story, all the
breeding room that the queen needs, will
be afforded and at the same time swarming
will be kept under control.

The author has tried to control swarm-
ing by using two-story brood-nests, and
finds that swarming is held under control
nearly if not the same as in the larger
hives; but these two-story brood-nests re-
quire manipulation at a time of the year
when help is scarce, or perhaps unobtain-
able at any price. For this reason the ad-
vocates of the Quinby, the ten-frame Jum-
bo, of the twelve- and thirteen-frame Lang-
stroth hives prefer a brood-nest large
enough to take care of the capacity of most
good queens ; for they say, if the bees have
plenty of stores, no manipulation of the
brood-nest is required until the first honey
flow comes on, at which time the supers are
put on.

LONG-IDEA HIVES.

Some 50 years ago the long-idea hives —
that is, 30- and 35-frame hives all in one
brood-nest — were advocated by various bee-
keepers in the United States. Many at the
time were very enthusiastic in praise of
this hive; but when comb foundation and
the one-pound section honey -box came to
the front these hives were dropped by near-
ly every one because they were not adapted
to the production of comb honey. In later
years, especially during and following the
period of the Great War, extracted honey
was produced almost exclusively. During
this time attention was again directed to
the Dadant-Quinby hive, the ten-frame
Jumbo, practically the same thing, and the
twelve- and thirteen-frame hives. The last
two mentioned, it was argued, would not
have to be tiered so high, because three
thirteen-frame hives, for example, would
be the approximate equivalent of five
eight-frame hives that would be so top-
heavy and tall that they would require rails
or props to keep them from being blown
over. The ten-frame Jumbo requires two
sizes of frames — one for the brood-nest and
one for the extracting-supers.

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395

While quite a number were favoring the
larger hives of the styles mentioned, there
were a few who were going back to the old
long-idea hive containing anywhere from
25 to 35 frames. The dimensions of these
hives would be more like those of a coffin
or a trunk. The advocates of these hives,
particularly 0. 0. Poppleton of Florida,
who had always used them, claim that they
are large enough so that no tiering up is
required — no lifting on or off of upper
stories, no manipulation of brood-combs
from the lower to the upper story to hold
back swarming— in short, nothing heavier

frame will have a circle of brood running
within about two inches of the top-bar.
The general reason for tliis is because the
comb will stretch near the top, making
neither worker nor drone comb. The queen
avoids this, and the bees fill it with honey.
In a hive of two stories the queen is appar-
ently slow about getting over this two
inches of honey, % inch of a top-bar, %
inch of a bee-space, inch of a bottom-
bar and another bee-space before she
reaches the comb proper in the upper hive.
In the long-idea hive it is claimed that the
queen can move from comb to comb on a

Long-idea hive holding twenty-five Langstroth frames. Two> regular 10-frame supers may be placed side
by side on this hive, as it is two and a half times the size of a regular 10-frame hive.

to lift than a single brood-frame. They
also claim almost entire immunity from
swarming.

The usual practice with such a long hive
is to have the entrance on the side, the long
way, and place the brood-nest in the center
of the hive. This leaves room for ten or
twelve frames capacity for more brood on
either side. Mr. Poppleton argued that a
queen would move sidewise from one brood-
frame to another more readily than from
one brood-frame in a lower hive body to a
brood-frame in the hive above, and he was
undoubtedly right. The argument was
briefly this: That the average Langstroth

horizontal line, because the brood surfaces
are within % inch apart, the space between
being filled with bees. When the queen ex-
pands the brood-chamber in the natural
way she moves from comb to comb. If the
worker-cells are not stretched, and there
are no obstructions, she will move vertical-
ly as well as horizontally; but in the mod-
ern tiered-up hive she may not move up-
ward unless the brood is carried upstairs
by the apiarist himself. It is for this rea-
son that the old long-idea hive has been re-
vived.

Another advantage claimed for the long
single-story hive is that it is adapted to the

396

HIVES

use of old men, and women, young and
old, or any one else who, for physical rea-
sons, can not lift a weight of a filled super
of 40 or 50 pounds, but who can handle
individual units of one comb at a time.

Finally, it is argued that during winter
or coo] weather the brood-nests can be
confined down to about twelve or fifteen
frames, and the space on either end filled
with packing material. If the cover of the
long-idea hive is three or four inches deep,
and telescoping, additional packing can be
put on top. The hive is, therefore, adapted
for wintering as well as for summering
bees.

ginner, to follow in the beaten paths, or,
more exactly, use standard ten-frame Lang-
stroth hive and equipment. As a rule, bees
will sell at a higher price in these hives
than when they are in something that is
odd-sized or irregular. Moreover, the av-
erage dealer or beehive manufacturer always
has the standard equipment in stock. While
the regular Langstroth may require extra
manipulation and extra lifting (if they be
compared with the long-idea hive), it would
be wise to use these hives until the general
public has proved that what some may call
" freaks " are better than the standards.

Root double-walled hive with removable bottom.

The author has tested out some of these
hives alongside of those tiered up. There
is no denying the fact that there is less
swarming with the former than with the
latter. This was shown strikingly in the
case of our cell-builders at our queen-
rearing yard.

The author does not advocate the general
adoption of any of these special hives in a
large way. If the reader is interested, let
him experiment with half a dozen or a
dozen hives ; and if the tests of the few are
satisfactory he can use more. It is usually
a safe policy for the average reader of this
w(D fk, especially if he is somewhat of a be-

DOUBLE-WALLED OB CHAFF
HIVES.

The hives that we have thus far described
are what may be called single-walled hives ;
that is, the outer shell or case consists of a
single-board thickness of lumber. Such
hives in the northern climates, as a rule,
cannot very well be wintered outdoors on
their summer stands. They either have to
be carried into the cellar at the approach
of cold weather, or else have to be put in
outside packing-cases, as the single walls
hardly afford sufficient protection to enable
the average colony to go thru the winter

HIVES

397

safely, or without great loss both in bees
and in stores. The poorer the protection,
the greater the consumption of stores. A
colony poorly protected outdoors will prob-
ably consume twice as much as one ade-
quatelj^ protected and with the possible
handicap of dysentery.

In the South, of course it is not neces-
sary to carry the single-walled hives into
the cellar or winter repository; but north
of latitude 40, hives of single-board thick-
ness either ought to be housed or protected
with winter cases. Where one from choice
or necessity has to winter outdoors, what
are known as double-walled hives should be
used. These have the same inside dimen-
sions as the single-walled hive, and are
generally made to take the same supers and
the same inside furniture. The one shown
in the illustration next following repre-
sents a ten-frame Langstroth single-story
double-v/alled hive; and as it represents
the simplest form of wintering hive, we

Buckeye double- walled hive with space between the
walls filled with packing materials.

will describe this only, leaving the reader
to adapt it to the dimensions of whatever
frame he is using.

The space between the walls is filled
with some porous material like dry leaves,
planer shavings, cut straw or hay, ground
cork, or any material that is light, loose,
and porous. An examination of the fol-
lowing illustrations will show how this
warm ideal hive differs from the others.

Bees are essentially warm-blooded ani-
mals, and if they are not warmly housed in
our northern climates they will die during
winter.

Careful observations have shown that
these double-walled packed hives will yield

larger returns in honey. For it is a well-
known fact in the domestic economy of a
hive that comb-building cannot progress
unless a temperature of 98 degrees is main-
tained. Frequently in good honey-gather-
ing weather the nights are cold enough so
that the inside of the hive will be chilled,
and comb -building will stop ; for the bees
are compelled to leave that work to hover
around their brood to keep it warm. In
doing this they consume largely of their
stores in order to keep up the necessary
hive temperature. In the double-walled
packed hive brood-rearing and comb-build-
ing can continue, during ordinary summer
weather, no matter what the temperature
may be outside.

But this is not all. While bees in single-
walled hives often do come thru the winter
successfully, the result is attained at a con-
siderable loss in stores. Overfeeding on the
part of the bees in order to keep up the tem-
perature of the cluster, causes overloading
of the intestines, and this sooner or later
brings on the fatal disease known as dys-
entery. (See Dysentery.) Nothing will
use up a colony's vitality in the spring
more than this disease. On the other hand,
bees in double-walled packed hives unless
the winter is severe will rarely have it.
They come thru stronger, cleaner, and bet-
ter, with a larger stock of stores in reserve
to take care of the necessary brood-rearing
that takes place as soon as warm weather
opens up.

The reason for this is plain: Experi-
ments show that the internal temperature
of a single-walled hive outdoors during
winter is only slightly higher than that
outdoors. On the other hand, the internal
temperature of a double-walled packed
hive is anywhere from 25 to 50 degrees
higher than the outside temperature. (See
Gleanings in Bee Culture, page 78, for
1912.) The colder the atmosphere in which
the bees are kept, the more they have to
eat. Overfeeding plus cold causes dysen-
tery.

Taking everything in consideration, if
the double-walled hives cost more than the
single-walled, they will save from 25 to 50
per cent of the stores, and anywhere from
50 to 90 per cent of the winter losses, year
in and year out. During spring and sum-
mer a larger return in honey may be ex-
pected for the reason the bees are not

398

HIVES

obliged to stop their comb-building because
their super is too cold nor stop brood-rear-
ing in the spring. Neither are they forced
to eat too much of the freshly gathered
stores in order to keep up bodily heat.

Under Wintering Outdoors will be
found a description of the quadruple win-
ter cases. Bees in four single-walled hives
packed in one of these cases will be as
well if not better protected than bees in
the double-walled hives. In some locali-
ties, where migratory beekeeping is prac-

Buckeye hive dissected, showing separate parts, and how the
brood-chamber packing is shut in by cleats M and L. A, outer
wall brood-chamber ; T, inner wall brood-chamber ; X, W, pack-
ing space cover : L, M, packing space bottom ; F, telescope
cover ; E, chatf-tray ; D, super-cover.

ticed, or where a scheme of out-apiaries is
used, a single-walled is preferable to a
double-walled hive, because it takes less
room in the wagon or truck, is
lighter, and more easily handled.
Where such hives are used, they
should be kept in a winter pack-
ing-case until settled warm
weather comes.

The double-walled hive has the
advantage in that it is more
suitable for the backlot bee-
keeper, the farmer beekeeper, or
those who desire to leave their
bees on the same stand the year
round, and who, on account of
other duties, cannot fuss with
putting bees in the cellar and
taking them out again, or pack-
ing and unpacking in large
winter cases. Even when bees are wintered
in the cellar, a double-walled hive is a great
advantage in that it protects the brood and

the bees after the bees are set out of the
cellar in early spring. If they could be
kept in the cellar until settled warm
weather, the bees would not be subjected to
the rapid and severe changes of weather
conditions. But this is not practicable. In
localities where the climate is very severe,
many find it advisable to put these double-
walled hives in the cellar and set them out
in the spring. Bees need protection, not
only during cold winter weather, but in the
spring, after they are set out when changes
are often frequent and severe.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE BUCKEYE
HIVE.

The brood-chamber is made of
an outer and inner rim of select
%-inch lumber, lock cornered to-
gether for strength. The space
between the two walls is covered
over with a sort of picture-frame
water-table. This is secured to
the inner chamber in the manner
shown; cleats I I as well as the
water-table are then nailed to the
inner and outer wall. The un-
finished hive is turned upside
down before the bottom cleats
are nailed in and the double wall
filled with packing material.

Experience shows that the top
needs protection more than the
sides. Hence we have tray E made of
%-inch lumber with a bottom of common
burlap, which is left in a baggy condition

Buckeye hive dissected, showing the inner walls detached
from the outer walls of the brood-chamber.

so that the tray will fit tightly to the hive,
thus preventing the wind from whistling
in under the tray. Cover D is put in place

HIVES

399

after the frames and the bees are in the
hive, then tray E is put on top of the
whole. This is filled level full of packing
material, such as leaves or planer shav-
ings, and over this then is placed the large
cap or cover that goes over the whole.

It will thus be observed that we have
something on the style and lines of an or-
dinary refrigerator, or like a safe cabinet
built to protect its contents from fire. Any-
thing that will keep ice from melting will
in like manner keep water from freezing.
The principle is the same as that of the
well-known thennos bottle. The thermos
bottle wiU keep water cold or hot for
hours and hours. The double- walled hive
here shown will keep a cake of ice, if
the entrance is closed, almost as well as a
refrigerator. It wiU also hold a pail of
boiling water and keep it hot for hours on
the principle of a fii^eless stove.

The general features that go to make up
a refrigerator or a fireless cooker apply
equally well to a beehive.

Some have the idea that a hive having
so-called dead-air space will winter bees as
v/ell as one having space filled with packing
material. This is a mistake. In the first
place, there is no such thing as " dead air "
space in a beehive or in anything else. Air
is bound to circulate. The air next to the
outer waU that is cold cools and necessarily
circulates over to the other side or inner
side where it is warm. The cold air rush-
ing over to the warm side cools the warm
side, thus making the inner wall almost as
cold as the outer. When a hive is so de-
signed that it can hold packing material,
this material holds an infinite number of
pockets of air in little compartments. As
the air in these compartments cannot cii'cu-
late, it follows that the outer wall may be
comparatively cold, while the inner one will
be warm. The fact that all refrigerators
have the space between the walls packed
with material, goes to show that the theory
of " dead air " space between two walls is
all wi'ong. Not only that, but actual prac-
tice shows a big difference between the so-
caUed double-walled dead-air-space hive
and a real double-walled hive, the spaces
between which are packed. This hive has a
loose bottom and loose cleats, front and
rear. In the spring refuse and propolis
will accumulate on the bottom-board. All
that is necessary is to lift the hive body off

the bottom, loosen front and rear cleats K
and 0, scrape and clean off the dii't, replace
the cleats and put the hive back on its
bottom.

But the question may be asked why
cleats K and 0 are loose. During hot
weather it is recommended that cleat K
should be removed entirely. If the colony
is very strong, remove cleat 0 also, and this
makes a draft between front and rear of
the hive. During winter the entrance should
be contracted down to not more than an
inch or two in width. See Extraxces.

The hive just described is one of the
standard double-walled hives that has been
on the market for a number of years.
There is a feeling, however, on the part of
Government officials and others, that for
veiw cold localities it does not afford
enough packing. Indeed, Dr. E. F. Phil-
lips, in charge of Bee Culture Investiga-
tions in the Bureau of Entomology at
Washington, D. C, stated that, in his opin-
ion, the original two-story A. I. Root chaff
hive was much better and was the best
winter hive that was ever on the market.
It provided for two or thi-ee times the
amount of packing on the sides and top
that is given in the Buckeye hive. Our ex-
perience with it showed that the bees win-
tered in it much better during severe win-
ters than in the Buckeye. Moreover, the
bottom was packed, as well as the sides,

Original Root Chaff hive.

ends, and tops. In the early editions of
this work it was shown that bees wintered
in this hive in our Medina climate for a
series of twelve years with a loss not ex-
ceeding on an average three per cent. This
is a record beyond that subsequently se-
cured in the Buckeye hive.

For the average locality, where it is not

400

HIVES, EVOLUTION OF

too cold, where there is plenty of snow, or
where there are good windbreaks, the Buck-
eye hive probably affords sufficient protec-
tion. It is admirably adapted for localities
like that of Tennessee, some of the other
Southern States, and many parts of Cali-
fornia, where the nights are cold, down
almost to freezing, and the days are warm.
The double walls prevent the bees from
coming out too freely on warm days, and
protect the brood at night.

PACKING MATERIAL.

We formerly used wheat or oat chaff;
but as we could not secure this readily we
gradually began to use planer-shavings,
which we can get more easily. These, we
find, answer every purpose, and we now
use them exclusively. Forest leaves, if dry
and well packed, will do just as well, and
they have the advantage that they make the
hive, when packed, lighter — that is, easier
to lift and handle.

HIVES, EVOLUTIOjST OF.— Primitive
hives were simplj^ the trunks of hollow
trees in which bees were lodged, cut down,
and carried wherever the beekeeper desired.
This plan of beekeeping is still practiced in
some parts of Europe, in southeastern
United States, and is common
enough in Africa. The stingless-
bee apiaries of South America
have hives of this description.

The next step was to constmct
a cylinder resembling the trunk
of a tree, either of wood or
earthenware. In northern cli-
mates straw came into use, but
had to be fashioned in the shape
of a bell to make it easy of con-
struction. This is the kind of
hive which was so highly praised
by poets. It has the merits of
extreme simplicity and cheap-
ness. Usually it had cross-sticks
added inside to keep the combs
from falling down. See Skeps.

Not all beekeepers were satis-
fied with these hives; and as
early as the 17th century some
few began to cast about for
something better, Delia Rocca,
who wrote a book on bees in the
18th century, mentions bar hives

as in vogue in the islands of the Grecian
Archipelago, where he lived for many
years.* Such hives were known even to
the ancient Greeks. They resembled large
fiowerpots with wooden bars on which the
bees were to fasten their combs. The shape
of the hive made it practically impossible
to cause a breakdown of the combs except
by heat.

The plan of a" movable roof was another
step in advance, as it gave the beekeeper an
opportunity to put on an upper story or a
super to hold the surplus honey where it
should be, and remove it at the end of the
hoaey harvest.

Mewe, in Great Britain, constructed hives
of wood on somewhat the same plan as
early as 1652, and these were gradually
improved by various inventors.

Maraldi, about the same era as Mewe,
invented a single-comb observation hive
made with glass sides, which contained the
germ of the movable-comb frame. He al-
lowed too much space for one comb, and
frequently the bees built their comb cross-
wise. Still there was in the Maraldi hive
the important advantage of handling one

* Bar hives and movable combs are referred to in a
book published in Italian in 1590. Tlie author was
Giovanni Rucellai. — A. C. Miller.

Varieties of the skep.

HIVES, EVOLUTION OF

401

comb at a time, and by this means to get
a far better conception of what was going
on inside the hive. Huber extended this
idea by his improvement. Fig. 1, which
came very near to the hanging movable
frame invented by Langstroth 60 years
later.

beekeepers of New York State, whose
names are revered by American beekeepers.

An examination of the illustrations of
Huber's hive makes it plain that he had a
clear idea of what was required in a hive
for practical purposes. Fig. 3 shows how
he increased his apiary by artificial means.

Fig. 1. — Huber's leaf hive, 1789. — From Cheshire.

To Hnber belongs the credit of inventing
hives with movable frames,* and it was by
the use of these that he was able to make
the discoveries in apiculture which so as-
tonished and delighted the scientific world
(see Fig. 2). Huber invented these hives
about 1789, or perhaps a little earlier. It
has been contended by some writers that
Huber's hive was not practical; but some
of the most practical beekeepers the world

In this case he divided a strong colony by
slipping a board between the frames, there-
by splitting it in two. His plan of pro-
viding a part of each frame for surplus
honey (Fig. 2) is excellent. Thus it is evi-
dent that Huber invented some of the prin-
cipal features of our movable-comb hives.
The Heddon and Bingham hives are on the
movable-comb plan. See Hives.

About 1819 Robert Kerr of Stewarton,

Fig. 3. — Huber hive, showing how he artificially increased the number
of his colonies. E, E, E are entrance holes. — From Cheshire.

Scotland, invented a bar hive of consider-
able merit, shown in Fig. 4. This hive was
used very successfully, and is stiU in use,
but with movable frames instead of mere
bars. It was still further improved by
Howatson, also of Scotland, about 1825.

has yet produced used modified Huber
hives, notably Quinby and Hetherington,

* This honor is usually ascribed to Langstroth, for,
indeed, he was the first one to invent an all-round
practical hive and frame — ^a frame that provided a
bee-space all around it ; but he did not invent the first
movable frame (see Frames).

402

HIVES, EVOLUTION OF

Here we have the tiering principle clearly
comprehended; and had this author and
inventor grasped the idea of movable-comb
frames instead of bars he would have in-
vented a hive on the Heddon principle.

Prokopovitsch, a Russian, about 1830,
invented and made in large numbers a
movable-comb hive of great merit. See
Fig. 5. In his own apiaries, of which he
had many, were over 3000 of these hives in
actual use. His pupils (for he established
a school of beekeeping) had many more
in use.

It may be noted that his surplus frames
bear considerable resemblance to our bee-
way sections, and that his hives were dove-
tailed. Prokopovitsch was certainly a bee-
keeper of remarkable abilities. He em-

he adopted frames he did not change the
construction of his hives in the least.

Next came Langstroth with his epoch-
making movable-comb hive with movable
roof, which combined the essential require-
ments of a hive. All the combs in the
Langstroth hive are readily removable with-
out the slightest annoyance either to the
beekeeper or the bees. Langstroth did his
work so well that he left very little for
future inventors to do. Many have tried
to improve his hive, but in most cases the

Fig. 4.— The Stewarton hive, 1819 ; shallow-
bar hive with glass strips between bars.
— From Cheshire.

ployed means and methods far ahead of his
time.

It has been claimed by some writers that
Dzierzon of Germany invented movable
frames in 1845 ; but it is evident he has no
claim whatever to this distinction. As a
matter of fact, according to his own state-
ments, he used bars until 1855, when he was
persuaded by Baron Berlepsch to use mov-
able frames, which had just been intro-
duced from America. ( See Dzierzon ; also
Dzierzon Theory.) Dzierzon's bar combs
were removed by using a long knife to cut
the attachments from the back of the hive
one by one; for, to reach the comb at the
front of the hive, all the other combs had
first to be removed. His hive was far in-
ferior to those already mentioned. When

Fig. 5. — Prokopovitsch's hive, 1830. — From Framiere.

so-called improvement has proven to be a
backward step. The striking feature of the
Langstroth hive is the provision for a bee-
space on all sides of the comb. This bee-
space cannot be less than one-sixth of an
inch nor more than one-third. This alone
was a great discovery, and placed Lang-
stroth far above the mere inventor. See
Frames ; also A B C of Beekeeping.

From his writings it is evident that
Langstroth knew nothing about what others
had done before him in this line; and it is
apparent that his invention was the result
of a profound study of the bee and its
habits. To some extent he was misled by
others into thinking that the principle of
the Langstroth hive had been discovered by
Dr. Dzierzon independently, whereas it is

HONEY

403

now proven that the German beekeeper had
no claim to the invention of the hanging
movable comb, to say nothing of the bee-
space and the movable roof, which are es-
sential features of the hive.

Debeauvoy's hive, 1845 ; invented in France before
Langstroth's hive appeared.

Langstroth's invention, accompanied by
an excellent treatise* on the art of keeping
bees, created a revolution in beekeeping in
a short time, linking his name with that
of Huber as the two founders of modern
apiculture.

HIVES, MANIPULATING.— See Man-

IPULATI02Sr OF COLOis^IES,

HIVE-STANDS.— See Apiaey.

HOLLY {Ilex opaca Ait.). — American
holly. A small tree, 20 to 50 feet tall, with
a trunk sometimes six feet in circumfer-
ence. Bark smooth and grayish white.
The coriaceous, spiny-toothed, elliptical
leaves, with red berries in the axils, are
familiar to every one. As in the common
gallberry, which belongs to the same genus,
the flowers are small, white, and polygamo-
dioecious, the staminate being clustered and
the pistillate solitary. It extends thruout
the Southern States west to Texas and
north to Pennsylvania, whence it follows
the coast northward to Massachusetts.

American holly is widely distributed in
Georgia, but is seldom very common in any
locality. The flowers expand in April, and,
altho the honey is never obtained pure, it is
undoubtedly excellent. In Florida it is

* A reprint of the original work has been published
by The A. I. Root Company; price $1.00.

confined to the northern part of the State,
where it blooms a little earlier than in
Georgia. The honey is always mixed with
that of other early spring flowers. For
example, on the eastern coast it forms a
flne blend with the honey of the saw pal-
metto. In South Carolina the holly is also
considered a valuable honey-producer, and
the odor of the flowers is very noticeable in
the apiary when the trees are in bloom. In
Massachusetts the holly does not flower un-
til June. There is in this State a variety
with yellow fruit.

There are several species of Ilex with red
berries which are liable to be confused with
American holly, as they are valuable as
honey plants, and may attain the size of
small trees, but they may be easily distin-
guished by their smaller leaves which are
never spiny-toothed. The mji'tle-leaved
Ilex {I. my rti folia) is fairly common in
cypress swamps in the wire-grass region of
Georgia. It blooms at the same time and
usually in the vicinity of the common gall-
berry, and the honey is believed to be
equally good, for the bees gather the nectar
most eagerly. The yaupon (Z. vomit oria)
and the dahoon (I. Cassijie) may grow 20
feet or more tall, and in the Southern
States are helpful in building up colonies
in early spriiig. In New England the black
alder (I. verticillata) is a common shrub in
swamps and is much visited by hees.

HONEY. — Many readers of a work of
this kind, no doubt, have a good idea of
the phj^sical properties of a honey, and
may be able from the taste to determine
to some extent from what special plant
any given honey was mainly produced, and
it may be possible they may have an idea
of the chemical composition. They may
also be able to supply a good deflnition of
a honey. But for the benefit of others, a
brief statement covering this extensive field
may not be out of place.

As regards definition:

According to the Century Dictionary,
" Honey is a sweet viscid fluid collected
from the nectaries of flowers and elaborated
for food by several kinds of insects, espe-
cially by the honeybee (Apis mellifica)."
An accepted German definition is, " Honey
is the nectar obtained from flowers by
worker bees, which, after modification in
the honey-stomach of the latter, is stored in

404

HONEY

the cells of the comb for the nourishment
of the young brood." In this country the
food standards consider " honey as the nec-
tar and saccharine exudations of plants,
gathered, modified, and stored in the comb
by honeybees {Apis mellifica and Apis dor-
sat a). In the latter definition there is in-
cluded, besides the nectar of flowers, also
saccharine exudation of plants. This comes
about in that many plants contain sugar in
their saps, and, when an exudation of sap
takes place, and the water in the sap is
evaporated, a saccharine residue remains,
which is gathered by the bees. Also, many
trees exude a sweet sap when stung by
some insect, and this is also gathered by the
bees (see Honeydew).

Physically considered, honey m.ay be a
solid block resembling a pound cake of
creamery butter or it may be semi-solid or
decidedly liquid. The old idea that crystals
of dextrose in a hone}^ indicated beyond
doubt that the product was badly adulter-
ated with sugar should be and has been dis-
pelled.

In color, honey may be water-white, or
it may grade thru the yellows to the brown
into the seal brown and nearly to the black.
It has been known to be decidedly red in
color, and again at another time to have a
greenish tinge — ^none of these indicating
by any means the addition of artificial
colors, but being due entirely to the source
of the bees' food. Honey may be as mild
or as strong in flavor as one can imagine,
and may possess all the fragrant aroma im-
aginable, and again have a nauseous aroma.
Yet in each case it will be absolutely pure.

The consuming public are very apt to
jum.p at conclusions as regards purity of
this product on account of these various
flavors and aromas. A person used to clo-
ver or alfalfa honey would immediately say
buckwheat honey was not honey at all;
and, vice versa, one used to buckwheat
honey would say clover honey was nothing
more than a mild-flavored sugar syrup.

As regards composition :

Honey belongs to the carbohydrate foods.
It is practically a solution of the two su-
gars, dextrose and levulose in water with
sucrose in varying small quantities, nat-
urally flavored and containing aromas im-
parted to it by the flower and by the bee.
Early analyses of honey were very incom-
plete. Hassall in his " Food— Its Adulter-

ations and the Methods for their Detec-
tion," published along in the sixties, re-
ports moisture, cane sugar, glucose, insol-
uble matter, and mineral matter in four
samples. In his report he states, "With the
exception of these, so far as we are aware,
no reliable analyses have yet been made."

Wiley in Part 6, Bulletin 13, Division of
Chemistry, United States Department of
Chemistry, published in 1892, gives a
rather complete analysis of a number of
American honeys. But by far the most
complete and exhaustive study of Ameri-
can honeys was made by Browne and pub-
lished in 1908 as Bulletin 110, Bureau of
Chemistry, United States Department of
Agriculture. Following this, in 1912, Bryan
published results of examinations of im-
ported honeys from Cuba, Mexico, and
Haiti as Bulletin 154 of the same bureau
and department. Miss Alice R. Thompson
in 1908 published results of the examina-
tion of Hawaiian honeys as Bulletin No.
17, Hawaiian Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion.

Abstracting these, we obtain some inter-
esting facts, and at the same time a fairly
complete analysis of representative Ameri-
can honej^s, together with those liable to
enter the iVmerican market.

Browne made a classification of his sam-
ples according to floral origin; that is,
placing all those supposed to be obtained
from clover together, etc., and then at-
tempted drawing some conclusions as to
physical and chemical constants of each
variet}^ While the results do show some
conformity to type, they are not as close as
could be desired, for examination of the
pollen found in the samples showed that
the bees had gathered nectar from other
flowers, altho the prevailing pollen was
that of the species under which the analysis
had been classified.

In this same bulletin is a rather ex-
haustive study of the several kinds of pol-
len found and the characteristics of the
pollen of the various individual flowers.
The quantity of pollen varied considerably
in the samples, hence the examination for
pollen cannot give any index of the percen-
tage of adulteration. From the kinds of
pollen found one can judge with some de-
gree of accuracy the kind of flowers visited,
but it is hardly safe to say that with the
absence of a certain pollen, the nectar from

HONEY

405

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that flower has not been gathered and
stored.

In the preceding table are contained the
analytic results of the examination^ show-
ing the average, maximum, and minimum
figures for American, Hawaiian, Cuban,
Mexican and Hawaiian honeys.

It is noted that the American as well as
the Hawaiian honeys are divided into two
classes — levorotatory and dextrorotatory.
The former may be termed honeys under
the National Food Law, while the latter are
honeydew honeys. The standard of food
products under the national law states that
" Honey should be levorotatory, and should
contain not more than 25 per cent water,
not more than .25 per cent ash, and not
more than 8 per cent of sucrose.

The quantity of ash stated is too low, as
Browne's examination has shown 0.90 per
cent ash.

The anaMical figures given in the analy-
ses are for percentage of moisture, invert
sugar, sucrose, dextrin, ash, and undeter-
mined matter. The acidity of the honey
samples has also been given.

In American honeys there is an average
of 3.73 per cent of undetermined matter.
The composition of this material is the
subject of much work now, and the sub-
stances found in this class by the chemist
are often the deciding figure in determin-
ing the adulteration of honey with commer-
cial invert sugar.

The composition of the sugars reported
as invert sugar, viz., percentage of dextrose
and le^nilose, are sometimes of value. Tak-
ing Browne's results for the average of the
various species of honey we find :

Elind of Honey Dextrose Levulose

Alfalfa 36.85% 40.24%

White clover 34.96 40.24

Alsike clover 36.06 40.95

Sweet clover 36.78 39.59

Catclaw 38.21 40.81

Mesquite 38.04 41.03

Locust 35.98 40.35

Dandelion 35.64 41.50

Goldenrod 34.45 37.85

Aster 33.93 41.31

Apple 31.67 42.00

Easpberrv 33.57 41.84

Buckwheat 36.75 40.29

Wild buckwheat 35.39 41.36

Cotton 36.19 39.42

Basswood 36.05 39.27

Sumac 33.72 37.61

Tupelo 24.73 48.61

406

HONEY, ANALYSIS OF

In every case the levulose predominates.
This is of value, as in commercial invert
sugar the two are equal or the dextrose
predominates. See Invert Sugar.

The distinction between honey and honey-
dew honey is only possible by means of the
polariscope. If a solution of the honey
turns a polarized ray of light to the left it
is levorotatory, and the honey is a true
honey; but if it turns the ray to the right
it is a honeydew honey, provided no com-
mercial glucose has been added.

For further consideration see Granu-
lated Honey,, Extracted Honey^, Honey-
DEW;, Honey as Food^ Honey^ Analysis
OF^ and Nectar.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HONEY.

The amount of water present in honey
depends upon the degree of evaporation to
which the bees have brought the product in
the hive. Honey which has been taken out
of the hive prematurely is said to be " un-
ripe." According to the committee on food
standards and also the German standard,
honey which consists of more than 25 per
cent of water must be classed as immature.
It is obvious some standard percentage such
as this is necessary, even tho arbitrary, in
order that a basis may be had for determin-
ing what honeys are unripe.

Honey which has not been capped over is
sometimes ripe, but more often unripe ; and
the combs of unripe honey should never be
placed on the market as anything but im-
mature honey. It possesses poor keeping
qualities. Honey extracted from uncapped
combs should be exposed to evaporation be-
fore bottling.

The amount of moisture in honey is not
conditioned by the nectar of the flower
from which the honey is derived. It varies
in some degree, however, with the environ-
ment of the apiary. Evaporation within
the hive is promoted or retarded by local
conditions of humidity. For this reason
honey from arid parts of the country is
thicker in general than honey from regions
where rainfall is plentiful. The difference
in average water content of ripened honeys
between those from the humid States of the
upper Mississippi and those from the
Southwest, is 3.5 per cent, according to the
tests in the Government sugar laboratory.

The degree of granulation which a par-
ticular sample of honey may reach, as well
as the length of time it takes to granulate,
is another physical characteristic worth
noting and forms roughly an index to its
purity. Honeys high in dextrose are prone
to granulation. This characteristic of al-
falfa honey is well known. Conversely,
honeys low in dextrose do not granulate
readily. Note that tupelo, a non-granulat-
ing honey, shows only 24.73 per cent of
dextrose, while alfalfa, an early granulat-
ing honey, shows by the table 36.85 per
cent. See science of granulation under
Granulated Honey. Impure honeys, such
as honeydew honey and honey adulterated
with glucose, do not granulate as readily
as a pure honey. Sage and tupelo by na-
ture seldom granulate. This characteristic
ts utilized by packers in preparing a prod-
uct which will not readily crystallize on the
market when exposed to changes in temper-
ature. See Bottling.

Ordinarily honey is judged by its color,
flavor, and density. There is an almost
endless variety of flavors, making it prac-
ticable to suit the most exacting connois-
seur. The flavors, like the evanescent aroma
of honey, are very difficult to describe and
really cannot be satisfactorily communi-
cated thru printed description. Alfalfa,
buckwheat, basswood, cotton, orange, and
several other kinds of honey have a charac-
teristic flavor and aroma which any one
accustomed to them can recognize without
difficulty. The presence of honeydew is
usually detected by a burnt-sugar flavor.
The flavors of some of the prominent honeys
are described under the respective plants.

Color is a fair guide, but not always so,
for the famous heather honey of Europe is
quite dark, and yet no honey stands higher
in popular esteem on that continent. The
best honeys of this country are usually
spoken of as white, and, tho this is not
quite correct, still it is near enough for all
practical purposes without coining a new
word.

Clover honey may be taken as the typical
white honey by which others may be con-
veniently judged. For the purpose of com-
parison some may be a little lighter, and
others a little darker shade; but these nice
points of distinction are visible only to an
expert. See Honeys and their Colors.

HONEY, ANALYSIS OF

It has been the custom of a number of
honey producers to market their products
under such names as " white-clover honey,"
" sage honey," and " pure orange honey."
Upon this practice, BuUetra No. 110 of the
Bureau of Chemistry makes the foUowing
statement : " Bottled honeys are frequently
labeled by some floral designation, and
these honeys, even when within the stand-
ard, often show a suspicious variation from
the analyses of such honeys of known floral
origiQ, especially as regards sucrose con-
tent. The microscopic examination of these
honeys frequently shows an almost com-
plete absence of pollen from the flower in
question. Beekeepers and bottlers of honey
are sometimes extremely careless in the
labeling of their products and apply the
name of almost any flower, thinking that
they keep within the requirements of the law
so long as their product is pure honey.
This is a mistake, as the product should be
labeled exactly accordiag to its origin."
see Labels for Hoxey.

HONEY, ANALYSIS OF.— Outside of
the determination of moisture or water con-
tent, the methods of analysis of honeys can
hardly be carried on by the beekeeper or
bottler ; fii'st, on account of the rather com-
plicated procedures, and, second, on ac-
count of the expensive apparatus needed.
The moisture determination described be-
low for the beekeeper or bottler is not so
accurate as that one described for the chem-
ist, but it will yield comparative results.
It is the one in general use by makers of
maple, sorghum, and also cane syrup.

The analytical procedure described for
the chemist are all well-known methods and
should yield accurate results. It is on the
interpretation of analytical results that the
chemist may fail, if he has not had some
little experience with honey. This latter
phase of the question would easily fill many
pages, and then it would be doubtful
whether the whole field had been covered in
such a way as to explain all cases and con-
ditions. So one can give here only the out-
line of the general and special methods
used in. honey examination, foUowed with
some remarks about detecting adulteration.

For sake of convenience and ease of pre-
sentation, the method of procedure adopted
is to divide the matter into statements of
the methods for the individual determina-

tions ; then follow with maximum and mini-
mum figures obtained on pui'e honeys for
each determination. Maximum or mini-
mum figures not given may be obtained from
the table of analysis given under Honey.

The fii'st step in any analytical examina-
tion is the di'awing of a representative
sample. This is of greatest importance and
prevents difficulties with honey on account
of partial crystallization or candying of
numerous honeys.

SAMPLING.

Comb. — In comb honey it is necessary to
either select a representative comb or better
to take portions of a number of combs.
Then by means of a knife cut across the
top of the comb and allow the honey to
drain from the cells. Should the honey have
granulated ia the comb, it will be necessary
to heat the comb in a water bath at a tem-
perature not above 160° Fahi-enheit until
the wax liquefies, stii-ring, then allow the
whole to cool. The wax will solidify in a
layer on top. This can be removed and the
sample is ready for analysis. Should the
liquid so obtained be fuU of dii't, treat it as
given below under "Extracted Honey."

Extracted Hoxey. — If the sample is
free from granulation, and also clear and
clean and in a perfectly liquid condition, no
preparation is necessary. When the sam-
ple has granulated or shows partial granu-
lation, it should be heated on a water bath
(never over a direct flame) to a tempera-
ture never over 160° Fahrenheit until the
crystals are in solution. If the sample is
dirt}^, it can be passed in this state thru a
fine linen cloth to filter. The heated honey
is allowed to cool to collect and solidify the
wax. It is then ready for analysis.

Drawing representative samples from
large containers is a difficult proposition.
The best procedure in such cases should be
to liquefy the whole, then stir before taking
the sample. Under these conditions only
could one obtain an average sample.

MOISTURE METHOD FOR BOTTLER.

The necessary apparatus are a Bauuie
hydrometer graduated from 0 — 50 'which
can be obtained from any wholesale d'^ag-
gist or chemical house, and a tin cylinder as
shoAvn in cut about two inches in diameter
and twelve inches high.

408

HONEY, ANALYSIS OF

BY BAUME HYDROMETER.

A hydrometer or spindle is an instru-
ment for showing the density of a liquid.
Hydrometers are graduated to various
scales and for various purposes. The one
generally used for rough sugar work is the
Baume. The standard of graduation is an
arbitrary one and varies somewhat with
different makes. The usual Baume hydrom-
eter is made of glass and shows a gradua-
tion from zero to 50, divided into degrees,
as shown in figure below. The density is
measured by floating the hydrometer freely
in the liquid, which is generally held in a

Hydrometer and its position in the liquid.

tall cylinder, as shown in the illustration.
The point on the scale where the instrument
comes to rest is considered the density. It
will be noted that the surface of the liquid
is curved up at the points of contact with
the metal cylinder, and also with the hy-
drometer. The correct reading of the in-
strument is on a line with the surface of
the liquid as shown in the cut and not at
the upper edge of the curved portion. The

temperature at which Baume hydrometers
are standardized is 60° F., unless it is
otherwise marked on the stem of the hy-
drometer, so for correct readings the honey
should be cooled to that temperature. A
honey of standard density has a Baume
reading of 40.9% but if measuring the
density of the warm honey by drawing
some out into a cylinder the density will
be somewhere about 37° to 40°, and on
cooling 40.9° to 41.5°. This is readily un-
derstood when one considers that the zero
of the hydrometer is at the upper end and
the 50 at the lower end. On heating a
liquid, there is an expansion and the liquid
is lighter, so the hydrometer sinks further
down than on cooling, when there is a con-
traction of the liquid. The accuracy of
these glass hydrometers is very much af-
fected by using them in hot liquids, hence
it is not good practice to use the accurate
instruments in the hot honey.

The following table shows the solid con-
tent and the water content for different
degrees Baume. These figures are only
approximate. A gallon of the honey should
be weighed to give accurate results.

DRY SUBSTANCE AND WATER CORRESPONDING
TO EACH DEGREE BAUME.

Degrees
Baume*

Dry sub-
stance
per cent

Water
per cent

Degrees
Baume*

Dry sub-
stance
per cent

Water
per cent

1

1.7

98.3

26

46.8

53.2

2

3.5

96.5

27

48.6

51.4

3

5.3

94.7

28

50.5

49.5

4

7.0

93.0

29

52.4

47.6

5

8.8

91.2

30

54.3

45.7

G

10.6

89.4

31

56.2

43.8

7

12.3

87.7

32

58.1

41.9

8

14.1

85.9

33

60.0

40.0

9

16.0

84.0

34

61.9

38.1

10

17.7

82.3

35

63.9

36.1

11

19.5

80.5

36

65.8

34.2

12

21.3

78.7

37

67.8

32.2

13

23.0

77.0

38

69.7

30.3

14

24.8

75.2

39

71.7

28.3

15

26.6

73.4

40

73.7

26.3

16

28.4

71.6

41

75.7

24.3

17

30.3

69.7

42

77.7

22.3

18

32.1

67.9

43

79.7

20.3

19

33.9

66.1

44

81.8

18.2

20

35.7

64.3

45

83.8

16.2

21

37.5

62.5

46

85.9

14.1

22

39.4

60.6

47

88.0

12.0

23

41.2

58.8

48

90.1

9.9

24

43.1

56.9

49

92.2

7.8

25

44.9

55.1

50

94.4 1

5.6

Taken at 60° F.

HONEY, ANALYSIS OF

409

It is not to be understood that a degree
Baume corresponds to 1.7 per cent of
sugar, for the hydrometer measures other
dissolved solids also.

In order to determine relatively the num-
ber of degrees Baume of the cooled honey
when the reading is made with the hydrom-
eter at a high temperature, it is necessary
to take the temperature at the same time
that the hydrometer is read. Subtract 60
from the number of degrees Fahrenheit of
the heated honey (this being the normal
temperature) and multiply the difference by
0,0265. This figure (which is the tempera-
ture corrrection expressed in degrees
Baume) is added to the Baume reading of
the hot honey; and the result is the
Baume reading of the cooled honey. For
example, a heated honey shows a reading
of 38 at a temperature of 160° F, Then —
160° minus 60 equals 100
100 times .0265 equals 2.65
38 plus 2.65 equals 40.65

The cooled honey would read 40.65, or
by above table have about 25.5 per cent
water.

MOISTURE FOR THE CHEMIST.

Weigh 2 grams of the sample in flat-
bottom aluminum (or platinum) dish 2^/2
inches in diameter containing from 10 to
15 grams of fine quartz sand which has
been thoroly washed and ignited. A small
glass stirring rod is weighed out with the
dish and sand, and after the addition of the
honey and weighing dissolve the latter in
5 to 10 cc. of distilled water and thoroly
incorporate with the sand by stirring with
the rod. Then place the dish in a vacuum
oven and dry to constant weight at from
68° to 72° C. under a 20 to 24 inch
vacuum.

ASH (mineral matter).

Carefully weigh 5 grams of the honey in
a tared platinum dish, add a few drops of
olive oil, and heat the whole over a flame,
using care not to lose any honey by spat-
tering. Then ignite in a muffle or over
direct flame at a low red heat. Cool, weigh,
and calculate percentage. Should the ash
run around .1 per cent it would be well to
check the result by using 10 grams of the
honey. The greatest care is necessary in
ashing a product not to overheat.

DEXTRIN.

Tranfer 8 grams of the honey to a 100
cc. flask with 4cc. of water and add suffi-
cient absolute alcohol to bring up to the
mark. (The transfer is best made by de-
canting as much as possible of the liquid
honey into the flask, then adding 2cc. of
water to the dish (from a burette) to take
up adhering honey and again decanting.
By using Icc. more of the water in two
successive washings and adding a few cubic
centimeters of the absolute alcohol each
time before decanting, the honey can be
completely transferred without the necessi-
ty of using more than 4cc. of water.
Finally rinse out the dish with absolute
alcohol and then add it to the flask with
continual agitation until the volume has
reached lOOcc. Allow this to stand until
the dextrin has settled out on the sides of
the flask and the supernatant liquid is per-
fectly clear.

Then decant the clear solution thru a
filter and wash the precipitated residue
with lOcc. of cold 95 per cent alcohol to
remove the adhering liquid, pouring the
washings also thru the filter. Dissolve the
residue adhering to the flask and the parti-
cles which may have been caught upon the
filter in a little boiling water and wash into
a tared platinum dish. Evaporate the con-
tents of the latter and dry in a vacuum
oven to constant weight as for the moisture
determination. The alcohol precipitate is
liable to carry sugars with it so it is neces-
sary to determine the weight of these and
therefore make corrections for them.

After determining the weight of the
dried alcohol precipitated, redissolve the
latter in water and make up to a definite
volume. If the alcohol precipitate weighs
as much as 0.5 gram, the volume should be
50cc.; from 0.5 to 1.0 gram, it should be
lOOcc; from 1.0 to 1.5 grams 150cc. and
so on. Determine the sugars in aliquots
from the filtered solution of the alcohol
precipitate, both before and after inver-
sion. The total alcohol precipitate less the
weight of invert sugar and sucrose gives
the weight of dextrin, from which the per
cent can be obtained.

REDUCING SUGARS.

Take lOcc. of the solution used for the
immediate polarization determination (see

410

HONEY, ANALYSIS OF

later) before inversion and make up to
250cc. in a flask with water. Use 25cc.
for reduction according to AUilins' method.
Calculate the results expressed as dextrose
to invert sugar by the factor 1.044. If
Munson and Walker's method is used for
reducing sugar determination, use 25cc. of
the above sugar solution and 25cc. of
water. Allihns' method and also Munson
and Walker's methods are given in detail
in the Official Methods of the Association
of Agricultural Chemists, in various hand-
books for sugar chemists, such as Browne's,
Spencer, and in most works on food analy-
sis as Leach, etc.

SUCROSE.

Determine the total sugars after inver-
sion by transferring lOcc. of the 55cc.
solution (see later) used for the invert
polarization to a 250cc. flask and making
up to the mark with water. Take 25cc.
for a reduction by either Allihns' or Mun-
son and Walker's method. Calculate to
per cent invert sugar. Subtract the per
cent of invert sugar before inversion from
this figure and multiply the difference by
the factor 0.95 to obtain the per cent of
sucrose. The percentage of sucrose cannot
be determined accurately from the polari-
zations.

POLARIZATIONS.

Transfer 26 grams of honey to a lOOcc.
(true cc.) flask with water, and add 5cc.
of alumina cream ; make up the solution to
volume at 20° C, and filter and polarize the
liquid at once for the " immediate polariza-
tion." Transfer 50ce. of this filtrate to a
50-55cc. flask; add 5cc. of concentrated
hydrochloric acid, and allow the whole to
stand over night for inversion. Place the
remainder of the filtrate in a flask, after
removing the quantity necessary for the
reducing sugar determination, and allow
to stand over night. On the following day
again polarize the two solutions at 20° and
also at 87° C, making a total of five differ-
ent readings.

The polarization at 87° C is a rather
difficult one to make. It is necessary to
have a water- jacketed tube and run water
of about 95° thru at first to bring quickly
the temperature up to around 85°, then run

the water at about 90°. When the solution
itself has reached 87°, make a reading. If
much time is necessary to bring the solu-
tion up to 87°, it might be well nearly to
neutralize the invert solution before mak-
ing the reading. This practice will give
different results, and also the solutions will
turn much darker, making a reading more
difficult.

The purpose of the 87° reading is to
obtain a reading after the invert sugar has
become optically inactive. With substances
other than honey dextro readings at 87° on
the inverted solution would indicate the
presence of commercial glucose. In honeys
the reading is due to the excess of dextrose
plus the natural dextrins. Many chemists
have fallen into this mistake.

ACIDITY.

Dissolve 10 grams of honey in water and
titrate with tenth-normal sodium hydroxide,
using phenolphthalein as indicator. Ex-
press the acidity as formic acid.

It is known that the sting of a bee is due
to formic acid, so all analyses are calcu-
lated to formic acid. Experimental work
on the acids of natural honey has shown
that there are two groups of acids present,
volatile and non-volatile acids. Of the
former, formic acid forms about one-half,
the others being butyric, valeric, caproic,
and capric. Of the non-volatile acids lactic
acid predominates, then malic acid, suc-
cinic, and oxalic have been recognized.
Where the honey has soured or fermented
the acid formed is acetic.

DEXTROSE AND LEVULOSE.

The percentage of these sugars can be
calculated from the polarizations and re-
ducing sugar contents. The results are only
true when the reducing sugar content has
been determined by Allihns' method. The
calculation is as follows:

Multiply the direct polarization at 87°
by 1.0315 (lOOcc. of solution at 20° ex-
pands to 103.15CC. at 87°). Subtract this
figure from the direct constant polarization
at 20°, and then divide by the factor
2.3919. The figure thus obtained is the
grams of levulose in the normal weight of
honey. Hence to find percentage, this must
be divided by 26.

HONEY, ANALYSIS OF

411

The percentage of levulose, so found, if
subtracted from the percentage of invert
sugar obtained by reduction will give very
closely the percentage of dextrose if these
two sugars are present in nearly equal
amounts. If these two sugars differ widely
in percentages an error is introduced into
the original calculation of invert sugar and
hence in the percentage of dextrose. The
most accurate procedure is to reduce the
levulose to its dextrose equivalent in cop-
per-reducing power by multiplying by the
factor 0.915. This subtracted from the to-
tal reducing sugars as dextrose will give
the true percentage of dextrose. The re-
sults then of this determination, viz., per
cent of dextrose plus per cent of levulose,
will be greater than the percentage of in-
vert sugar found by reduction, but such re-
sults are correct.

UNDETERMINED.

The sum of the percentages of water,
sucrose, levulose, dextrose, ash, dextrin,
acidity, subtracted from 100 gives the per-
centage of undetermined matter. This con-
sists of wax particles, pollen grains, albu-
minoids, proteids, tannin, essential oils,
combined acids, and a number of other
substances.

PROTEIN.

Weigh out 2 grams of the honey and
transfer to a 500cc. Kjeldahl flask; add
10 grams of powdered potassium sulphate
and 25cc. of C. P. sulphuric acid. Place
the flask in an inclined position, and heat
below the boiling-point of the acid for
from 10 to 15 minutes, or until frothing
has ceased (a small piece of paraffin ma}'
be added to prevent extreme foaming).
This part of the operation is tedious on
account of the sugars in the honey. Grad-
ually increase the heat until boiling is ob-
tained, then continue boiling until the mix-
ture is colorless or nearly so, or until oxida-
tion is complete. This may take over five
hours. Cool and add 200cc. of water, then
neutralize with sodium hydroxide solution
(a few drops of phenolphthalein may be
added to the liquid to determine easily
when enough soda has been added). Con-
nect immediately with a condenser and dis-
till into half or tenth normal acid. Titrate
this with tenth normal alkali, using cochi-

neal as an indicator. A blank should be
run with the reagents and the results sub-
tracted from those obtained from the honey
before calculating the percentage of nitro-
gen. The per cent of nitrogen times 6.25
gives the per cent albuminoids or protein.

American honeys run from 0.1 to 1.0 per
cent, and even higher. German honeys
average about 1.08 per cent with a range
from 0.30 to 2.42 per cent.

DETECTION OF COMMERCIAL GLUCOSE.

The dextro rotation of a honey at 87
is due to honey dextrins. These are dif-
ferent in character from those dextrins
obtained by the acid hydrolysis of starch,
or such as occur in commercial glucose.
One point of difference is the fact that
honey dextrins are not colored by iodin
solution, while the dextrin of glucose, ex-
cept those of high-conversion products, are
colored by iodin. Due to this fact Beck-
man has proposed the following test, which
is qualitative in nature.

Prepare a one-to-one solution of honey
with water and add a few drops to 2cc. of
iodin solution. If commercial glucose be
present the solution turns red or violet.
The depth and quality of the color depend
upon the quantity and nature of the glu-
cose employed for adulteration. A blank
test with a pure honey of about the same
color, using the same quantity of iodin solu-
tion, should be made at the same time for
the purpose of securing an accurate com-
parison of color.

If the original honey is dark in color or
the test is not delicate enough, one can take
the honey solution, add absolute alcohol
until all the dextrins are precipitated,
allow these to settle (never filter), decant
liquid, and dissolve the dextrin in hot
water, then treat with iodin. By this means
as low as 2 per cent glucose can be de-
tected.

To determine the quantity of commercial
glucose the following method by Browne
gives fair results. It is better than other
proscribed methods.

METHOD FOR ESTIMATING GLUCOSE FROM THE
POLARIZATION.

The invert polarization at 20° is sub-
tracted from the invert polarization at 87°,

412

HONEY, ANALYSIS OF

Glucose
per cent

Honey
per cent

Direct
Polariz.

20%

Invert
at 20

Polariz.
at 87

Polariz.
difference
between
20 and 87

Invert
before
inversion

Sugar

after

inversion

% glucose
found by
the above
formula

100

+153.8

+153.34

+ 144.32

30.02

30.45

50

50

+ 67.0

+ 65.67

+ 73.81

8.14

53.67

54.50

56.9

20

80

+ 15.4

+ 13.42

+ 33.00

19.58

69.00

70.35

19.2

10

90

— 2.4

— 4.84

+ 18.59

23.43

74.42

74.12

8.8

5

95

— 11.5

— 14.30

+ 11.66

25.96

75.74

77.80

3.8

3

97

— . 14.2

— 16.94

+ 9.13

26.07

76.62

78.01

3.7

2

98

— 16.0

— 18.70

+ 8.14

26.84

76.64

78.34

1.2

1

99

— 18.2

— 20.90

+ 6.93

27.83

77.20

78.87

.0

0

100

— 19.5

— 22.11

+ 5.94

28.05

77.68

78.93

.0

and the result multiplied by 77 (the aver-
age per cent invert sugar after inversion in
pure honeys). This product is divided by
the per cent invert sugar after inversion
found in the sample under examination.
This figure is multiplied by 100 and the re-
sult divided by 26.7. The result so ob-
tained is the percentage of pure honey in
the sample under examination. This per-
centage subtracted from 100 gives the per
cent glucose.

The table at the top of page gives results
by this method on mixture of honey with
varying percentage of glucose.

The percentages actually found agree
fairly well with those added. However, it
is not safe for the percentage of glucose
in mixtures with less than 10 per cent. Its
presence in small quantities is easily told
thru the qualitative test described above.

ENZYMES.

Enzymes are bodies of varying chemical
nature (considered to be albuminous in
nature) which occur in the constitution of
animals and plants and effect decomposi-
tion of certain chemical compounds occur-
ring in association with them without being
used up themselves. They are all destroyed
by high heat, but at lower temperatures are
more or less affected. In honey, both in-
vertase and diastase are present and are
the principal ones. Invertase is capable of
breaking up sucrose into dextrose and lev-
ulose while diastase is capable of changing
starch into dextrose. All honeys contain
these enzymes. Boiling a honey destroys
them. Heating a honey to 170° or 180° F.
(a temperature above that recommended
for liquefying a honey) destroys the action
of invertase and weakens but does not de-
stroy diastase. To destroy the activity of
the latter it is necessary to bring the tem-
perature up to 200° F.

The test for enzymes is then important
in assisting in the determination of adulter-
ation with commercial invert sugar. A
color reaction (See below Browne's or
Bryan's modification of Fiehe's test) and
a positive diastase test would signify com-
mercial invert sugar.

The method of carrying on the test is as
follows, " Moreau method."

Ten grams honey with 2 to 3cc. of water
are added drop by drop, shaking constant-
ly to lOOcc. absolute alcohol. Allow to
stand, then decant, and add cold recently
boiled distilled water to the precipitate and
filter. Repeat this process on a second 10
grams of the honey, boiling the filtered so-
lution a few minutes. According to an-
other method use the same amount of
honey, but add 250cc. of 95 per cent alco-
hol, shake and centrifuge, then wash the
precipitate repeatedly with 75 per cent al-
cohol to remove all sugars, next dissolve in
cold water and neutralize the solution to
methyl-orange, using tenth normal sodium
hydroxide, then add 1.5cc. of one per cent
formic acid.

The invertase is determined by adding
5cc. of ten per cent sucrose solution to a
portion of the honey-extracted solutions,
made to lOOec. with cold recently boiled
distilled water and determine the reducing
portion of each of the honey-extracted solu-
tion. To the remainder of the solution, add
5 drops of toluene to prevent growth of
micro-organisms ; place in an oven at 25 to
30° C. for four days and again determine
reducing sugars. For diastase, use the
same procedure as described above, starting
with 10 grams of honey, except that a solu-
tion of starch, equivalent to 0.25 grams of
potato starch is substituted for sucrose and
the solution is kept at 45 to 50° C.
for 24 hours in place of 4 days at 25 to
30° C. The results in each case are ex-

HONEY, ANALYSIS OF

413

pressed in grams of reducing sugars per
100 grams of honey.

The following figures for diastase on
pure German honej'S have been obtained:
0.60 to 3.68, and for invertase 1.05 to 12.02.
There are no figures so far published for
American honeys.

ALBUMIXOID PRECIPITATE.
'■^LUXD^S TEST.-'-'

In the undetermined matter of honey,
there are varjdng quantities of substances
precipitated by the addition of tannin and
also phosphotungstic acid. The quantity of
the precipitate so obtained has been used
as a measure of adulteration. Commercial
invert sugar contains none of these mate-
rials, hence no precipitate, so that a figure
for this test below the minimum of a pure
honey in conjunction with the diastase test
and color test strongly indicated adultera-
tion.

For these tests a special glass tube is
necessary, similar in form to a Horvet
maple tube. The tube should hold over
40cc., and have a mark at the 40cc. point.
The lower portion of the tube should hold
4cc., and be 8mm. in diameter and be
graduated into tenths of a cubic centimeter.
The upper portion should be 16mm in
diameter. The lower portion of this part
should be graduated into half cubic centi-
meters up to 20cc. ; from 20cc. to 40cc.
there need be no graduation.

LUND^S TANNIN" TEST. >

Take 20cc. of a filtered ten-per-cent
honey solution in the tube and add 5cc. of
a five-per-cent tannin solution (in distilled
water), then add distilled water to the
40cc. mark and shake thoroly. Allow the
tube to stand 24 hours and then read oE
the volume of the precipitate. Results in
Germany on this test show pure honeys
never go below 0.9cc. of the precipitate
and seldom below 1.2cc. and may go as
high as 4.0cc. Adulterated honeys show
figures from nothing up to 0.30 and higher,
but seldom above l.Occ.

LUND^S PHOSPHOTUNGSTIC-ACID TEST.

In a tube described above, add 20cc. of
a filtered ten-per-cent honey solution and

then 5cc. of the following reagent: phos-
photungstic acid, 2 grams; sulphuric acid
(1 to 4), 20 grams; water, 80 grams; then
water to the 40cc. mark. Shake as before
and allow to stand 24 hours. Pure honeys
show from 0.3cc. to 40cc. of a precipitate,
while adulterated honey much less. This
latter test has been used more than the
tannin test. Results from American honeys
by American chemists have not been pub-
lished.

COLOR TESTS.

In the commercial manufacture of invert
sugar there is more or less decomposition
of a small percentage of the levulose, giv-
ing rise to furfural or oxymethyl furfural.
This latter body when treated with various
reagents develops brilliant colors. This,
then, is the basis of a color test for com-
mercial invert sugar. As levulose and dex-
trose are present in pure honey, it is
claimed that by overheating these same
furfural bodies will be formed. Much has
been wi^itten pro and con on this point,
possibly mainly to east doubt on these very
delicate color tests. Heating as carried on
by the beekeeper (up to 160° F.) will never
develop furfural in a pure honey. Heat-
ing to boiling and then cooling will not de-
velop this substance. Boiling a very acid
honey may give a very slight test, but
taken along with the strength of color
shown by commercial invert sugar when
present in as low as 5 per cent no one
would be confused hj the test.

The number of these color tests proposed
are too many to be given in one place. The
following are easily worked.

BROWN^S ANALIN ACETATE TEST.

Prepare fresh each time it is used the
following reagent :

To 5ce. of anilin (this should be water-
white) add 5ce. of water, shake, and then
add glacial acetic acid to clear the emulsion
(generally about 2ec. is necessary). To
5cc. of a 1-to-l solution of the honey with
^ater in a test tube add 1 to 2cc. of the
above reagent. Allow the latter to flow
down the walls of the test tube to form a
layer. In the presence of commercial in-
vert sugar a red ring forms at the junction
of the two liquids.

414

HONEY AND ITS COLORS

BRYANTS MODIFICATION" OF FIEHE^S TEST.

Prepare the following reagent fresh at
each time of testing :

Five-tenths gram of resorciQol in 50ec.
of hydi'ochloric acid (Sp. Gr. 1.19). Place
lOcc. of a 50-per-cent honey solution in a
test tube and run 5cc. of redistilled ether
on top. Shake contents gently (taking
care not to form an emulsion), and allow
to stand until ether layer is perfectly clear ;
transfer 2cc. of the clear ether solution to
a small test tube, and add a large-sized
drop of the reagent. Shake, and note the
color immediately. In the presence of com-
mercial invert sugar the drop in the bottom
assumes an orange-red color, turning to a
dark red. Most pure honeys show this
coloration when allowed to stand anywhere
from half to one hour, but never on the
immediate application of the reagent.
Heated honeys do not develop an immedi-
ate coloration.

FEDER^S ANILIN CHLORIDE TEST.

Prepare freshly each time it is used the
following :

To lOOcc. of C. P. anilin add 30cc. of
25 per cent hydrochloric acid. For the
test, 5 grams of the honey are mixed direct-
ly ia a porcelain dish with 2.5cc. of the
anilin reagent. A bright-red color indi-
cates commercial invert sugar. Pure honeys
may show a faint pink color at the start,
but on standing this very often disappears.

SUMMARY.

To form a conclusion on a sample of
honey it is necessary to make most of the
determinations described above. A mois-
ture determination gives the data as to
whether a sample complies with the United
States standards in this particular. The
determination of reducing sugars before
and after inversion gives the only reliable
data as to sucrose content. In this connec-
tion it should be noted that a fresh honey
may show a high percentage of sucrose,
but on standing show less, little or none de-
pending on the activity of the enzyme in-
vertase in the honey. The polarization fig-
ures, together with the reducing sugar con-
tent, furnishes the data along with the
Beckman test for the presence or absence

of commercial glucose. The presence of
large quantities of sodium chloride in the
ash would also help in deciding on com-
mercial glucose. Too much dependence
cannot be placed on the chlorine content
of a honey unless it is known that the
honey was not produced near salt water.

For commercial invert sugar the per-
centage of dextrose and levulose, the
amount of ash and composition of the ash,
the amount of tannin and phosphotungstic
acid precipitate, the diastase and invertase
reaction, the percentage of nitrogen, and
the color tests are all helpful and needed.
The presence of tartaric, phosphoric, hy-
drochloric, and sulphuric, also acetic acids
in appreciable quantities are extra, and are
valuable determinations. The quantity and
kind of pollen, also appearance, are some-
times of value in deciding on a honey.

For the further consideration of this
subject see Granulated Honey^ Ex-
tracted HON"EY_, HONEYDEVP-^ HONEY AS

FooD^ and Nectar.

HONEY AND ITS COLORS.— The va-
rious kinds of honey differ very much in
color, flavor, and density. One variety may
be practically colorless, while another pro-
duced in the same locality, under the same
conditions, by the same bees, but from dif-
ferent flowers, may be a dark brown. One
kind may contain less than one-sixth of
water, while another may contain a fourth.
The proportions of dextrose, levulose, and
sucrose vary considerably; but as the ex-
tent of the variation is known to chemists
they are compelled to take this into account
in forming an opinion from the analytical
figures.

Ordinarily honey is judged by its color,
flavor, and density. There is an almost
endless variety of flavors, making it prac-
ticable to suit the most exacting connois-
seur. Color is a fair guide, but not always
so, for the famous heather honey of Europe
is quite dark, and yet no honey stands
higher in popular esteem on that continent.

The best honeys of this country are usu-
ally spoken of as " water- white," and, tho
this is not quite correct, still it is near
enough for all practical purposes without
coining a new word.

Clover honey may be taken as the typi-
cal white honey by which others may be
conveniently judged. For the purpose of

HONEY AS A FOOD

415

comparison some may be a little lighter,
and others a little darker shade; but these
nice points of distinction are visible only to
an expert.

Taken by this standard, in the North we
have all the clovers — white, alfalfa, crim-
son, mammoth, alsike, sweet — and the Euro-
pean sainfoin; basswood, raspberry (wild),
willow-herb (or fireweed), milkweed, Can-
ada thistle, apple, cucumber (pickle), and
Rocky Mountain bee-plant. In the South
we have white honey from the following:
Gallberry (holly), sourwood, tupelo, man-
grove, cotton, palmetto, bean, huajilla, cat-
claw, huisache, mesquite, California sage,
and some others of less importance. In
the American tropics the chief white honey
is from logwood or campeche ; on all trop-
ical seashores, from campaniUa (Cuba),
and the mangrove (courida).

Amber-colored honey comes from many
sources. Among them, only the more famil-
iar ones can be noted in a popular book of
this kind; namely, goldenrod, wild sun-
flower, heartsease, Spanish needle, sumac,
poplar, gum, eucalyptus, magnolia, mari-
gold, horsemint, horehound, carpet-grass,
and the hog plum (hobo), rose-apple, and
royal palm of the West Indies.

Of dark honeys we take two great exam-
ples— the buckwheat of the United States
and Europe, and heather, which is confined
to Europe alone. The latter, tho dark, is a
rich, strong-flavored, thick honey, so dense
that the extractor is not used to take it
from the combs. That produced in Scot-
land commands a very high price, while
that of England is cheaper, being gathered
from another species of heather. In North
Germany the heath or heather honey com-
mands a good figure. It is largely pro-
duced by migratory beekeepers, their bees
existing on white clover during summer,
and in the fall being moved to the heaths.

Buckwheat honey is not nearly so good
as clover, either in flavor, density, or color ;
but it is so liberally produced in buckwheat
localities that it is a paying crop to the
beekeeper. It blooms late, hence the bees
can be prepared in ample time to profit
by its bloom. This feature alone makes it
very valuable to the beekeeper who is for-
tunate enough to live in a buckwheat-
growing section. In those parts of this
country where buckwheat is grown largely,
consumers are wiUing to pay as much, or

almost as much, as they will for fine white
honey. Indeed, many prize it more highly.

In France there is a great demand for
buckwheat honey from bakers of a kind of
bread which has been made for centuries.
No other sort of honey is desired by these
bakers, who derive nearly all their supply
from Brittany, where buckwheat is com-
monly sown. Attempts have been made to
get the bakers to use other dark honeys,
but without success.

In Europe there are some prominent
honeys which are almost or quite unknown
in this country. Heather has been men-
tioned. Sainfoin is another which is quite
common, being almost the same as our
alfalfa honey. Narbonne honey belongs
to this class. In southern Europe romarin
(rosemary) is very highly spoken of; and
in Greece there is the classically famous
honey of Mount Hymettus, from wild
thyme. In Australia the honey of eucalyp-
tus is highly appreciated, but attempts to
sell it in England have always ended in
failure, altho it ought to be useful for per-
sons suffering from coughs and colds. In-
stead of the eucalyptus flavor proving to
be an attraction it proved to be a draw-
back. In California, eucalyptus has a lim-
ited demand.

HONEY AS A FOOD. — Nearly 80
pounds of sugar on the average is annually
consumed by every man, woman, and child
in the United States. It is only within the
last few centuries that sugar has become so
low in price as to come into general use
even among the poorest families. Former-
ly, honey was the principal sweet, and it
was one of the items sent as a propitiatory
offering by Jacob to his unrecognized son,
the chief ruler of Egypt, 3000 years before
the first sugar refinery was built.

The health of the present generation
would be greatly benefited if honey could
be at least partially restored to its former
place as a common article of diet. The
almost universal craving for sweets of
some kind shows that the system demands
food of this kind, but the excessive use of
sugar brings in its train a long list of ills.
Prof. A. J. Cook of Sacramento, Cal.,, says,
" If cane sugar is absorbed without change,
it will be removed by the kidneys, and may
result in their breakdown. . . . There
can be no doubt but that in eating honey

416

HONEY AS A FOOD

our digestive machinery is saved work that
it would have to perform if we ate cane
sugar. . . . We all know how children
long for candy. This longing voices a need
and is another evidence of the necessity of
sugar in our diet. . . Children should
be given all the honey at each meal time
that they will eat. It is safer and will
largely do away with the inordinate long-
ing for candy and other sweets, and in
lessening the desire will doubtless diminish
the amount of cane sugar eaten." Dr.
Nuttall, a physician of the Pacific Medical
Institute, Los Angeles, Cal., has stated that
honey is a most valuable food, and that he
is recommending it to patients suffering
from impaired digestion.

Dr. Talmadge of Salt Lake City, Utah,
is using honey very successfully in the
treatment of typhoid-fever patients, and
he finds that it is readily absorbed even by
those whose digestion is very weak. Dr.
J. H. Kellogg, Battle Creek, Mich., en-
dorses honey as the best form of sweet. In
fact, all doctors and physicians who have
made a study of honey as compared with
sugars or syrups, strongly recommend its
use.

Honey, like fruits and other foods with
a high percentage of sugar, is to be classed
with those furnishing the carbohydrates,
and comparison should be miade upon this
basis. The carbohydrates are energy-form-
ers, as contrasted with foods containing
protein (the tissue-forming element), with
those largely fat, and with those containing
the small amount of mineral matter which
is necessary in bone-building. As a carbo-
hydrate it ranks one-fiLfth less than sugar,
the difference between them being due to
the presence of the water in honey. The
energy value is 1485 calories per pound, a
calorie being the unit of heat required to
raise the temperature of one gram of water
one degree centigrade. This exceeds the
caloric contents of every other food but
dates, being far ahead of meat, eggs, bread,
milk, or vegetables. Its value for furnish-
ing energy without going thru a prolonged
digestive process has given it a place in
army rations. Immense quantities of honey
were used by the armies in the great war
of Europe because at the time honey was
actually cheaper than sugar and because it
is naturally more delicious and convenient
a spread for bread than raw sugar.

Basing food value upon the amount of i
energy in calories to be derived from a
food, and taking the average prices into
consideration, honey is a more economical
food than pears, oranges, figs, bananas,
strawberries, and grapes, other foods in the
same class of energy-producers. Of foods
in other classes, honey is more economical
as an energy-producer than celery, toma-
toes, canned corn, and all the meats, with
the possible exception of pork chops. On
the other hand, it is less economical than
bread, cereals, potatoes, baked beans, and
apples.

These comparisons were made from stud-
ies and tables from the U. S. Department
of Agriculture and other sources. The dia-
gram (next page) shows graphically the
constituents of an average jar of honey.
The flavor of honey depends largely upon
the presence and proportion of the ele-
ments bracketed as "undetermined matter."

*INORGANIC ELEMENTS PRESENT IN HONEY.

" The animal body requires for its well-
being the following inorganic elements:
Phosphorus, P.; iron, Fe. ; calcium, Ca. ;
magnesium, Mg. ; chlorine, CI.; sodium,
Na.; potassium, K. ; sulphur, S.; manga-
nese, Mn.; and silicon. Si. As to the im-
portance of manganese and silicon, opin-
ions differ; but both of these elements are
present in the ash of the honey. Until
recently the inorganic parts in honey had
received but little attention. Some are of
the opinion that the ground on which the
plant grows would influence the amount of
inorganic elements in the nectar; for in-
stance, that land with much iron would
produce nectar or honey with much iron
content. Others hold that certain plants
have a special affinity for some of the inor-
ganic elements, and will take these up while
they partly or entirely neglect others. . .
The above enumerated inorganic elements
that the animal body requires are all found
in the ashes of honey of various origin.
The only exception is silicon.

" It is generally known that iron is very
important to the human body. It is an
important constituent of the red blood cor-
puscles. Chlorosis is a sign that the body
is suffering from a lack of iron. For such

* Condensed from an article by Dr. Eehlman in the
Schweizerische Bienenzeitung, by J. A. Heberle.

HONEY AS A FOOD

417

Invert sugar, /
75% N

Dextrin, 1.8%

Protein, .3%

Moisture, 17%

Levulose, 41%
(fruit sugar)

Dextrose, 34%
(grape sugar)

Sucrose, 1.9%
Ash, .18%

Undetermined matter, 3.68%
^ Xitrogen, .04%

Acid, .1%

/ Iron, lime, sodium,
/ sulphur, magnesia, po-
I tassium, manganese,
\ phosphoric acid, pol-

] len grains, albumen,
aromatic bodies (ter-

, penes, etc.) higher al-

i cohols (manitol, etc.),
/ and various other bod-
I ies of indefinite or un-
\ knowTi character.

persons honey is a very valuable medicine.
Why not in such cases eat honey regularly,
which supplies the iron in the most assimi-
lable form, instead of artificial iron pre-
parations? Besides iron, manganese seems
also to influence favorably the building of
blood.

" Phosphoric acid with calcium is the
principal constituent of the skeleton, but is
also found in the brain and nerves. It is
often prescribed in chlorosis and for con-
valescent persons, especially in prepara-
tions which are closely related to the form
in which it is present in the brain, as ovale-
cithin, phytin, glycerin phosphates, etc.

" Calcium is an important part of the
skeleton and teeth, but is also found in the
soft tissues of the body, and is probably
a necessary part in the protoplasm of most
cells. It is continually exchanged, and
therefore an indispensable part of our
food. Calcium and potassium seem also to
influence the work of the heart.

" Sugar, altho a valuable food, has no
trace of inorganic matter. It consists of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen only. Con-

14

sidering the excellent qualities of honey,
and its moderate price, it should be used
far more extensively."

THE USE OP HONEY IN COOKING.

The simplest way to serve honey is the
most common — just spread it on bread or
rolls, either in the form of comb or liquid.
It goes as far as jam in this way. Honey
is often served with rice, breakfast cereals,
pancakes, and similar foods. Honey and
cream is an ideal combination. Honey can
be used to advantage in flavoring ice cream,
gelatine creams, and delicate blanc-manges.
Honey combines particularly well with or-
anges, apples, bananas, peaches, and dried
fruits. A delicious substitute for maple
syrup is made by honey diluted with hot
water, and the same syrup cold is superior
to undissolved sugar for sweetening sum-
mer drinks. This method of flavoring goes
well with carbonated water.

Fruits cooked in honey keep indefinitely.
Bar-le-Duc currants, which sell ordinarily
at a high price, are often made by cooking
currants in honey. A brighter color is pres-

418

HONEY AS A FOOD

ent in fruits so preserved than in those
bottled in the usual way, as honey is a pre-
servative.

Indiscriminate substitution of honey for
corresponding amounts of molasses or su-
gar in recipes does not always give the
expected results. The cook should keep in
mind the difference in chemical nature be-
tween honey and syrup before making up a
recipe. Better bake a small amount as a
test before entirely filling a new recipe.
" Less soda is required when substituting
honey for ordinary molasses. Experiments
in the government nutrition laboratory
have shown that ^ level teaspoonful of
soda is generally the amount required with
a cupful of honey. In baking with sour
milk and soda it is well to add a pinch of
baking-powder to every pint of flour.
Cakes will be lighter and finer grained if
this is done. When baking-powder is sub-
stituted for soda use a little more.

When honey is used in a recipe less milk
is required on account of the water in the
honey. Compared with some of the " corn
syrups." on the market, honey is sometimes
considered, pound for pound, more expen-
sive, but where two or three cups of syrup
will be required in a recipe only one of
honey is necessary. The cake or cooky is
improved in flavor and healthfulness with
no increase in cost.

Baked foods keep much better when
prepared with honey instead of with sugar.
It was formerly believed that cakes baked
with honey absorb moisture from the air,
but experiments have been made in the
government nutrition laboratory which
seem to show that the softness of the honey
cake is due to the presence of the levulose
in the honey. The fact that such cakes, tho
soft, never become soggy, even tho exposed
to moist air for a long time, seems to bear
out this conclusion. Cakes should be al-
lowed to " ripen " for a day or two at least,
to develop the honey flavor. Honey fruit
cakes, hermits, and the like are better at
the end of two or three weeks.

Cakes made with honey and butter will
keep until the butter grows rancid. Cook-
ies made with honey will not dry out.
Dough itself containing honey will stay
fresh indefinitely. The remarkable merits
of goods baked with honey have led large
wholesale bakers and cracker manufactur-

ers to use quantities in their product. Some
big firms buy honey annually by the car-
load. The same power in retaining mois-
ture and freshness is present in icings made
with honey. The icing will last for months
unimpaired in consistency and taste, and is
especially valuable for such cakes as fruit
cakes which are to be kept for a long time.
Orange, bitter almonds, lemon, and fruit
flavors generally blend well with honey, as
do also anise, cardamon, coriander, and
other spicy seeds.

Contrary to directions for cooking honey,
as given in some of the old cook books, it
is seldom necessary to bring honey to the
boiling-point and then skim and cool it.
Bringing honey to the boiling-point is sure
to give a burnt flavor. It should not be
kept unnecessarily hot for any length of
time.

THE HONEY RECIPES.

All of the recipes here given have been
thoroly tested; but any recipe, while it
may be succesful in the hands of the ori-
ginator, often needs modification when it is
tried by others. All will give good results,
but the following 20 recipes (pictured on
page 420) are especially fine. In this con-
nection we wish to call particular attention
also to the one for making cereal coffee.
The ingredients used are so simple and the
work of preparing consumes so little time
that there is no one who should miss trying
this delightful drink. It has a very rich
flavor, especially when cream is used, with-
out the scorched, bitter taste that most
cereal coffees have. The expense, of course,
is so little as to be practically nothing. The
honey and egg used allow the bran to
brown to a rich color without burning, so
that the flnal result is surprising. Try it.

1. OATMEAL COOKIES

2 cups rolled oats Vz teaspoon nutmeg

2 cups flour Vz teaspoon salt

1 teaspoon soda 1 cup chopped raisins

1 tablespoon grated choc- Vz cup chopped nuts

olate or cocoa 1 cup honey

Vz teaspoon cinnamon 1 cup sour cream

Vz teaspoon cloves 2 eggs

Sift the dry ingredients together (except the rolled
oats) and add all other ingredients, the soda dissolved
in the sour cream. Stir well, and drop by teaspoon-
fuls into cooky pans, or bake in gem-pans. Nuts may
be omitted.

HONEY AS A FOOD

419

2. HONEY

rich flavor and the fresh natural color of the fruit thus
prepared.

3 cups flour

2 cups milk
% cup honey
% cup warm water

1 cake compressed yeast
% teaspoon salt

3 tablespoons melted
butter

Raisins, currants, or car-

damon seed
1 egg

1 cup flour

Dissolve the yeast in the warm water. Mix the
flour, milk, honey, yeast, and salt and set in a warm
place to rise. When very light, add the beaten egg,
butter, and enough flour to make a stiff dough. Knead
lightly and mold in small biscuits or twists. Raisins,
currants, or cardamon seed may be added at discre-
tion. Rub the top with beaten egg; cover, and let
them rise again until they are double in bulk, and are
very light and fluffy. Bake 20 to 25 minutes in a
moderate oven, glazing them with sugar and water
just before removing them from the oven.

3. HONEY BAKED BEANS.

Soak over night one pint of small white beans.
Bring to a boil, adding baking soda the size of a
bean, and allow to simmer for half an hour. Drain,
and cook till tender in salted water, but not long
enough to break the skins. Drain and rinse the beans,
and put them in an earthern bean-pot. Pour over
them a pint of milk, adding a tablespoonful of butter,
2 tablespoonfuls honey, and a pinch of cayenne pepper.
Cover closely, and bake in a slow oven till the milk is
absorbed.

-LADY FINGERS

1 cup honey

2 eggs

cup butter
4 cups flour

% teaspoon baking pow-
der

y2 teaspoon soda
1 teaspoon salt Sugar

Blend the honey warmed with butter, add beaten
eggs and flour, sifted with the dry ingredients. Cut
in strips. Roll in sugar. Bake in a quick oven.

■ 5. — MARSHMALLOW CREAM

% cup honey
1 teaspoon gelatine
% cup cold water

cup boiling water
Whites 2 eggs
1 teaspoon vanilla

1 teaspoon lemon extract

Dissolve gelatine in the usual way, heating it over
a teakettle until thoroly dissolved. Cool, but do not
chill ; stir in the honey, and add to the whites of the
eggs beaten very light, a few spoonfuls at a time,
beating constantly. Divide into 2 parts ; to one part
add a color and flavor with vanilla, about 1 teaspoon ;
to the other part add 1 teaspoon lemon extract. Mold
in layers, adding nuts to one part and maraschino
cherries to the other. Serve with or without whipped
cream.

6. — FRUIT CANNED WITH HONEY

Prepare fruit as usual in canning. Put on to boil.
When the fruit is ready for canning add honey, about
as much of it as one would use of sugar. Be sure to
let the fruit come just to the boiling point; but after
adding the honey do not boil, as this is liable to dam-
age the fine flavor of the honey. Have the jars ready,
clean, and very hot; put in the fruit and seal. Fruit
canned thus keeps better than by the old method of
canning with sugar ; it has in addition the delicate
flavor of the honey. Only those who regularly use
honey in canning and preserving can appreciate the

7. SOUR-MILK CAKE

% cup lard or butter
Vz cup sugar
V2 cup honey
V2 cup sour milk
1 egg

1% cups flour

Vz teaspoonful soda
1 teaspoon baking pow-
der

Vz teaspoon cinnamon
Vi teaspoon cloves

Pinch salt Nutmeg

Beat the sugar and lard to a cream and then add
the egg well beaten and the other ingredients. Use
little nutmeg and mix the soda with the flour. Bake
in either jelly- tins or loaf in a moderate oven, and
put together with caramel frosting.

8. — GRAHAM PUDDING

% cup butter
% cup honey
V2 cup milk
1 egg

1% cups graham flour
Yz teaspoon soda

1 teaspoon salt

1 cup seedless raisins

Melt the butter ; add the honey, milk, and egg, well
beaten ; dry ingredients mixed and sifted, and raisins.
Turn into buttered mold; cover and steam 2% hours.
Serve with pudding sauce.

9. HONEY NOUGATINES

% cup honey 1 teaspoon vanilla

% cup pure corn syrup Whites 2 eggs

Paraffin (size of a pea) ^ pound chocolate
1 cup sugar 1 cup almond or walnut

^4 teaspoon salt meats, chopped fine

^4 cup water

Mix the honey, corn syrup, or glucose, sugar, paraf-
fin (piece size of pea), and water and boil vmtil a
drop makes a hard ball when dropped in cold water
(248° F.). Stir occasionally while boiling. Pour part
of the syrup gradually on to the whites of the eggs,
beaten dry. Add the salt. Beat constantly in pour-
ing. Boil the remainder of the syrup until it is brit-
tle when tested in cold water (290° F.), and again
pour on the eggs, this time all of the syrup, and beat
constantly while pouring. Then boil the mixture and
beat constantly until it is crisp when tested. Cool in
a buttered tin. Cut in oblong pieces and coat with
chocolate.

10. — HONEY DROP CAKES

1 cup sugar

2 teaspoons baking pow-

2 tablespoons honey der
2 or 3 eggs Pinch salt

% cup shortening Yz teaspoon vanilla,

% cup buttermilk or sour orange, or lemon to

cream taste
^ teaspoon soda About cups flour

Cream the sugar, shortening, and honey, add the
eggs well beaten and then the buttermilk. Sift the
dry ingredients in flour enough to make a stiff bat-
ter to drop from spoon. Bake in moderate oven.
These cakes will run together in baking, and must be
cut apart with a knife, but are much better than
rolled, and much less trouble to bake.

11. — FRUIT CAKE

% cup honey
Y2 cup butter

2 eggs
% cup milk

1 cup raisins
Y2 cup chopped citron

1 cup maraschino
cherries, cut up

3 teaspoons baking pow-
der

^4 teaspoon salt
1 teaspoon g^inger
5 cups flour

420 HONEY AS A FOOD

The results of twenty of the recipes selected as the best. See preceding and following pages.

HONEY AS A FOOD

421

Warm the butter, honey, and milk over a slow fire ;
cool, and add the well-beaten eggs, the salt, and the
ginger. Sift the baking powder with the flour ; dredge
the fruit with flour, and add these alternately. Mix
well and bake in greased loaf-tin about an hour.

12. APPLE PUDDING

Apples sliced fine
% cup honey
Cinnamon
Butter
1 teaspoon salt

2 eggs

V2 cup water

3 or 4 slices bread

cnmibled
1 cup cooked rice

The rice should be cooked for several hours.
Beat into this the yokes of the eggs. In the
bottom of the pan place a layer of crumbs with dots
of butter here and there ; then a layer of apples, with
honey and cinnamon on top. The third layer is a
mixture of rice, egg, and salt. The fourth and fifth
layers are a repetition of the first and second. Add
water and bake in a moderate oven. Cover with
meringue.

13. DOUGHNUTS

1 egg

1 cup sweet milk

1 cup honey

2 tablespoons shortening

1 teaspoon cream tartar
1 teaspoon soda

Flour

Pinch salt

Cream the honey and shortening together and add
the egg, well beaten, and the other ingredients. Mix
well, and add flour enough to roll out and cut easily.
Roll out on baking board, and cut with doughnut-
cutter. Fry in hot lard. The honey in this recipe
makes the doughnuts a delicious brown, and also keeps
them moist for a long time.

14. PUMPKIN PIE

2 cups sifted pumpkin
Ys cup sugar
1 cup honey
4 tablespoons flour

2 teaspoons ginger

1 teaspoon cinnamon

3 cups milk

Mix the flour with the sugar and add to the pump-
kin. Then stir in the honey, the spices, and the milk
with all its cream. Recipe makes 2 pies.

15.

-GINGER DROP CAKES

1 cup sugar
1 cup honey
1 egg
1 cup lard

% cup sweet milk
1 tablespoon ginger

Vz teaspoon salt
1 teaspoon soda

Cream the sugar, lard, and honey together. Dissolve
the soda in a little hot water. Add the egg weU beaten
and the miUc. Use enough flour to make the batter
stiff enough to drop from spoon. Bake in greased gem
pans in moderate oven, or drop on greased pan from
spoon.

16. HONEY CORNSTARCH PUDDING

% cup honey iVz tablespoons cornstarch

% teaspoon salt 4 cups scalded milk

Mix the honey, salt, and cornstarch. Stir in the hot
milk gradually, stirring until smooth. Stir and cook
over boiling water until the mixture thickens. Cover
and cook 15 minutes. Turn into a wet mold, chiU,
and serve with cream and sugar.

17. HONEY FONDANT

2 cups granulated sugar % cup honey
% cup water

Mix, put over fire, and stir only until the sugar is
dissolved. Boil carefully until able to shape a very
soft ball when tested in cold water (about 238° F.).

Do not stir while boiling and do not scrape off sugar
which adheres to the side of the pan. When done
pour into greased platter and partially cool. Beat
and stir with a wooden spoon until it begins to crum-
ble and then knead with the hands like dough. Pack
in a bowl, cover with cloth, and set aside until needed.
AVhen ready for use the bowl of fondant may be set
in hot water until soft enough to handle. Any flavor-
ing msLV be added when shaping into candies. The
honey flavor alone is delicious when the fondant is used
to stuff dates.

The use of honey in fondant obviates the necessity
of using cream of tartar. The slight acidity of the
honey keeps it from graining too soon. If the fondant
is boiled too hard, pull until white ; the result wiU be
a fine taffy.

18. WIIOLE-AVHEAT BREAD

1 quart whole-wheat flour
(may be V2 graham
or V3 rye)

1 pint water (may be V2
scalded milk cold)

1 large cooking spoon
honey

^2 compressed yeast cake,

or the equivalent
1% teaspoons salt
Butter, size of an egg

Dissolve the yeast thoroly in the water ; have the
water slightly warm in cold weather. Add the honey ;
mix well ; add the salt, and stir until dissolved. Mix
the flour and water thoroly by means of a large cook-
ing spoon, putting all together at once. The dough
should be rather sticky and soft. If the dough is too
stiff with a pint of water, more may be added, a tea-
spoonful at a time thoroly incorporated, until the right
consistency is obtained. If the bread is wanted rather
dry, leave the dough stiffer.

Cover closely, keeping in a warm place in cold
weather, and vice versa. In the morning turn the
dough out on the board, and knead into it the butter,
flouring the board and hands as lightly as possible.
Make 2 loaves in narrow pans, cover, and keep warm
to rise. It should about double in bulk. If the dough
is not covered closely the surface will dry so as to
form a skin. This will cause streaks in the bread.
Bake 30 to 40 minutes in an oven not too hot. This
bread does not become stale as soon as other bread.
It contains all the vitalizing elements of the grain.

19. TIP-TOP LEIION PIE

3 eggs

cup honey
1 tablespoon flour

V2 lemon

1 teaspoon melted butter
1% cups rich milk

Combine thoroly the yolks of the 3 eggs beaten
light, the honey, flour, the juice, flesh, and grated rind
of half a lemon, and the butter. Mix thoroly in the
order given and add the milk ; pour into a pie-plate
lined with a good crust, pricked to prevent air blis-
ters. Bake until set. Cover with a meringue of the
-whites, beaten with 3 tablespoons honey and a few
drops of lemon juice, and brown lightly.

Many prefer to bake the crust separately and also
cook the filling in a double boiler before putting it in
the shell .

20. — BAKED SQUASH

Peel and slice the squash into pieces about i/^ inch
thick. Place slices in the bottom of a large bread
pan. Dot each slice with a generous piece of butter ;
strew honey over squash, 1 teaspoon to each slice;
then pour in enough hot water to cover the bottom of
the pan. After cooking on top of the range for 10 or
15 minutes, turn each slice with a knife and boil until
tender. More hot water may have to be added. Place
the pan in the oven and let the squash take on a deli-
cate brown. Serve at once after removing from the
pan.

422

HONEY AS A FOOD

HONEY CAKES.

Lemon Cakes. — Bring lYz cupfuls of honey to the
boiling point. Skim if necessary. Add ^ cupful of
butter and cool. Add 2 cupfuls of pastry flour, stir-
ring it in carefully. Let this mixture stand over
night. When ready to bake, stir in the grated yellow
rind of 1 lemon, 2 tablespoonfuls of lemon juice, V2
cupful of chopped blanched almonds ; add % tea-
spoonful of soda dissolved in a little lukewarm water,
and bake in small round tins. Ice when cool.

Nut Cakes. — Beat to a cream i/^ cupful of but-
ter and 1 cupful of powdered sugar. Beat into
this 1 egg well beaten and V2 cupful of honey.
Stir in 2 cupfuls of pastry flour, previously sifted,
with 2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder, and last stir
in Vz cupful of finely chopped filberts. Let the mix-
ture stand where it is very cold (do not freeze) over
night. When ready to bake, roll the dough very thin,
cut into fancy shapes, brush them over with the
white of an egg diluted with a teaspoonful of warm
water. Sprinkle the cakes with granulated sugar
and chopped filberts. Bake in a hot oven until a
golden brown.

Short Cake. — ^Three cups flour, 2 teaspoonfuls bak-
ing powder, 1 teaspoonful salt, % cwp shortening, lYz
cups sweet milk. Roll quickly, and bake in a hot
oven. When done, split the cake and spread the lower
half thinly with butter, and the upper half with Yz
pound of the best-flavored honey. (Candied honey is
preferred. If too hard to spread well it should be
slightly warmed or creamed with a knife.) Let it
stand a few minutes and the honey will melt gradu-
ally, and the flavor will permeate all thru the cake.
To be eaten with milk.

Soft Cake. — One cup butter, 2 cups honey, 2 eggs,
1 cup sour milk, 2 teaspoonfuls soda, 1 teaspoonful
ginger, 1 teaspoonful cinnamon, 4 cups flour.

Egoless Cake. — One cupful sugar, Vz cup honey, 1
cupful sour milk, 2 tablespoonfuls of butter, 1 cupful
chopped raisins, 1 cupful chopped dates, 1 teaspoonful
soda, 2% cupfuls flour. Spices may be added to taste.

Sponge Cake. — One coffee-cup honey, 1 cup flour,
5 eggs. Beat yolks and honey together. Beat whites
to a froth. Mix all together, stirring as little as pos-
sible. Flavor with lemon juice or extract.

Railroad Cake. — One cup honey, 1 heaping
cup flour, 1 teaspoonful cream tartar, Vz teaspoonful
soda, 3 eggs, and a little lemon juice. Stir all to-
gether ten minutes. Bake 20 minutes in quick oven.

Lemon Cakes. — One cup butter, 2 cups honey, 3
eggs well beaten, 1 tablespoonful essence of lemon,
cup sour milk, 1 teaspoonful soda. Flour enough to
make as stiff as can well be stirred. Bake at once in
quick oven.

Jelly Roll. — Three eggs or yolks of 6, 1 cup
of white sugar (scooped), 1 cup of flour (heaped),

1 teaspoonful of butter, 2 tablespoonfuls of sweet
milk, 2 teaspoonfuls of cream tartar, 1 teaspoonful
soda or 2 of baking powder. Bake in an oblong
pan, spread with granulated honey, and roll at once.
Set where it will cool quickly.

Swiss Cake. — Melt 4 ounces butter ; add 1 lb.
of honey, stirring well ; take it off the fire and let it
cool. Add the minced rind of a large lemon, 4
ounces sweet almonds chopped fine, a little nutmeg,

2 scant teaspoonfuls of baking soda, dissolved
in a little water. Mix these well and add flour until
very stiff, and set in a cool place 12 hours. Roll out

inch thick, cut into squares, decorate with nuts

and chopped citron. Bake in hot oven. Make two
dozen cakes from this amount.

Pork Cake. — One pound fat pork chopped fine,
1 pint boiling water poured on pork; 2 cups honey,
S teaspoonfuls soda, 2 cups raisins, 2 teaspoonfuls
each of cloves, cinnamon, and nutmeg; about 7
cupfuls of flour.

Coffee Cake. — 1 cup of honey, % cup of sugar,
shortening size of an egg, 3 cups flour, 1 teaspoon-
ful soda dissolved in % cup of cold coffee (scant),
1 teaspoonful of cinnamon, Yz teaspoonful of cloves,
Y2 teaspoonful of nutmeg, 1 cup of raisins (floured).
If too thin, add a little more flour.

Fruit Cake. — Two cups of honey, 2 cups ol
raisins, 1 cup of shortening, Y2 cup of sour milk, 1
teaspoonful soda, Y2 teaspoonful cloves, Y2 teaspoon-
ful cinnamon, Y2 teaspoonful nutmeg, 4 cups flour.
Bake 40 minutes.

Fruit Cake. — One and one-half cups honey, %
cup butter, Y2 cup sweet milk, 2 eggs well beaten,
3 cups flour, 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder, 2 cups
raisins, 1 teaspoonful each of cloves and. cinnamon.

Fruit Cake.— One-half cup butter, % cup honey,
Ys cup apple jelly or boiled cider, 2 eggs well beaten,
1 teaspoonful soda, 1 teaspoonful each of cinnamon,
cloves, and nutmeg ; 1 teacupful each of raisins and
dried currants. Warm the butter, honey, and apple
jelly slightly ; add the beaten eggs, then the soda dis-
solved in a little warm water ; add spices and flour
enough to make a stiff batter, then stir in the fruit
and bake in a slow oven. Keep in a covered jar sev-
eral weeks before using.

Fruit Cake. — Two eggs well beaten, 1 cup but-
ter, Y2 cup sour cream, 1 cup honey, Y2 cup sugar,
1 teaspoonful soda dissolved in warm water, 1 tea-
spoonful cinnamon, Y2 teaspoonful cloves, 1 cup raisins,
1 cup currants, 2 cups flour.

Honey Tea-cake. — One ,cup honey, % cup sour
cream, 2 eggs, Y2 cup butter, 2 cups flour, scant Y2
teaspoonful soda, 1 teaspoon cream of tartar. Bake
30 minutes in a moderate oven.

Fruit Cake. — Four eggs, 5 teacups flour, 2 tea-
cups honey, 1 teacup butter, 1 teacup sweet milk, 6
teaspoonfuls baking powder, 1 lb. raisins, 1 lb. cur-
rants, 1 teaspoonful cloves, 1 teaspoonful cinnamon, 1
teaspoonful nutmeg. Then bake in slow oven. The
above will keep moist for months.

Citron Cake. — Two eggs, 1 cup dark honey, 4
tablespoonfuls butter, 1 cup milk, 3 cups flour, i/4
lb. citron chopped fine, 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder,
1 teaspoonful lemon.

Raisin Cake. — Three eggs, 1 cup honey, 4 table-
spoonfuls melted butter, 1 cup sweet milk, 1^ cups
raisins chopped fine, 3 cups flour, Y2 teaspoonful salt,
Y2 teaspoonful soda, 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder, 1
teaspoonful vanilla extract.

Drop Cakes. — T^vo eggs beaten without separat-
ing, 3 tablespoonfuls softened butter, % cup honey,
IY3 cups flour, IY3 teaspoonfuls baking powder. Drop
on buttered baking-sheet about Y2 teaspoonful of bat-
ter to a cake. Put them well apart ; spread lightly
with the bowl of a tin spoon, dipped in cold water ;
press one pecan nutmeat on the top of each.

Drop Cakes. — One cup honey, Y2 cup sugar, Y2
cup butter or lard, Y2 cup sour milk, 1 egg, tea-
spoonful soda, 4 cups sifted flour. Flavor to taste.

HOI^TEY AS A FOOD

423

Choice Drop Cakes. — One gallon honey (dark
honey is best), 15 eggs, 3 lbs. sugar (a little more
honey in its place may be better) ; 1^^ oz. baking
soda, 2 oz. ammonia, 2 lbs. almonds chopped up, 2
lbs. citron, 4 oz. cinnamon, 2 oz. cloves, 2 oz. mace,
18 lbs. flour. Let the honey come almost to a boil;
then let it cool off, and add the other ingredients.
Cut out and bake. The cakes are to be frosted after-
ward with sugar and white of eggs.

Drop Cakes. — Take Vz cupful of butter, cupful
of sugar, and blend them ; after which add 1 cupful
strained honey, the beaten yolks of 2 eggs, 3 table-
spoonfuls of lemon juice, and the whites of 2 eggs
beaten dry. Mix well, and add 3V2 cupfuls of flour
and 1 teaspoonful of soda ; 1 teaspoonful baking pow-
der, a little nutmeg. More flour may be added, if
needed, and it often is, for the dough should be stiff
enough so that it will drop by spoonfuls on to a
buttered bakingpan. Shape round, and bake in a
moderate oven.

Tea Cakes. — Blend V3 cup honey, 1 teaspoonful
butter, 1 egg well beaten, % cup flour, sifted with
half a teaspoonful of baking powder, and a pinch of
salt. Drop by teaspoonfuls on a tin, and bake in a
quick oven. These proportions will make about 20
cakes.

GiXGER Cake — One cup honey, ^ cup butter, or
drippings, 1 tablespoonful boiled cider, in % cup of
hot water (or Yz cup sour milk will do instead).
Warm these ingredients together, and then add 1
tablespoonful ginger and 1 teaspoonful soda sifted
in with flour enough to make a soft batter. Bake in
flat pan.

Gingerbread. — Warm together % cup of brown
sugar and honey, with % cup of shortening. Re-
move from stove ; add % cup sour milk and 2 eggs ;
pour gradually into bowl containing 2 cups of flour
sifted with a tablespoonful of ginger, a scant tea-
spoonful of soda, and a little salt. Other spices may
be added. Bake in moderate oven.

Gingerbread. — One egg, 1 cup honey (dark), 1
cup milk (sour), 2 tablespoonfuls butter, % tea-
spoonful soda, 1 teaspoonful ginger. Flour to make
rather stiff batter.

Ginger Cake. — Put 1 cup darkest honey into a dish
with Vo cup brown sugar ; 1 teaspoonful salt, %
teaspoonful vanilla, ^ teaspoonful ground cloves, %
teaspoonful cinnamon, % teaspoonful ginger. To this
add 2 tablespoonfuls soda dissolved in 1 cup boiling
water. Stir together well ; V2 cup cold water. Nearly
1 cup shortening. Stir in flour until thick as molasses.
Break in 1 large egg ; beat thoroly with egg-beater.
Pour into two 9-inch jelly-tins and tuck in raisins.
Bake in an even, brisk oven.

Ginger Cake. — Three cups fliour, % cup butter;
rub well together. Add one cup brown sugar ; 2
large tablespoonfuls ginger ; same of caraway seeds
if you like ; 5 eggs, 2 cups honey, 3 teaspoonfuls
baking powder. Beat it well, and bake in an iron
pan an hour or more.

Later Cake. — Two-thirds cup butter, 1 cup honey,
3 eggs beaten, Yz cup milk. Cream the honey and
butter together, then add the eggs and milk. Then
add 2 cups flour containing lYz teaspoonfuls baking
powder previously stirred in. Then stir in more flour to
make a stiff batter. Bake in jelly-tins. When the
cakes are cold take finely flavored candied honey, and,
after creaming it, spread between layers.

HONEY COOKIES.

Aunt Millie's Cookies. — One cup butter beaten
light, 1 cup sugar beaten to cream with butter, 1
cup honey. Let honey warm ; put 1 teaspoonful of
soda in the honey. If j'ou have fermented honey,
use that with soda, as it is as good as cream tartar.
If you have not the fermented honey, then use 2
teaspoonfuls of cream tartar and 1 teaspoonful of
soda, or 2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder. When
the honey has cooled, beat light and add to the but-
ter and sugar. Then add 1 cup cold water, 1 tea-
spoonful vanilla, flour to make a very stiff dough.
Fill a salt-shaker with powdered sugar ; shake over
the sheet of dough after it is rolled ; press the sugar
by rolling the rolling pin over it once more. Then cut
out and bake brown in a moderate oven.

Cream Cookies. — One teacupful extracted honey,
1 pint sour cream, scant teaspoonful soda, flavoring
if desired ; flour to make a soft dough.

Fowls" Cookies. — Three teaspoonfuls soda dissolved
in 2 cups warm honey, 1 cup shortening containing
salt, 2 teaspoonfuls ginger, 1 cup hot water ; flour
sufficient to roll.

Vinegar Cookies. — One cup of butter and lard
mixed ; 1 cup of sugar, 4 eggs, 2 cups of honey, 3
teaspoonfuls of soda in Y2 cup of boiling water ;
spices to taste ; flour to roll out ; Y2 cup of vinegar.

Hard-time Cookies. — One pint of honey, Y2 tea-
cupful of granulated sugar, % pint of melted lard
and butter mixed ; 1 even teaspoonful soda dissolved
in 14 cup warm water ; % teaspoonful of ginger,
Y2 teaspoonful nutmeg, a little salt. Roll rather thin,
and bake quickly.

Swiss Cookies. — Prepare some dough as for the
gingerbread, and mix with it % lb. crushed almonds,
orange and lemon juice, and cinnamon ; and, if de-
sired, cloves to suit the taste.

Tennessee Cookies. — Melt together 1 cup of honey
and 1 cup of lard or butter. When cold, add % of a
cup of sugar, a pinch of salt, a tablespoon of soda and
1 egg. Stir in flour enough to make a stiff dough ;
roll, and cut into small cakes, and bake on greased
tins, in a moderate oven.

Sugarless Cookies. — Two cups honey ; 1 cup
butter, 4 eggs (mix well) ; 1 cup buttermilk (mix) ;
1 gcod quart flour ; 1 level teaspoonful soda or
saleratus. If it is too thin, stir in a little more flour.
If too thin it wiU fall. It does not want to be as
thin as sugar cake. Use very thick honey. Be sure
to use the same cup for measure. Be sure to mix
the honey, butter, and eggs well together. You can
make it richer if you wish by using clabbered cream
instead of buttermilk. Bake in a rather slow oven,
as it burns very easily. To make the cookies, use a
little more flour, so that they will roll out well with-
out sticking to the board. Any kind of flavoring
wiU do.

Ginger Cookies. — One cup honey, % cup of sugar,
% cup shortening, Y2 cup warm water, 1 teapsoonful
soda, 1 teaspoonful ginger, 5 cups flour, pinch of salt.

Honey-jumbles. — Two quarts flour, 3 tablespoon-
fuls melted lard, 1 pint honey, % pint molasses, 1^
level tablespoonfuls soda, 1 level teaspoonful salt,
pint water, Y2 teaspoonful vanilla.

Ginger Cookies. — One cup honey, 1 cup sugar, 1
cup buttermilk, 1 cup lard, 1 teaspoonful salt, 1 tea-
spoonful cinnamon, 1 teaspoonful ginger, 1 teaspoonful
soda, heaping; 1 teaspoonful lemon extract. Stir stiff

424

HONEY AS A FOOD

with flour ; for gingerbread, mix stiff and roll out and
cut and bake in qiiick oven. Also very good with
caraway seeds instead of spices.

GiNGERSNAPS. — One pint honey, % lb. butter, 2
teaspoonfuls ginger. Boil together a few minutes, and
when nearly cold put in flour until it is stiff. Roll
out thin and bake quickly.

Dark Cookies. — One cup brown sugar, % cup sour
cream, % cup butter, % cup dark honey, 1 egg, 1
tablespoonful cinnamon, 1 scant teaspoonful soda.
Flour to make thick batter. Improved with chopped
nuts sprinkled over and pressed in with the bowl of
spoon.

Lemon Snaps. — Mix 1 quart honey, % lb. powdered
sugar, % lb. fresh butter, and juice of two oranges or
lemons. Warm just enough to soften the butter. Beat
the mixture very hard. Add a grated nutmeg. Mix
in gradually 2 lbs. or less of flour. Make a dough
hard enough to roll out easily. Beat it well all over
with rolling-pin. Roll % inch thick ; cut with tum-
bler dipped in flour. Bake well on buttered tins.

Oatmeal Cookies. — Cream together 1 cup sugar, y2
cup honey, % cup lard or butter, 6 tablespoonfuls
milk, V2 cup raisins, 2 cups rolled oats, 2 eggs ; sift
together 2 or more cups flour, Vz teaspoonful salt, 2
teaspoonfuls cream of tartar, 1 teaspoonful soda ; 1
teaspoonful cinnamon. Mix together, and roll quite
thick.

Doughnuts. — One egg, 1 cup sweet milk, 1 cup
honey, 2 tablespoonfuls shortening, 1 heaping teaspoon-
ful cream tartar, V2 teaspoonful soda. Flour to roll
and cut easily. Pinch of salt.

Doughnuts. — Take two eggs, butter, the size of an
egg ; 1 V2 cupfuls alfalfa honey ; 1 cupful of sour
milk to which has been added 1 teaspoonful of soda
and flour to roll, to which add 2 teaspoonfuls of cream
of tartar.

Sugar Cookies. — One and one-half cups sugar, %
cup honey, V2 cup butter or lard, % cup sour milk, 1
level teaspoonful soda, Yz nutmeg, grated, 1 pinch of
salt. Add flour to make a rather soft dough. Roll out
to %-ineh thick, and bake in quick oven.

BREAD, GEMS, ETC.

Brown Bread. — One heaping coffee-cup of corn
meal ; 2 cups graham flour ; sift three times together,
then beat together with 1 cup of honey, 2 cups sweet
milk, 1 cup sour milk, 1 dessertspoonful soda and 1
teaspoonful salt. Place in form, and steam SVz hours.

Brown Bread. — One cup corn meal, 1 cup rye meal,
1 cup sour milk, cup or less of honey ; a teaspoon-
ful of salt and a teaspoonful of soda. Steam 4 hours,
and then dry in the oven 15 minutes. It may be
added that most of the molasses now sold is not fit to
eat, and in any case honey is much better.

Steamed Brown Bread. — Two cups graham flour,
sometimes heaped, depending on condition of milk,

1 cup meal, % cup dark honey or sugared honey,

2 cups sour milk, 1 teaspoonful salt, 2 teaspoonfuls
soda dissolved in one tablespoonful boiling water,
stirred into the milk and honey ; % cup of raisins.
Stir thoroly ; fill pound baking powder cans half full ;
cover tight, and steam 3 hours.

Graham Bread. — Three cups graham flour, 1 table-
spoonful salt (scant), % cup honey, 2 cups sour milk,
1 teaspoonful soda dissolved in warm water ; pinch
baking powder ; a few nuts chopped fine. Bake 1 hour
and 15 minutes.

Graham Bread. — One pint sweet milk, Vz cup ex-
tracted honey, % cup sugar, 1 teaspoonful soda, a
pinch of salt, 2% cups graham flour. Stir all into
a batter in a vessel in which it is to be steamed for
S hours. Then remove from the steamer and bake
^2 hour.

Grapiam Bread. — One and one-half cups sour milk,
V2 cup shortening, % cup honey, 1 egg, 1 teaspoonful
soda, 3 cups graham flour.

Honey Graham Biscuits. — Use 2 cups graham flour,
2 cups white flour, % cup butter, cup honey, 2
teaspoonfuls baking powder. Sift the flour and baking
powder well together; rub the butter into the flour
thoroly. Add the honey, and just enough sweet milk
to make a soft dough. Roll out and bake in a quick
oven.

French Muffins. — One and one-half pints flour,
1 cup honey, V2 teaspoonful salt, 2 teaspoonfuls baking
powder, 2 tablespoonfuls butter, 3 eggs, and a little
over half a pint milk or thin cream. Sift together the
flour, salt, and powder ; rub in the butter cold ; add
beaten eggs, milk, and honey. Mix smoothly in batter
as for pound cake. About half flll sponge-cake tins,
cold and well greased, and bake in good steady
oven for eight minutes.

CoRNMEAL Cake. — One cupful cornmeal (yellow),
% cupful white flour, putting both in flour sieve ;
add one level teaspoonful soda and a rounding tea-
spoonful cream of tartar, and sift all together ; then
add 1 cupful of honey, cupful of shortening ; add
enough sweet milk to mix to a batter that will not
run, but drop from spoon in a lump. Bake one-half
hour in hot oven.

Bran Gems. — Take 2 cups bran, 1 scant cup wheat
flour, 1 large pinch salt, 1% cups buttermilk, 1 level
teaspoonful soda, 3 tablespoonfuls strained honey. Miic
the bran, flour, and salt thoroly, add buttermilk, in
which soda has been dissolved ; lastly, add honey.
Bake until (crusty) thoroly done in greased gem-pans
in a hot oven.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Honey Cereal Coffee. — Use 1 egg, 1 cup honey
(preferably dark), 2 quarts wheat bran. Beat the
egg, add honey, and lastly the bran, and stir until
well blended. Put in oven and brown to dark brown,
stirring frequently, being careful the oven is not too
hot. To prepare the coffee, allow one heaping table-
spoonful to a cup of hot water, and boil for at least
ten minutes.

Plum Butter. — Take 4 quarts of plums after being
rubbed thru the colander. Let it come to a boil ;
then add 1 quart of honey, and 1 quart of sugar, or 2
quarts of honey, and boil until it crusts on top when
cooled, or about fifteen minutes. Stir frequently to
prevent burning.

Apple Butter. — One gallon good cooking apples, 1
quart honey, 1 quart honey vinegar, 1 heaping tea-
spoonful ground cinnamon. Cook several hours, stir-
ring often to prevent burning. If the vinegar is very
strong, use part water.

Bar-le-Duc Preserves. — These preserves are be-
lieved to be the finest of their kind, and have hitherto
been imported at extravagant prices. Other fruits be-
sides currants may be treated in this way, as honey is
of itself a preservative. These preserves do not require
to be kept absolutely air-tight.

Take selected red or white currants of large size,
one by one; carefully make an incision in the skin
14 of an inch deep with tiny embroidery scissors.

HONEY AS A FOOD

425

Thru this slit remove the seeds with the aid of a
sharp needle ; remove the seeds separately, preserv-
ing the shape of the fruit. Take the weight of the
currants in honey, and when this has been heated
add the currants. Let it simmer a minute or two,
and then seal as for jelly. The currants retain their
shape, are of a beautiful color, and melt in the mouth.
Care should be exerciseci not to scorch the honey;
then you will have fine preserves.

Custard. — Use 1 egg, 1 tablespoonful honey (or
more to suit individual taste), 1 cup rich milk, nut-
meg or other flavoring. Beat the eggs, and add the
honey and other ingredients.

Honey Beans (Navy). — Soak beans and bacon over
night and cook till skins crack. Place 1 onion, %
pound bacon, and butter the size of an egg in the bot-
tom of a bean-pot or iron spider. Pour over the beans
2 tablespoonfuls olive or cooking oil, and 2 table-
spoonfuls best quality extracted honey. Lay sliced
Greening apples to cover over the top of beans. Keep
moist while baking. Bake until well done. Add pep-
per to suit taste.

Baked Beans.-— Boil 2 pints of beans in slightly
salted water until tender; then add 1 cupful of
extracted honey and V2 cupful of butter, with salt and
pepper to suit taste. Bake in a covered baker until
solid, but not dry.

Summer Drink. — One spoonful fruit juice and 1
spoonful honey in % glass water ; stir in as much
soda as will lie on a dime, and then stir in half as
much tartaric acid, and drink at once.

Filling for Layer Cake. — Take 1 tablespoonful
of lemon-juice, 2 heaping tablespoonfuls of granulated
honey ; stir to a smooth cream. When cake is done,
lay on a plate ; spread with the honey while hot.

Pickled Grapes in Honey. — Seven pounds good
grapes (wine grapes if possible) on the stalks, care-
fully packed in a jar without bruising any of them.
Make a syrup of 4 pounds of honey, a pint of good
vinegar with cloves, etc., to suit the taste. Then
boil the syrup for twenty minutes, carefully skim-
ming it. While boiling hot, pour the syrup over the
grapes and seal up. This will keep perfectly for
years, as the honey is a preservative.

Honey Crab-apple Jelly. — Boil fruit with as littK
water as possible ; squeeze thru a jelly-bag. Add V2
cup of honey and y2 cup of sugar to 1 cup of juice;
then boil about twenty minutes, or until it begins to
jell. Pour into glasses. Do not cover up until cool.

Baked Apples. — Split some sour apples, cut out

the core, and fill pan. When they begin to soften,

fill the cavity with some honey and lemon juice. Set
back in stove to finish baking.

Salad Dressing.— Take 1 egg, well beaten, with
2 dessertspoonfuls honey. Add a pinch of salt ; pepper
to taste ; % teaspoonful of mustard. Stir well to-
gether, and add I/2 cup of vinegar. Let come to a boil,
stirring constantly. Cool, and add % pint of sweet
cream just before using.

Salad Dressing. — Take the yolks of 4 eggs, beat
well, add 4 tablespoonfuls cider vinegar, 2 table-
.spoonfuls butter, 2 tablespoonfuls honey, 1 teaspoonful
mustard. Mix thoroly together, and cook in a double
boiler to a smooth paste, stirring constantly. Mix
with thick sweet cream, when ready to use. It will
keep two weeks in a cool place.

Steamed Pudding. — Use 2 eggs, % cup honey, 1 cup
chopped raisins, % teaspoonful salt, % teaspoonful

soda, teaspoonful cinnamon, % teaspoonful cloves,
y2 teaspoonful allspice, 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder,
2 tablespoonfuls ground chocolate, 1 cup sweet milk,

1 % cups flour ; more if needed. Steam three hours.

Mince Meat. — Four pounds of apples, pared, cored,
and minced ; 1 V2 pounds of raisins, stoned and
minced ; 4 pounds of beef suet shredded, or 2 pounds
butter ; 1 pound honey and % pound sugar ; ^
pound of mixed spices, minced rind of 4 lemons and
juice of two lemons. Make a month before using. If
apples are very sour, use more honey.

Buckwheat Pancakes. — Take scant 2 quarts of
water at a little below blood heat — cooler if weather
is warm ; dissolve salt in the water till it tastes
almost briny ; % compressed yeast cake, thoroly mixed
in water before flour is added. Mix in the water a
large tablespoonful of liquid honey; add the buck-
wheat flour thru a sieve. The batter should then be
stirred or beaten a long time. If any batter is left,
set away in a cool jjlace, not too tightly covered.
When ready for the next batch add the necessary
quantity of salted warm water and the honey ; stir
thoroly, and then add the buckwheat as before. It is
better to mix a little too thick rather than too thin.
Water can be safely added before baking, if necessary.
If scur in the morning from being kept too warm,
use a little baking soda^ dissolved in warm water.
The old batter is useless after the soda treatment.

Buckwheat Pancakes. — -When buckwheat pancakes
are raised over night and the soda is put in when ready
to bake, add one or two spoonfuls of extracted honey.
It makes them bake nice and brown, and gives them a
fine flavor.

Junket. — To a pint of milk, just warm, add 2 des-
sertspoonfuls of honey and % junket tablet, dissolved
in cold water ; flavor to taste. Set in a warm place
until firm.

HONEY CANDY.

Caramels. — Take 1 pint honey, 1 teaspoonful cinna-
mon or vanilla, i/^ pound cocoa, % pound pecan nuts,

2 pounds sweet almonds. Cut the nuts fine, and boil
them with other ingredients until thick. Cool and roll
out. Cut in squares and dry in the oven.

Caramels. — One cup extracted honey of best flavor ;
1 cup granulated sugar ; 3 tablespoonfuls sweet cream
of milk. Boil to " soft crack," or until it hardens
when dropped into cold water, but not too brittle —
just so it will form into a soft ball when taken in the
fingers. Pour into a greased dish, stirring in a tea-
spoonful extract of vanilla just before taking off. Let
it be % or % inch deep in the dish ; and as it cools
cut in squares and wrap each square in paraffin paper,
such as grocers wrap butter in. To make chocolate
caramels, add to the foregoing one tablespoonful melted
chocolate, just before taking off the stove, stirring it
in well. For chocolate caramels it is not so import-
ant that the honey be of best quality.

Taffy. — Boil some honey until it hardens when
dropped into cold water. Pull it till it becomes white.
Any quantity may be used. A pound requires twenty
minutes' boiling and stirring. Great care must be ex-
ercised not to burn the honey. It makes very fine
taffy.

Peanut Honey Candy. — Take 1 cup butter, 2 cups
honey, 2 cups sugar, 1 cup boiling water, % tea-
spoonful cream tartar, % teaspoonful glycerine, a tiny
dash of soda. Boil ten minutes to a soft ball, and
set in cool place. Whon it has cooled slightly, stir
in one or two tablespoonfuls of peanut butter, or to
suit the taste ; keep stirring till creamy ; then pour
into buttered pans : mark in squares.

426

HONEY AS A FOOD

Peanut Candy. — Use 1 cup honey, 1 cup granu-
lated sugar, 4 tablespoufuls sweet cream. Boil until
it cracks when dropped in cold water. Remove from
the fire and stir in a pound of peanuts that have been
previously shelled and well crushed with the rolling-
pin. Pour into a greased pan and set to cool.

Peanut Rolls. — Take 1 cup butter, 2 cups honey,
1 cup boiling water, % teaspoonful cream tartar, %
teaspconful glycerine, a tiny dash of soda. Boil ten
minutes ; pour over a layer of rolled peanuts which
have been scattered evenly over the bottom of the but-
tered pan. When nearly cold, mark off in long strips
and roll up tight ; then slice across with a sharp
knife, before it gets quite cold.

Honey Chocolate. — Chocolate sweetened with honey
rather than with sugar is excellent. It is very easily
made : Melt 1 pound of gelatine in a pint of water ;
add 10 pounds of honey, thoroly warming the same,
then add 4 pounds of cocoa. Flavor with vanilla
when taken off the fire, and then pour into greased
dishes or molds.

French Candies. — In an enameled sauce-pan melt

1 part of gelatine in 1 part of water, stirring well.
When at the state of a soft paste, add 4 parts of honey
previously warmed, stirring lively. Take from the
fire ; add the desired flavor and color, mixing care-
fully, and pour into a shallow lightly greased dish.
Let it dry for a few days.

Nougat. — Take 3 cups granulated sugar, IV2 cups
any kind nut-meats, % cup honey, % cup hot water,
white of one egg beaten stiff. Boil the sugar, honey,
and water together until they make a rather hard ball
when dropped in cold water. Remove from the fire,
pour in the beaten white of the egg, and beat briskly
with a silver fork. After beating a while, pour in the
nut-meats and beat until it begins to form a hard
creamy mass, then pour into a buttered tin to cool.

Taffy. — Use 3 cups sugar, % cup extracted honey.
% cup hot water. Boil all together till it spins a
thread when dropped from a spoon, or hardens when
dropped into cold water. Pour into a greased vessel.
When cool, pull until white.

Popcorn Balls. — Use 2 gallons of corn, 2 cups gran-
ulated sugar, 3 tablespoonfuls honey, 2 tablespoonfuls
apple vinegar, % cup of water. Stir together and
boil until it will rattle in water. Then pour over the
corn, and mix well. Dampen the hands in cold water
and form into balls.

Popcorn Balls. — Take 1 pint extracted honey ; put
it into an iron frying-pan, and boil until very thick ;
then stir in freshly popped corn, and, when cold, mold
into balls. These will specially delight the children.

Good Candy. — ^Use 2% cups sugar, Vz cup honey,
Yz cup water. Boil until thick syrup. Pour one
cupful of syrup on the beaten whites of 2 eggs, stir-
ring meanwhile. Boil remrdnder of syrup till it hard-
ens when dropped in water ; then pour it into the
syrup and eggs, stirring briskly. Add a cupful of pea-
nuts. Stir until it begins to harden ; then spread in a
pan and cut in squares. Flavor to taste. If properly
made it will be soft and pliable.

Crystallized Honey Popcorn. — Take 1 teacupful
water- white honey, 1 teacupful white sugar, IVz table-
spoonful butter, 1 tablespoonful water. Boil until
brittle on being dropped in cold water. Have ready

2 quarts of nicely popped corn, and pour the candy
over until evenly distributed over the corn, stirring
briskly until nearly cool.

Honey Candy. — Take 1 cup sugar, 2 tablespoonfuls
honey. 2 tablespoonfuls of water, walnut meats. Cook
and test like molasses candy.

Candy. — Granulated sugar 1 cup ; strained honey 1
tablespoonful ; butter, size of walnut ; sweet cream
enough to dissolve the mixture. It does not need much
cooking. When taken from the fire, beat with a spoon
until smooth.

HONEf REMEDIES.

Cough Syrup. — One-third teaspoonful of powdered
ipecac dissolved in 1 teaspoonful of cold water. Add
a teacupful of warm water, a tablespoonful of ex-
tracted or strained honey, and boil down half.

HoNEY-AND-TAR CouGH-cuRE. — Put a tablespoonful
liquid pine tar into a shallow tin dish and place it in
boiling water until the tar is hot. To this add a pint
of extracted honey and stir well for half an hour,
adding to it a level teaspoonful pulverized borax.
Keep well corked in a bottle. Dose, teaspoonful every
1, 2, or 3 hours, according to severity of cough.

Cough Syrup. — Buy a five-cent package of lobelia
herb ; put about Vs of it in a large cup of good cider
vinegar ; put it in a granite dish to simmer on the
stove for not less than Yz hour, but do not let boil
after the strength is well out of the herb. Strain,
put back on the stove, stir in about as much honey
as you have used vinegar. See that the honey is
well mixed while hot. Bottle ready for use. Dose,
about % teaspoonful every 15 minutes if the cold is
bad.

Cough Syrup. — Make 3 pints of strong tea by boil-
ing a good-sized bunch of old field balsam in a covered
vessel ; strain, add 1 Yz cups of sugar ; boil to 2
pints ; take from the fire ; add a small teaspoonful
of pine tar; let cool five minutes, then add Y2 cup of
strained honey. Dose: 1 teaspoonful as often as
needed — 2 to 4 hours, according to the case.

For Colds. — Boil 2 ounces of flaxseed in a quart
of water; strain, and add 2 ounces of rock candy,
Y2 pint of honey, juice of 3 lemons. Mix, and let
all boil well. Let cool and bottle. Dose: One cupful
on going to bed ; Y2 cupful before meals ; the hotter
the better.

Honey for Freckles. — Half a pound of honey, 2
oz. glycerine, 2 oz. alcohol, 6 drams citric acid, 15
drops ambergris. Apply night and morning.

Balm of Gilead Salve. — Four ounces mutton tal-
low ; 1 pint balm-of-Gilead buds ; 3 ounces loaf
sugar ; 1 ounce castile soap ; 1 ounce rosin ; 3 ounces
beeswax ; 1 ounce alum ; 1 pound lard. Put the buds
in a kettle with the lard, and boil slowly for half an
hour, stirring often. Strain, and take the buds out.
Put in the rest of the ingredients, and cook slowly
until done. This usually takes from one-half hour to
an hour ; excellent for chapped hands or lips, sores,
or cuts, frost bites, and piles.

Honey as a Softener of the Hands. — Many are
unaware that the very best cosmetics are made with
honey as a prime ingredient. Here is one for the
hands, which is said to be very fine: Rub together 1
lb. of honey and the yolks of 8 eggs ; gradually add 1
lb. oil of sweet almonds, during constant stirring;
work in Y2 lb. bitter almonds, and perfume with 2
drams each of attar of bergamot and attar of cloves.
Of course, the quantities may be reduced if necessary.

Honey Soap. — Cut 2 pounds of yellow soap in thin
slices and put into a saucepan with sufficient water to
prevent the soap from being burned. Place on the
fire, and as soon as all the soap has dissolved add 1
pound of honey and stir until the whole begins to boil.
Then remove from the fire, add a few drops of essence
of cinnamon, pour into a deep dish to cool, and then
cut into squares. It improves by keeping.

HONEYCOMB

427

HoNET-PASTE FOR Chapped Haxds. — An excellent
paste for chapped hands is made as follows: The white
of 1 egg, 1 teaspoonful of glycerine, 1 ounce of honey,
and suflBcient barley flour to compose a paste.

Cold Cream. — One cup of honey, % of a cup of

beeswax, 1 cup of cottolene. Melt all, take it off the

fire, and stir till it is cool. Rose or violet perfume

may be added. It should be well protected from the

air. The blending should be well done. This is fine
for chapped or rough hands, if they are slighly
moistened before applying.

Polish for Kid Shoes. — Beeswax softened vnth
neatsfoot oil. The composition is made by mixing
the oil with the melted wax so as to be, when cold,
about like butter, soft enough to " spread." A small
portion of lampblack is also mixed in while the mass
is melted. If there is any ordinary shoe polish on
shoes, it should be washed off and tlie surface allowed
to dry. An old toothbrush can be used to apply a thin
even coat, which is then polished with a soft woolen
rag, see-sawed across the surface.

Waterproofing for Leather. — Take 2 pounds tal-
low, 1 pound resin, pound beeswax. Melt over a
slow fire ; and before applying to the uppers of boots
or shoes, fill the leather with neatsfoot oil, as there is
less danger of burning the leather, and they wiU keep
soft and pliable longer. For the soles use the tallow
and resin in equal parts. Be careful not to burn the
leather.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

In Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No.
13, Part VI. (out of print), page 871, will
be found a bibliography of honey literature
for the years 1867 to 1891, inclusive. In
Bulletin No. 110, page 89, will be found a
continuation of this up to the first part of
1907. In Bulletin No. 154, page 17, the
bibliography takes the literature up to the
close of 1911. These bibliographies were
compiled by A. H. Bryan, chief of the
sugar laboratory, and are complete.

Browne, C. A. Chemical Analysis and
Composition of American Honeys. Bui.
110, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bureau of Chemis-
try. 1908.

Browne, C. A. Methods of Honey-test-
ing Hawaiian Honeys. Bui. 17, Hawaii
Agr. Bureau of Entomology, 1911.

McGill, A. Strained Honey. Bui. 217,
Inland Revenue Dept. Ottawa, Canada,
1911.

Van Dine, D. L., and Thompson, A. R.,
Hawaiian Honeys. Bui. 1, Hawaii Agr.
Exp. Sta. 1908.

Root, H. H. The Use of Honey in
Cooking. A. I. Root Co., Medina, 1916.

Hunt, C .L., and Atwater, H. W. Honey
and its Uses in the Home. U. S. Dept.
Agi\, Farmers' Bui. No. 653, 1915.

Honey for Cooking, special number of
Gleanings in Bee Culture, Medina, vol. 42,
Oct. 1, 1915.

Michaelis, Reinhold. Deutsches Honig-
buechlein, 1911.

HONEY - BOARDS. — See Extracted
Honey, and Hi\^s.

HONEYCOMB.— A beautiful thing in
nature is a piece of comb honey with its
snowy whiteness and its burden of sweet-
ness. Aside from its whiteness and sweet-
ness, the marvelous structure of the comb
compels our admiration. The waUs of its
cells are so thin that from 3000 to 4000
of them must be laid one upon another to
make an inch in thickness, each wall so
fragile as to crumble at a touch, and yet so
constructed that tons of honej^ stored in
them are transported in safety thousands
of miles.

Formerly the word honeycomb " meant
both the comb and the honey contained in
it; in other words, what we now caU
" comb honey " was called " honeycomb."
Wherever the word " honeycomb " is found
in the Bible, it means " comb honey."

It is only in comparatively recent years
that the real source of the wax of which
comb is constructed has been known. In
1684 Martin John discovered that with the
point of a needle he could pick scales of
real beeswax from the abdomen of a bee
working at comb-building.

These wax scales may be found plenti-
fully on the floor of a hive at a time when
much comb-building is going on. They are
somewhat pear-shaped, as shown next page,
where is shown also the powerful jaw of
the worker by which the wax is worked.
These wax scales are much more brittle
than the wax that has been worked into
comb, and are transparent, looking some-
what like mica. Some say they are white,
some say pale yellow. Likely enough both
are right, the color depending upon the
pollen consumed.

These wax scales are secreted by eight
wax-glands on the under side of the abdo-
men of the worker bee, as seen in the cut
next.* Examine a swarm lately hived,
and you will find plenty of bees showing
this appearance. When first secreted, wax

* For a description of how these are removed bv the
bees see Wax.

42g

HONEYCOMB

is liquid. It is derived from the blood of
the bee by cell action. So it is an expen-
sive product, and one might well say it is
derived from the " sweat and blood " of the
bee, for it is sweat out from the blood by
the wax-glands. Just how expensive it is
seems a hard matter to learn. For many

Wax scale. Jaw of a worker bee.

years the stereotyped expression was,
" Every pound of wax requires 20 pounds
of honey for its production." Later inves-
tigations have cut down that estimate
greatly. But there is no agreement. Some
estimate as low as 3 or 4 pounds of honey
to one of wax. Others say 7, 15, or some
other numbers.

Some hold that the secretion of wax is
involuntary, and that, if not utilized, there
will be so much dead waste, and so nothing

Wax scales on the under side of the abdomen of a
worker. — After Cheshire.

can be gained by trying to save the bees the
work of secretion. But this is by no means
the general view. Cowan says, in " The
Honeybee," page 171, " Wax is not pro-
duced at all times, but its secretion is vol-
untary." The practically unanimous agree-
ment among beekeepers, that a very much
larger quantity of extracted than of comb
honey can be obtained, is hard to explain
without admitting that the furnishing of
drawn combs saves the bees much labor in
the way of wax-production, and that that
production depends on conditions that come
largely under the control of the beekeeper.

A high temperature favors the secretion
of wax, and when it is produced in large

quantities the bees hang inactively in clus-
ters or festoons.

" Wax is not chemically a fat or glycer-
ide," says Cheshire, in " Bees and Bee-
keeping," Vol. I., page 160, "hence those
who have called it 'the fat of bees' have
grossly erred; yet it is nearly allied to the
fats in atomic constitution, and the physi-
ological conditions favoring the formation
of one are curiously similar to those aiding
in the production of the other. We put our
poultry up to fatten in confinement, with
partial light; to secure bodily inactivity
we keep warm, and feed highly. Our bees,
under Nature's teaching, put themselves up
to yield wax under conditions so parallel
that the suitability of the fatting-coop is
vindicated.

" The wax having been secreted, a single
bee starts the first comb by attaching to the
roof little masses of the plastic material,
into which her scales are converted, by pro-
longed chewing with secretion; others fol-
low her example, and the processes of
scooping and thinning commence, the
parts removed being always added to the
edge of the work, so that, in the darkness,
and between the bees, grows downward that
wonderful combination of lightness and
strength, grace and utility, which has so
long provoked the wonder and awakened
the speculation of the philosopher, the nat-
uralist, and the mathematician."

A chief use for the honeycomb being to
furnish cradles for the baby bees during
their brood stage, the problem is to find
what an^angement will accommodate them
in the least space and with the least ex-
penditure of wax. If we pile a number of
cylinders with rounding bottoms, and just
back of them, back to back, and as closely
as they can be packed, another series of
c.ylinders, we shall have an arrangement
that will leave a great waste of room be-
tween the lines of contact of those cylin-
ders, and another waste between the points
of contact of the rounding bottoms. If we
exert pressure on those cylinders so that
the sides and bottoms come into contact,
we shall have cells that are six-sided, with
bottoms that are made of three lozenge-
shaped plates, or what, as a whole, is an
exact counterpart of honeycomb. Some
have argued that bees make the cells cylin-
drical in the first place, and then, by pres-
sure from within, force the cells into the

HONEYCOMB

429

forms of hexagons ; but, unfortunately for
this theory, plaster casts, of which cross-
sections have been made of combs in all
processes of construction, show that bees
start their work by making true hexagons
and not circles or cylinders. This can be
seen by looking thru a piece of glass on
which combs have been built. However

are not precisely the same. That shows
that the cells are not exact hexagons.
Measure the cells in a number of combs
built by different colonies, or even by the
same colonj^, and it will be found that they
are by no means all of them five to the
inch.

This, of course, refers to natural comb
built by the bees without any comb founda-
tion being supplied to them. Comb foun-
dation is generally made with cells of such
size that worker comb built upon it Gon-
tains about 27 cells to the square inch.

Instead of lessening our admiration, the
slight variation from exactness in the work
of comb-building, when the bees are left
free to take their own course, rather in-
creases it, just as a piece of " hand-made "
work is often more admired than that
which is " machine-made." The marvelous

How combs are attached to a vertical support.

the combs are made, their general construc-
tion is such that the greatest economy of
space and material is effected, both for
holding brood or honey. There would be
an equal saving of wax if the cells could be
square with flat bottoms; but such cells
would not fit the young bees, nor would the
comb be as strong. The hexagonal is the
very best possible form of construction.

By far the larger portion of the cells in
a hive will be found to measure about five
to the inch. These are called worker-cells,
and may be used for rearing worker-brood,
or for storing honey or pollen. A smaller
number of cells will be found to measure
about four to the inch. These are called
drone-cells, and may be used for rearing
drone brood, or for storing honey — seldom
for pollen.

If the worker-cells were exact hexagons
measuring five to the inch, there would be
exactly 28 13-15 cells to the square inch on
one side of a comb. But there is not this
exactness, as will be shovm by careful
measurement, altho the eye may detect no
variation. Count the number of cells in a
given length in a horizontal row of cells,
and then make the same count in one of
the diagonal rows, and you will find they

A characteristic spur of natural comb built from
horizontal support.

ingenuity displayed in adjusting the work
to varying circumstances is something far
beyond machine-like exactness. Cut a few
square inches of comb out of the middle of
a frame o£ worker comb in the middle of
a honey-flow, and the chances are ten to
one that the bees will fill the hole with
drone combs. A few cells will be built that
are neither drone-cells nor worker-cells, and
these are called accommodation cells; but

HONEYCOMB

431

so skillfully are the adjustments made in
passing from worker to drone cells that at
a hasty glance one would likely say that
all were either worker or drone cells. Ob-
serve the small pieces of comb started at
different points on the same top-bar on
previous page. They may be at such dis-
tances apart that, when the two combs
meet, if built with rigid exactness, the cen-
ter of a cell in one comb will coincide with
the edge of a cell in the other comb. Yet
so skillfully are measurements made, and

The merging of drone to worker comb.

SO gradual the change as one comb ap-
proaches the other, that the unaided eye
can detect no variation from an unbroken
comb of worker-cells, and the whole is such
an exquisite work of skill as no human ex-
pert can equal. Who taught the bees to
make such measurements'? Besides the
worker and drone cells, queen-cells are
built at times, as described.

In general, comb is built so that an angle
is at the top and bottom of each cell, as in
Fig 1; and this is believed to give greater
strength than if the cells were built like
Fig. 2.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

When combs are built upon foundation,
the rows of cells run in a horizontal line
with exactness. But when the bees build
at their own sweet will, there is no little
variation from the horizontal.

While the cell-walls vary from 1-3000 to
1-4000 inch in thickness, the septum is thin-
ner, sometimes being as thin as 1-5000 of
an inch when first built. But as successive
generations of young bees are reared in the
cells, cocoons secretions are left at the

bottom of each, and in time the septum
may become % inch thick. From this it
happens that, altho worker comb is % inch
thick when first built, specimens of old
comb may be found measuring an inch in
thickness, since the bees draw out the cell-
walls at the mouth of the cell to balance the
additions made at the bottom of the cell, so
as to maintain the same depth in an old cell
as in a new one.

When, however, worker-cells are used for
storing honey, if there be room for it, the

Cross-section of honeycomb, enlarged view. The cells
are partly filled with honej\ This illustration shows
that the cells are not straight and horizontal, but
curved and slanting upward.

depth of the cells may be so increased that
the comb may be two or three inches thick.
Drone comb is even more likely to be thus
built out. The cells of both kinds slant up-
ward from the center to the exterior of the
comb, yet so slightly that to the casual ob-
server they appear entirely horizontal. Yet

HONEYCOMB

433

when the comb is so greatlj^ thickened for
the storing of honey, the slant may be
much increased, giving the cell a curved
appearance.

Formerly it was taught that the cappings
placed over honey are air-tight, and this
in spite of the fact that it is a common
thing to see white comb honey become
watery and dark when kept in a damp
place, the thin honey finally oozing out
thru the cappings. Cheshire, who at one
time held that the sealing of honey-cells is
air-tight, says (Bees and Beekeeping, Vol.
I., page 174), "By experiments and a mi-

Drone cells used for honey storage. It will be seen
that the lower part of the opening is capped first.
This, with the slant of the cell, keeps the new honey
from running out.

croscopic examination, I have made evident
that former ideas were inaccurate, and that
not more than 10 per cent at most of the
sealing of honey is absolutely impervious
to air." The sealing of brood-cells, how-
ever, is very much more porous still (see
Brood), no doubt for the sake of allowing
proper air for the brood. The brood-cell
cappings seem to be made up of shreds of
cocoons, pollen, and almost anything that

comes handy, with only enough wax to weld
the whole together.

The beautiful white color of honeycomb
becomes dark with age, so as to become
nearty black.

Drone comb measures just about four
cells to the inch, but the bees seem less par-
ticular about the size of it than with the
worker. They very often seem to make the
cells of such size as to fill out best a given
space; and, accordingly, we find them dif-
fering from worker size all the way up to
considerably more than ^ of an inch in
width. Drones are raised in these extra-
large cells without trouble, and honey is
also stored in them; but where they are
very large, the bees are compelled to turn
them up, or the honey would flow out.
Now, as honey is kept in place by capillary
attraction, when cells exceed a certain size
the adhesion of the liquid to the wax walls
is insufficient, of itself, to hold the honey
in place. Where di'ones are to be reared in
these very large cells the bees contract the
mouth by a thick rim. As an experiment,
some plates were made for producing
small sheets of foundation, having only 3^^
cells to the inch. The bees worked on a
few of these, with these same thick rims,
but they evidently did not like the idea very
well, for they tried to make worker-cells
of some of it, and it proved so much of a
complication for their little heads that they
finally abandoned the whole piece of comb,
apparently in disgust. Bees sometimes rear
worker brood in drone comb, where com-
pelled to from want of room, and they
always do it in the way already mentioned,
by contracting the mouth of the cells and
leaving the young bee a rather large berth
in which to grow and develop. Drones are
sometimes reared in worker-cells also, but
they are so much cramped in growth that
they seldom look like fully developed in-
sects. See Latin^g Workers; also Brood.

Several times it has been suggested that
we enlarge the race of honeybees by giving
them larger cells; and some circumstances
seem to indicate that something may be
done in this direction, altho there is little
hope of any permanent enlargement in size
unless is combined with it the idea of select-
ing the largest bees from which to propa-
gate. By making the cells smaller than
ordinarily, small bees are obtained with
very little trouble ; and the author has seen

434

HONEYCOMB

a whole nucleus of bees so small as to be
really laughable, just because the comb they
were hatched from was set at an angle so
that one side was concave and the other
convex. The small bees came from the con-
cave side. Their light, active movements,
as they sported in front of the hive, made
them a pretty and amusing sight for those
fond of curiosities. Worker bees reared in
drone-cells are sometimes extra large in
size; but as to whether they can be made
permanently larger by such a course is very
doubtful. The difficulty, at present, seems
to be the tendency to rear a great quantity
of useless drones. By having a hive fur-
nished entirely with worker-comb, it is pos-
sible so nearly to prevent the production
of drones that it is safe enough to call it a
complete remedy. (See Comb Founda-
tion.)

how bees build comb.

In this day and age of bees and honey it
would seem that one should be able to de-
scribe how bees build comb, with almost as
much ease as one would tell how cows and
horses eat grass; but for all that, records
are lacking of careful and close experi-
ments, such as Darwin made many years
ago. In the author's house-apiary there
were dozens of hives where the bees were
building right up close to the glass; and
all one had to do, in order to see how it was
done, was to take a chair and sit down be-
fore them. But the little fellows have such
a queer sleight-of-hand way of doing the
work that one hardly knows how they do
accomplish it.

If one will examine his bees closely dur-
ing the season of comb-building and honey-
gathering, he will find a good many of
them with wax scales protruding between
the rings that form the body, and these
scales are removed from their bodies as
described at the beginning of this article.
If a bee is obliged to carry one of these
wax scales but a short distance, it takes it
in its mandibles, and looks as business-like
with it thus as a carpenter with a board on
his shoulder. If it has to carry it from the
bottom of the honey-box, it takes it in a
way that it is difficult to explain any better
than to say it slips it under its chin. When
thus equipped, one would never know it
was eucurnfeRred vj\{k anything, unless it

chanced to slip out, when it will very dex-
trously tuck it back with one of its fore
feet. The little plate of wax is so warm
from being kept under its chin as to be
quite soft when it gets back; and as it
takes it out, and gives it a pinch against
the comb where the building is going on,
one would think it might stop a while, and
put it into place ; but not that bee ; for off
it scampers and twists around so many dif-
ferent ways one might think it was not one
of the working kind at all. Another fol-
lows after it sooner or later, and gives the
wax a pinch, or a little scraping and bur-
nishing with its polished mandibles, then
another, and so on; and the sum total of
all these maneuvers is, that the comb seems
almost to grow out of nothing; yet no one
bee ever makes a cell.

The finished comb is the result of the
united efforts of the moving, restless mass ;
and the great mystery is, that anything so
wonderful can ever result at all from such
a mixed-up, skipping-about way of work-
ing as they seem to have. When the cells
are built out only part way they are filled
with honey or eggs, and the length is in-
creased when they feel disposed, or " get
around to it," perhaps. It may be that
they find it easier working with shallow
waUs about the cells, for they can take care
of the brood much easier, and put in the
honey easier too, in all probability; and,
as a thick rim or coping is always left
around the upper edge of the cell, no mat-
ter what its depth, they have the material
at hand to lengthen it at any time. This
thick rim is also very necessary to give the
bees a secure foothold, for the sides of the
cells are so thin they would be very apt to
break down with even the light weight of a
bee. When honey is coming in rapidly, and
the bees are crowded for room to store it,
their eagerness is so plainly apparent, as
they push the work along, that they fairly
seem to quiver with excitement ; but for all
that, they skip about from one cell to an-
other in the same way, no one bee working
in the same spot to exceed a minute or two,
at the very outside. Very frequently, after
one has bent a piece of wax a certain way,
the next tips it in the opposite direction,
and so on until completion; but after all
have given it a twist and a pull, it is found
in pretty nearly the right spot. As nearly
as the author can discover, they moisten the

HONEYCOMB

435

Top view of honeycomb greatly enlarged, showing the thick circular rim or coping at the top of the cell.

thin ribbons of wax with some sort of fluid
or saliva. As the bee always preserves the
thick rib or rim of the comb at the top of
the cell it is working, the looker-on would
suppose it was making the walls of consid-
erable thickness as shown; but if we drive
it away, and break this rim, we shall find
that its mandibles have come so nearly to-
gether that the wax between them, beyond
the rim, is almost as thin as tissue paper.
In building natural comb, of course the
bottoms of the cells are thinned in the same
way, as the work goes along, before any
side walls are made at all.

When no foundation is furnished, little
patches of comb are started at different
points, as shown on page 430. Then
as these patches enlarge, their edges are
united so perfectly that it is sometimes dif-
ficult, when the frame is filled solid, to de-
termine where the pieces were united, so
perfect is the work. At other times there
is, perhaps, a row of irregular or drone
cells along the line of the union.

The midrib of natural comb becomes
thicker as it approaches the line of sup-

port and tapers toward the bottom. Why
this is so is evident. That there should be
a gradual gradation in thickness from top
to bottom seems wonderful when we re-
member the haphazard, skip-about work on
the part of so many different bees.

For the consideration of the thickness of
combs and how far to space them apart
see Frames^ Self- spacing; also Spacing
FRAiiEs; also CoiiB Foundatiox.

NO artificial comb honey.

Some persons who are foolish enough be-
lieve there is a honeycomb made from wood
pulp, punk, putty, paraffin, or perhaps
material other than wax. We say foolish
enough advisedly, because a wise man
changes his mind (when it becomes neces-
saiy) ; but a fool, never. It would not be
surprising in these days of sensational
journalism and of false nature-stories if
one should get the notion that artificial
comb honey really exists; but the foolish
part comes in when a person, totally inex-
perienced with bees, stoutly and smilingly

436

HONEYCOMB

Natural-comb building in a hive made entirely glass.

Bees living on combs built in the open air.

43f

mamtains tliat there is such a thing as
manufactured honey in the comb. "We feel
sure that the inimitably foolish expression
of such a person is the origin of the col-
loquialism, The smile that won't come
off." Xo use. Do not argue. It won't
come. "Why, Eve seen it at the stores.
Grocer told me all about it — was several
cents cheaper. I tried it; we didn't lite it
as well as the genuine." And then the
beekeeper goes away, not a wiser but a
madder man, and wonders why the fool-
killer doesn't do his duty, and why every
one except the beekeeper knows all about
bees and their products. See Comb Hoxey^
also HoxEY Exhibits.

HONEYDEW.— A saccharine liquid pro-
duced chiefly by three families of insects;
plant lice (Aphididae) , bark lice or scale
bugs {Coccidae), and leaf hoppers {Jcis-
sidae), very common insects with piercing
and sucking mouth-parts belonging to the
suborder Homoptera of the order Hemip-
tera or bugs. At times it is so abundant
on the leaves of trees and bushes that it
drips upon the grass or sidewalk, covering
them with a shining coating as tho they
were varnished. The ancient Roman nat-
uralist Pliny supposed that honeydew fell
from the stars, and this belief was gener-
ally accepted for many centuiies.

Scale insects and leaf hoppers excrete
honeydew thru the anal opening; and this
is largely, if not wholly true, of plant lice,
But many plant lice have on the back of
the sixth segment of the abdomen a pair of
tubes, called cornicles, which are commonly
believed also to excrete honeydew, but this
is denied by some entomologists, including
Forel, who assert that they yield only a
muscilaginous liciuid. These tubes do not
connect with the digestive tract, and the
liquid is produced by glandular cells at
their base ; in a part of the aphids they are
wanting or greatly reduced in size. The in-
sects belonging to these three families live
wholly on plant sap, a part of which, after
digestion, is used for growth and the pro-
duction of young, while the residue is ex-
creted as the waste substance known as
honeydew. "While honeydew is undoubtedly
an excretion the objection to it on this
ground is wholly imaginary, as when pure,
it is sweet and wholesome. An excretion
may be free from all undesirable qualities,

as in the case of the pure water men-
tioned in the latter part of this article.

HOW^. WHEEE AXD WHEX HOXEYDEVT IS
PRODrCED.

In the Eastern United States honeydew
is chiefly the i^roduct of plant lice, which
occiu' on nearly aU kinds of vegetation.
There are both winged and wingless forms;
the winged insects, flying from tree to tree,
are likely to infest fii^st the tender upper
growing shoots: and, as they usually feed
on the under side of the leaves, the sweet
liquid naturally drops on the foliage be-
neath. Later, the plant lice themselves
may spread to the lower part of the tree.
The dew is forcibly ejected or flipped from
the end of the abdomen and faUs in a spray
of minute globules. As it is gum like it
may cE'y and remain on the leaves for a
long time, so that the absence of insects is
no proof that it is of vegetable origin. A
great quantity of honeydew is also pro-
duced by the scale bugs or bark lice {Coc-
cidae), which are foimd on plants every-
where. Species of Lecanium attack the
basswood. tulii3 tree, maples, and many
other trees, covering the leaves with a
sweet liquid siiniiar to that yielded by plant
lice. In early autumn a great Cjuantity of
honeydew is oeeasionally gathered from
oak trees, the limbs of which are reported
to be covered with small galls, 'about a
C[uarter of an inch in length, from the
ends of which there flows continuously a
clear sweet licjuid. So profusely is the
honeydew exuded that the trees appear as
tho they had been sprayed with himdr^eds
of gallons of it. and solidifying it may
hang in small stalactites. This honeydew
is produced not by galls, but by the adult
females of a species of Kermes. which are
remarkable for their gall-Like form. So
striking is the resemblance that they have
been mistaken for gaUs by many entomolo-
gists." Two-thirds, or over 400 tons, of
the honey shipped from the Hawaiian Is-
lands is honeydew honey, produced by the
sugar-cane leaf hopper, which fii'st ap-
peared in the cane fields in 1903 and for
several years caused a loss of $3,000,000
annually, until they were brought under
control. It is dark amber in color and has
the flavor of molasses: it does not granu-
late and after several years is as clear as

438

HONEYDEW

when first extracted. It is labeled " honey-
dew honey " and sold to the baking trade.

Among the deciduous-leaved trees on
which honeydew is most frequently found
are oak, maple, beech, ash, tulip tree, elm,
hickory, chestnut, basswood, fruit trees,
grapevine, currant, blackberry, and hazel.
In California a scale insect {Lecanium
oleae) coats the foliage of the citrus fruits
with a shining dew. Honeydew is also very
abundant on evergreen or cone trees, and
is always of insect origin. In British Co-
lumbia the Douglas fir may furnish two or
three supers of pale yellow honeydew
honey of fair quality with rather dark
eappings. In this province a large area of
the heavy timber has been seen coated with
honeydew, but bees do not appear to pene-
trate far into the forest. At Amherst,
Mass., and at Guelph, Canada, thousands
of bees have been observed gathering from
spruce trees the sweet excretion of scale
insects {Physokermes piceae). They are
found at the base of the new growth and
have the appearance of little buds. Pine
trees are likewise prolific sources of honey-
dew gathered from scale insects living at
the base of the leaves. In Europe great
quantities of honeydew are collected by
bees from conifers in the Jura Mountains
and in Switzerland. As much as 385
pounds of honeydew from fir have been
stored by a single colony.

Occasionally there comes a year when

leaves of hickory and oak. While gather-
ing it bees were exceptionally cross, since
as it became alternately partially liquid in
the forenoon and gum-like in the after-
noon, they were able to work on it only
during the morning hours ; the moisture in
the air softened it at night, but by noon
the sun again dried it to a viscous state.

Pure honeydew honey from plant lice
and scale insects is clear, sweet, and agree-
able to the taste, or at least not unpalat-
able. The better grades find a ready sale
with bakers, and in some instances it is
preferred to floral honey. But as it is un-
protected on the foliage of trees it is liable
in time to collect many impurities. A black
smut sometimes covers the leaves so that the
extracted honeydew honey is inky black re-
sembling coal tar. This type might per-
haps be used by manufacturers of blacking
or of lubricants. It is not a safe food for
winter. If the bees are left on the summer
stands and can obtain frequent flights, they
may winter in fair condition; but if they
are placed in a cellar they will all probably
perish from dysentery. For brood-rearing
in the spring it is unobjectionable, and it
is, therefore, advised that it be removed
from the hives in the fall and sugar syrup
fed in its stead.

The composition of honeydew honeys as
compared with floral honeys is shown in the
chemical analyses given in the following
table :

Ol

Invert sugar
(Grape and
fruit sugar)

Sucrose
(Cane Sugar)

CO

<

Dextrine
(Gums)

Undetermined

Free acid
as formic

Floral honeys

Sweet clover _ _

17.49

76.20

2.24

0.12

0.45

3.50

0.12

White clover

17.64

74.92

1.77

0.07

0.82

4.78

0.06

Alfalfa

16.56

76.90

4.42

0.07

0.34

1.71

0.08

Honeydew honeys

Hickory _

16.05

65.89

2.76

0.78

12.95

1.57

0.12

White oak

13.56

55.87

4.31

0.79

10.49

4.98

0.08

Hawaiian sugar cane

15.46

64.84

5.27

1.29

10.01

3.13

0.15

plant lice and scale insects appear in hosts
and there is consequently a great abundance
of honeydew, as in 1884 and 1909 in this
country and in 1898 and 1907 in Great
Britain. In 1909 there was in Eastern
North America an unprecedented amount
of honeydew, while the crop of white clover
and basswood was almost a complete fail-
ure. Most of the honeydew came from the

From the above table it is apparent that
honeydew honey contains less invert sugar ;
but more sucrose or cane sugar, dextrine
or gums, and ash. It is because of the
larger percentage of gums and ash that it
is unsuitable for winter feeding. Honey-
dew honey may also be distinguished from
floral honey by means of the polariscope.
A ray of light passed thru a solution of

HOKEY EXHIBITS

439

floral honey is turned or rotated to the
left, but passed thru a solution of honey-
dew honey it is turned to the right. If
floral honey turns the ray to the right, it
has been adulterated with glucose. No
floral honey is obtained from the wind-*
pollinated flowers of hickory and white
oak.

Besides bees honeydew is attractive to
wasps, ants, flies, and other insects. Bees
pay no attention to plant lice, but ants care
for them and stroke them gently with their
antennae in order to induce them to yield
honeydew more freely. This behavior led
the botanist Linnasus to call Aphis the cow
of the ants (Aphis formicarum vacca).
Ants defend plant lice from their enemies,
move them to new pastures, care for their
eggs, and build over them covers of earth
or cow-sheds to keep them warm. Ants
also extend their protection to scale insects.

Many plants have extra-floral nectaries
on the flower stalks, leafstalks, and
stipules, as cotton, vetch, passion flower,
almond, peach, cherry, jewelweed, cowpea,
field beau, and partridge pea, which secrete
nectar in large or small quantities. This
nectar does not differ from floral nectar as
is attested by the honey of cotton and
partridge pea.

According to many apiarists there is
another kind of honeydew, besides that
excreted by homopterous insects, found on
the foliage of both cone trees and decidu-
ous-leaved trees, which is wholly of vegeta-
ble origiQ. This conclusion seems to be
based on insufficient and inaccurate obser-
vation. All of the cone trees are wind-
pollinated and neither the cones nor the
foliage ever secrete nectar. The sweet
liquid gathered from these trees, as has
already been shown, is produced by scale
bugs, which are easily mistaken for small
buds. From the pores or stomata of de-
eiduous-leaved trees there exhales nothing
but water vapor. But there are certain
plants, as Fuchsia, Indian com, jewelweed,
cabbage, nasturtium, primrose, grapevine,
the potato, elm, plane tree, aroids and oth-
ers, which exude drops of water from the
tips and marginal teeth of the leaves.
These drops may be observed on lawn
grass, the ends of corn leaves and the mar-
gins of jewelweed leaves in the morning
when they are likely to be mistaken for
dew. The exudation of drops of water

may easily be shown experimentally by
placing a young cabbage plant grown in a
flowerpot under a bell jar. In a few
hours di'ops of water will appear on the
apices or margins of the leaves, gradually
increase in size, finally fall off and new
drops form. A surplus of water in the
plant thus escapes when the air is too
damp to permit of it passing off as water
vapor thru the leaf pores. A great amount
of water may thus be exuded, and in a
single night a leaf may excrete half its
weight in water. A vigorous leaf of Calo-
casia has been observed to eject water at
the rate of 195 minute drops per minute,
so that there seemed to be an almost con-
tinuous jet of water. The liquid is pure
water except for a trace of salts (one-tenth
of one per cent) ; it is probably the excre-
tion of water that has misled many ob-
servers to believe that leaves may produce
honeydew.

HONEY EXHIBITS, and hoiu they may
he used iti the development of the bee and
honey industry. — Of late, very much in-
deed has been accomplished by the exhibits
of bees, honey, and apiarian implements at
state and county fail's. Several of the
larger fair associations have had very pretty
buildings erected on the fairgrounds for
these displays.

Such exhibits have a decidedly educa-
tional influence on the public. They show
hoiu honey is produced; and not only that,
but that it can be produced by the ton and
carload. On account of newspaper yams,
there seems to be a general impression
among people that comb honey is manufac-
tured, and that the extracted article is
adulterated with glucose. It is absolutely
impossible to manufacture comb, fill it with
honey, and " cap it over with appropriate
machinery " — just as impossible as it is to
manufacture eggs. The publishers have
had for many years a standing offer of
5=1000 to any one who would show where
comb honey was manufactured, or even
procure a single manufactured sample
which could not be told from the genuine.
Altho this offer has been published broad-
cast in the daily papers, no one takes it up.
The conditions of this offer have been
printed on a neat little card, and the same
distributed by beekeepers at fairs and
other honey-exhibits, so that, if such a

440

HONEY EXHIBITS

The apiarian exhibit at the Columbus State Fair, in September, 1906,

HONEY EXHIBITS

441

Exhibit of J. M. Buchanan, Franklin. Tenn.. at Tennessee State Fair, Xashville, October 9, 1909.

Beekeepers, besides ediicating the gen-
eral public as to the genuineness of their
product, can create a larger demand for
honey. As a usual thing, exhibitors are
allowed to sell their honey, distribute cir-
culars, and do a great deal of profitable
advertising. This not only helps the indi-
vidual, but helps the pursuit iu general.

The accompanying engravings will give an
idea of how model exliibits should be ar-
ranged.

There should be shelving arranged in the
form of p^i-amids, octagons, and semicir-
cles. The honey should be put up in tin
and glass, in large and small packages,
and the whole should be neatly " set off "
Tsuth appropriate labels. As a general
thing, glass packages should have a very
small label, so that as much of the liquid
honey as possible will show. Tin recepta-
cles should have labels to go clear around
the can. Comb honey should be put up in
cartons and shipping cases; and yellow
cakes of wax should be shown in a variety
of shapes.

In one of the illustrations will be seen a
large pyramid of beeswax, supporting on

thing were possible, there would be a
bonanza for somebody. As to extracted
honey, there was a time when it was adul-
terated somewhat, but owing to the action
of state and national laws there is very lit-

Observation hive and combhone}- super.

tie of it now. See Adulteration of
HoxEY^ also the last paragraph on HoisrEY-

COMB.

The A. 1. Root Company's demonstrating-cage at the Medina County Fair.

HONEY EXHIBITS

443

its several shelves packages of honey, the
whole surmounted by the bust of a goddess.
A series of square shallow boxes are made
of such varied sizes that, when piled one on
top of another, they form a perfect pyra-
mid. These are completely covered with
sheet wax having the edges that come in
contact nicely cemented together with a hot
iron. The letters are cut out of inch
boards with a jigsaw, after which they are
dipped in hot wax, and secured with nails
to the pyramid. The next thing to make is
the goddess of liberty, or the bust of a
prominent man. These in plaster can usu-
ally be purchased at any of the stores for
a small sum of money, and, after being
dipped in hot wax, give a very fine wax
figure.

Besides the exhibit of honey in various
styles of packages, there should be a mod-

Charles Mondeng and his son Norman demonstrating
bees at the Minnesota State fair. Mr. Mondeng and
his son were awarded the first prize for bee demonstra-
tion ; first prize on golden Italian bees ; first prize on
leather-colored Italian bees.

erate collection of bee-supplies, so that
when the interested persons come along
with their string of questions, they can be
shown step by step the process of produc-
ing honey and its final putting-up for mar-
ket. A good many questions will be asked
in regard to the extractor. It will be called
a churn, a washing-machine, and every-
thing else except what it really is. There

should bp one or more observatory hives to
show how bees behave when at home. A
good many will ask to see the " king-bee."

Very much can be done by having a
glass hive and live bees, with an entrance
communicating outdoors thru the sides of
the building where the exhibit is made.
"What is equally good, or perhaps better, is
a one-frame nucleus having glass sides,
making, as it is called, an observatory hive.
This should contain one frame of nice
healthy brood, regular and perfect comb,
finely marked bees, and a bright-yellow
queen. Hundreds of people will stop and
examme, and ask a variety of questions
about the bees and the queen.

Bees in an observatory hive will stand
confinement for two or three days or even
a week. Ordinarily at fairs and other
places, where the show lasts only two or
three days, the confined bees will do very
weU. But at expositions, where they are
shown week after week, it is necessary to
give them a flight every two or three days.
Some arrangement should be made with the
management by which these glass hives
may be placed next to the wall of the
building, the entrance communicating with
a hole thru the building. Where this can
not be done, one can have two or three ob-
servatory hives, and keep one or two on
exhibition all the time while the other is
being freshened up by a flight outdoors.
After these latter have had two or three
days in which to cleanse themselves the
entrance is closed at night, when the hive
is set back on its stand, and another ob-
servatory hive takes its place. Thus in
alternation each one of the two or three
lots of bees can be freshened up.

Where it is impossible to place the obser-
vatory hive next to the outside wall of the
building, a long tube from the hive commu-
nicating with the outside wall of the build-
ing can sometimes be used. But the distance
must not be over eight or ten feet.* The
bees, strange as it may seem, will pass out
thru the tube to the outside and return to
their hive. This avoids a replacement of
bees, and permits the normal work of the
colony to go on uninterruptedly. Bees
coming in with loads of pollen can be seen ;
and their rejoicings, with a quick nervous

* The exit from the building should be above the
heads of pedestrians. To make this possible the tube
will have to slant upward from the hive.

444

HONEY EXHIBITS

wagging of their bodies, attract the atten-
tion of the visitors.

THE ADVERTISING VALUE OF OBSERVATORY
HIVES IN" SHOW-AVINDOWS OF GRO-
CERIES AND DRUGSTORES.

In the fall, when the active selling season
for honey naturally starts, a beekeeper can
very often to advantage place a single-
comb observatory hive in the show-windows
of groceries and drugstores where his honey
is on sale. (See Observatory-Hive. ) The
presence of the live bees, the honeycomb,
the sections just above, in addition to their
educational value to the general public, call
attention to the honey on sale in the win-
dow as nothing else can. The sidewalk will

Norman Mondeng was only eleven years old, yet he
handled bees without fear. His entire clothing was a
bathing suit.

very often be blocked by crowds to see the
" king bee " as they call it, and the bees
making honey. When both comb and ex-
tracted are displayed in packages of various
sizes in show-windows along with the ex-

hibit of live bees the bystander will nat-
urally step inside and buy a package of
honey. The first package will taste so good
that it will caU for another and another.

The advertising value of live bees can
scarcely be overestimated, especially in lo-
calities where such exhibits have never been
made before. When sales of honey are

William H. Crowson demonstrating bees at the
Tri-state Fair, Memphis, Tenn.

once started they will keep on and on.
(See Marketing Honey; also Bottling
Honey.)

live-bee demonstration v^ork to adver-
tise HONEY AT THE FAIRS.

In connection with an exhibit inside of
the building, there should be a placard
directing the visitor to a bee-show outside,
as near the building as possible. This should
be a demonstration of the method of handling
live bees inside a wire cage, the operator
taking them up b}^ handfuls and forming
artificial swarms. Where the two exhibits,
one of hone3^ and bee-supplies, and the
bee-show itself, can be located outdoors, it
will be better. The former should then be
in a temporary booth or tent, since it would
not be advisable to have the exhibits of wax
and comb honey exposed to the direcl

HONEY EXHIBITS

445

The A. I. Root Company's exhibit at the Ohio State Fair.

action of the sun. The bee-demonstrating
cage should be located close by, within ten
or twenty feet. It consists of a wirecloth
structure large enough to take in a man, a
hive of bees, and room enough to prac-
tice ordinary bee-manipulation. This cage
should be elevated on a stand four or five
feet above the ground — the higher the bet-
ter, because there will be a great jam of
people around to see the man inside pick
up live bees by the handful.

Announcement should be made from out-
side of the cage that, during certain hours,
an operator, bareheaded and barearmed,
v/ill perform some wonderful stunts in
handling bees. When the performance be-
gins, the people will surge around the
stands, and that is just what is desired in
order to sell honey at the other stand a few
feet away.

The operator begins his performance by
stepping inside the cage of live bees, and
closing the door. He then tells the crowd
that he is going to handle live bees, every
one of which is armed with a sting ; and if
any one doubts it to come forward and he
will furnish the " proof." He proceeds to
take off his coat and vest and roll up his
sleeves, take off his collar, and tuck down
his shirt-band. It wiU then be necessary
for him to put on bicycle pants-guards, or
slip his trousers into his stockings. The

crowd will quickly appreciate this part of
the performance, because the operator tells
them the bees will sting if they get inside
of his clothing. With a lighted smoker he
opens up the hive. After puUing out the
frames he shows the bees and queen on the
comb; then he calls out for everybody to
wait and see the next stunt, for he is going
to make a swarm. With a large dishpan,
which he has previously provided, he
shakes the bees from two or three combs
into this pan. Then he takes it up and
turns to the crowd, saying, " The bees are
not real mad yet, so I'll begin to shake
them up to make them so." The people
wonder what he is going to do, seeing him
barearmed and bareheaded. He keeps on
shaking until he has the bees aU in one big
ball, and to the uninitiated it looks as if
they would sting him to death. But, no!
the continual shaking is the very thing that
makes them gentle instead of cross. He
now runs his hand under the ball of bees,
pushing it under gently, being careful not
to pinch any. The movement must be very
deliberate — so slow indeed that the hand
scarcely seems to move. He picks up a
handful and holds them up for the crowd
to examine. If he has good nerves he can
put three or four bees in his mouth ; shake
a handful of bees on top of his head, and
in the mean time pick up another handful.

446

HONEY PEDDLING

At the next performance there will be
big crowds around to see the work. While
the man is doing his stunts with the bees
he tells what honey is, saying that it is a
wholesome sweet, and that there is no such
thing as manufactured comb honey, and
that he will pay $100 for a single sample
of it. At that psychological moment he
draws attention to the fact that he has
some good honey at the stand opposite or
in the building yonder. The crowd will
then go round to the stand and buy the
honey.

The preceding illustrations show the ex-
hibits of bees and honey, the exhibit of the
live-bee cage, and the crowd that assembled
around it, both at the Ohio State Fair held
at Columbus, and the Minnesota State
Fair.

After the exhibitor gets his questioner
interested, he can hand out one of his
advertising cards, and at the same time
give him a little sample of honey to taste.
This can be done very readily by handing
out some strips of strong manila paper,
which are to be dipped in the honey and
then transferred to the mouth.

HONEY-HOUSES. — See Extracting-

HOUSES.

HONEY, METHODS OF ANALYSES.

— See HoNET^ Analysis of.

HONEY ON COMMISSION.— See Mar-
keting Honey.

HONEY-PEDDLING.— Under Extract-
ed HoNEY^ to which the reader is referred,
there is told something about selling direct
to consumers. But there are many who say
they "haven't the nerve to ask folks to
buy," and prefer to be excused from any
such disagreeable experience. But there
are ways in which one does not need to lose
either his dignity or self-respect. A ped-
dler may, it is true, call at unseasonable
hours, or steal valuable time from a pros-
pective customer in trying to force a sale.
In such ways one may make himself a
nuisance, making a second visit utterly
useless. The late Dan White of New Lon-
don, Ohio, a progressive and practical bee-
keeper, struck upon a novel plan that en-
tirely eliminates all objectionable features.
He thus describes it.

PEDDLING MADE EASY.

I packed my grip and took two 12-pouiid
cans of honey and started out. About all I
had in my grip was a good supply of those
leaflets published by the A. I. Eoot Co.; also
50 postals addressed to myself.

I got into the town just before dinner
time; and after eating a good meal at a
boarding-house I filled my pockets with leaf-
lets and took one honey-can and commenced
business. I started down a street and did
not miss calling at every house. After ring-
ing the bell, or rapping, a lady would open
the door and look at me with more or less
suspicion. I would say, "1 made the call to
ask you if your family were fond of honey. ' '

They generally answered yes, but believed
they would not buy any.

''Well," I would answer, ''but I am not
selling honey today. I am giving it away,
and should be glad to give you some in a
sauce-dish. ' '

Some would look astonished, others would
smile, and say, ' ' That 's funny, ' ' but in every
instance I was invited in. I would pour
out the honey, then hand out a leaflet, tell-
ing them to read every word, of it. ' ' You
will find it very interesting; it will tell you
all about honey — ^how and why we extract it,
etc. Then here is a postal card addressed
to me; and should you decide to want a 12-
pound can, put your name, street, and num-
ber, on the card; drop it in the office; and
when I deliver in about ten days you will get
a can of honey. ' '

Well, there were enough cards put in the
mail within five days to take thirty cans of
honey. I promptly made the delivery on
time, taking along twenty extra cans that
sold about as fast as I could hand them out;
and since then I have received orders for 50
more cans from the same town. I tell you,
it has got all over town that a honey-man
had been there selling real honey, 12 pounds
for one dollar. I am certain that this one
place will take over 2000 pounds, all in one-
gallon cans. Now, then, 18 pounds of honey
given away from house to house, 50 postal
cards, 200 leaflets left at houses and handed,
to people on the street, and one day walking
over a very small portion of the town, has
found a place for at least 2000 pounds of
honey. Then think what I can do next season
should I secure a good crop. All I shall have
to do is to take a big load and go up there
and hand it out.

By the way, the honey sold there was
thrown out of clean white combs, over every
inch of whose surface the uncapping-knife
had to go. It weighed strong 12 pounds to
the gallon — just as good as the best comb
honey, only it was out of the combs. Of
course, I can go back just as often as I
choose; yes, and the people will be glad to
see me.

New London, Ohio. Dan White.

HONEY PEDDLim

447

It would appear that one of the prime
requisites is a first-class article of well-
ripened extracted honey. Very many make
a mistake right here, and, of course, if the
honey is poor, one is not likely to make a
second sale. Mr. White's scheme is to have
the honey taste so good that, when it is
gone, the good people will drop that postal
for more.

In a similar way Herman F. Moore of
Chicago retailed large amounts of honey.
His plan, like that of Mr. White, was to go
around and solicit orders. In the cities of
Cleveland and Toledo, or even those of
smaller size, he would start out on foot,
exhibiting a sample of his honey in a quart
Mason fruit- jar. His reason for using this
package was that almost any family would
be willing to take a household article of
this kind, for the simple reason that it
would not have to be thrown away when it
had served the purpose of holding the
honey.

With this package Mr. Moore would call
at private houses, one after another, and
ask for a dish and spoon, saying that he
had some very nice honey, and that he
would like to give the women-folks a sam-
ple to taste. He then held up the beautiful
transparent goods to the light, told them he
was a beekeeper, and dealt only in pure
honey; explained how it was produced,
and finally named the price. If the lady of
the house cared to take any he would take
her order and deliver the next day. As a
rule he took an order.

3n this way he made the rounds of a
certain section of the city. When he first
began he took the orders one day and de-
livered the next; but his business gi'ew so
rapidly that he was finally obliged to take
on a helper, his brother, and, a little later
on, two more men and a man and his wife.
The two last named washed the jars and
filled them. Two of the men delivered while
he and his brother took orders. In this
way they sold enormous quantities of
honey; and as it was always the finest
quality, and guaranteed to be pure, they
built up a large trade.

There is another plan, providing one can
trade honey for other useful articles too
numerous to mention. Even if one did not
sell much he would get a day of royal
sport.

TRADING HONEY FOR DUCKS, PIGS, PUPS, ETC.

In all the literature on bees and honey, we
are urged to develop the home market. Act-
ing on the advice, after I had traveled over
my regular route this fall I went into an
entirely new locality. After enjoying the
scenery and the sunlight for about a five-
mile drive I called at a farmhouse and in-
quired of the good lady if she would like some
honey.

''Wen, yes, I should like some, but I have
no money. ' '

Seeing some ducks, I offered to trade honey
for ducks; and for a pair I gave four pint
jars of honey.

Calling at another house, I sold $2-.00 worth
for cash; and while I was talking with the
man one of the ducks gave a quack, which led
to an inquiry as to what I had. I told them
I had traded honey for ducks.

""Well, now, look here; can't I trade you
some hens for honey?"

I traded for half a dozen, and made the
children, I hope, happy (I was). In this way
I passed the day, and on my drive home i
was trying to figure out my profits. I had
disposed of two gross of pint jars, and 120
pounds of comb honey. For the pint jars I
received 25 cents; also 25 cents each for the
sections of comb. I had had a royal day's
sport; and as I listened to the quack of the
ducks and geese, the cackle of the hens, and
squeal of the pigs, and looked at the large
box of eggs that I had in the wagon, I
thought I would have to send for some of
Dr. Mason's egg-preservative. After getting
home I took account of stock. I had $54.40
cash, 108 dozen eggs, 8 ducks, 1 goose, 2 pigs,
24 hens, and 1 buUpup. (The pup is for sale.)

Charlton City, Mass. Geo. L. Vinal.

Another experience is thus given by G.
C. Greiner of La Salle, X. Y. :

Peddling honey has, like everything else,
its ups and downs. We don't always strike
it rich. Some days it may seem like terribly
steep uphill business, while other days the
money may roll in by the handfuls. As an
illustration, and a proof that the latter sen-
tence is almost literally true, let me give
you one day 's experience.

Late last fall I chanced to take a trip to
Niagara Falls with the intention of making
a display of my goods at the city market.
At first things looked a little gloomy. Pur-
chasers did not flock in as I had hoped, until
after some minutes of patient waiting. One
passing lady, in looking at my honey, asked,
''Is your honey pure?" The reply I made
must be imagined, for it would fill more
space than the editor would be willing to
allow. But let me emphasize — here is where
the blabbing came in. In answering her
question I delivered a good half-hour lecture
in less than two minutes, trying to convince
her of the purity, and aU the good points
of my honey. In the mean time, passing

HONEY PLANTS

449

people had stopped to listen; and by the
time my lady friend was ready to buy one
of my quart cans I had quite a crowd around
me. To cut the story short, for quite a few
minutes I handed out cans, mostly quarts,
as fast as I could make change (many of
the purchasers promising to buy more the next
time I attended the market, if the honey
proved to be what I had recommended it
to be).

When the market closed, at 11 a. m., I had
a few cans left. With these I drove to
Main Street and tied my horse in front of
one of the stores, where I had a little busi-
ness to transact. A few minutes later, while
I was conversing with the storekeeper in-
side, some one opened the door and inquired:

' ' Hello ! where is this honey-man ? ' '

After introducing myself he requested me
to show him what I had to sell. It did not
take very long to convince him that I car-
ried the genuine article; and what pleased
me still more was the fact that he ordered
two cans to be left at the corner drugstore
across the street.

When I delivered the cans they were closely
scrutinized by the clerks and some other par-
ties who happened to be present, and one of
the clerks asked:

''What guarantee have we that this is pure
honey?"

Here another lecture-like conversation, too
long to be repeated, took place, the substance
of which may be concentrated in my reply:

''First, pure honey and my name and ad-
dress are on every package; and, second,
back of this is the New York State law that
prohibits all honey adulteration."

Before I left the place I sold two more cans
to those other parties.

A great help in selling honev on the road
is a proper traveling- outfit, which enables us
to present our products in clean, neat, and
inviting appearance. I know from experience
that at least one-fourth of my sales of honey
can be traced back to this feature.

PEDDLING HONEY AT GROCERIES AND OTHER
RETAIL STORES.

W. A. Selser of 10 Vine St., Philadel-
phia, is not only a practical beekeeper, but
he was also a large buyer of honey. In
addition to the amount he produced in his
own apiaries, he bought up every year the
product of several large yards. All of
this, mostly extracted, he peddled out from
a honey-wagon to the retail trade.

The secret of his success in selling and
in getting good prices was in putting up
always a first-class article in a neat and
attractive form. He advertised liberally,
and every one knew him about Philadel-
phia as " the honey-man,"
15

After several gross were put up, Mr. Sel-
ser loaded all he could carry in a special
wagon, shown at the left of the illustration
on the preceding page. He then visited
the city stores and replenished their
stock. After he had supplied all the city
retail places he then went into the coun-
try, visited the suburban towns, and even
drove as far as the city of New York, sup-
plying some stores.

In these days of light automobile deliv-
ery cars the territory can be greatly ex-
tended; in fact, a bottler can make several
outlying towns, and follow up the trade,
taking care of a large line of fancy grocery
stores. Light automobile trucks with top
of the familiar Ford type are now being
used for this very purpose — to sell and dis-
tribute honey.

HONEY PLANTS.— The importance to
American beekeepers of a thoro knowledge
of the honey-producing flora of this coun-
try cannot be overestimated. A beginning
in this work has already been made by sev-
eral States. An excellent preiminary list
of Texan honey plants by Louis H. Scholl
was published in 1908, and in 1911 there
appeared a carefully prepared bulletin on
the honey plants of California by M. C.
Richter. In both these lists much attention
is given to the geographical distribution
within the state limits of the species enu-
merated. More or less complete lists of the
chief mellifluous plants of Massachusetts,
North Carolina, Iowa, Oklahoma, and Ari-
zona have also been prepared. So helpful
have these publications been to beekeepers
that there can be little doubt that similar
bulletins will soon be issued by other
States. Such investigations promise to
bring to light many interesting and valu-
able facts. No one should enter extensively
upon the production of honey without first
investigating the flora on which he must
depend for a marketable surplus. Success
or failure may often depend upon such in-
formation.

The geographical distribution of honey
plants in the United States presents many
striking peculiarities. While some occur
over the entire country, others are re-
stricted to a small area. The sumacs extend
from the Atlantic to the Pacific ; so do the
carrot and earpetweed, tho the latter is
commercially most valuable in central Cali-

450

HONEY PLANTS

fornia. Sweet clover is spreading every-
where; and the goldenrods and asters
know no north nor south. While hearts-
ease grows thruout nearly all North Amer-
ica, the wild sunflower is confined chiefly to
the West, cotton to the South, white clover
to the East, and willowherb to the North.
Much narrower are the limits of many
other species. The white-tupelo region is
a tract of land along the Apalachicola
River; manchineel occurs in the extreme
south of Florida; the black mangrove in
tide-water marshes in the southern half of
the same State; our native acacias belong
to Texas, the sages to southern California,
and scores of other honey plants are equal-
ly restricted in their distribution. But it
is not only in individual states that they
are very variable in their range, but in al-
most every township ; for example, within
less than a mile of each other, yet without
invading each other's territory, there may
be found the salt-marsh goldenrod, the field
goldenrod, and the wood goldenrod.

Honey plants are likewise very variable
in the preference they exhibit for different
soils. The tupelo and willows grow in wet
swamps, the tickseed in marsh lands, the
smooth sumac prefers a rocky soil, the mes-
quite and cacti are dwellers in the desert;
the gallberries in Georgia avoid a limestone
region, while sweet clover will grow no-
where else. The spikeweed and the alkali-
weed thrive in alkaline soil; the Rocky
Mountain honey plant in a dry saline soil;
the salt-marsh goldenrod in a soil and at-
mosphere impregnated with salt, while the
fireweed springs up in profusion on burnt
lands, and the production of nectar in wild
alfalfa is greatly stimulated by a moun-
tain fire.

Undoubtedly the secretion of nectar is
often if not always correlated with the
character of the soil, the temperature, and
water supply. Alfalfa, which, in irrigated
sections of California, is a large and most
reliable yield er, is of little value along the
coast or in the East. A heavy thunder-
shower followed by a sudden fall in the
temperature may bring a successful honey
flow from buckwheat or basswood to a pre-
mature end. Wild alfalfa may produce
nectar abundant^ on one side of the Coast
Ranges, and very little on the other side.
Heavy rains are likely to lessen greatly and
light rains may either stimulate or retard

the quantity of nectar secreted by a honey
plant. The last honey obtained from lima
beans and alfalfa is darker than the first.
On a sandy soil the honey obtained from
alfalfa is lighter in color than on a heavy
soil, and lime in a soil is also reported to
render a honey lighter. A prolonged drouth
is apt to bring loss and disappointment,
tho it shortens the tubes of the red clover
so that part of the nectar is available.
Black sage requires a clear warm season
preceded by abundant rain. Blue gum and
red clover are very reliable yielders, and
are largely independent of the weather.

Nor must the periodicity of honey plants
be overlooked. The orange tree and the
cabbage palmetto in Florida can be de-
pended upon only about one year in three ;
but orange is a fairly reliable source in
California. Sage does its best one year in
five, and is a partial failure every other
year. The rules which govern the bloom-
ing of white clover have not yet been
formulated. Manchineel does not afford a
heavy flow every year. The different spe-
cies also vary greatly in the length of time
they are in bloom. In many cases they
are in flower for only a few weeks; but
carpet grass yields from May until frost;
pepper bush from July to September; pin
clover in California begins in February
and continues thru the summer, and alfalfa
from April to October. The different kinds
of honey vary also in the rapidity with
which they granulate. After 10 years white
tupelo is still liquid, while the honey from
blue curls granulates in the cells before
they are sealed. Usually a honey granu-
lates within six months after it is extracted.

A honey containing a large percentage
of grape sugar (dextrose) crystallizes
much more readily than one containing a
small percentage. For example, alfalfa
honey, which granulates in a few months,
contains 36.85 per cent of grape sugar
(dextrose) and 40.24 per cent of fruit
sugar (levulose) ; while tupelo honey,
which never granulates, contains only 24.73
per cent of grape sugar and 48.61 per cent
of fruit sugar. The reason for this is that
grape sugar granulates easily, while fruit
sugar usually remains a liquid. Frequent
changes of temperature also hasten granu-
lation.

Even where there is a good honey flora
fair weather is essential, or the bees can

HONEY PLANTS

451

I not bring the nectar into the hive. The

f willows and the gallberries, which bloom in
the spring when there are much rain and
foggy weather, are, therefore, not so desir-
able as species which flower later. The suc-
cession of honey plants should also be

j considered. In California, after the orange
trees have ceased to bloom for the rest of
the season in that locality, the bees bring
in only a " dribble " of dark honey from
pepper and horehound. Fortunate is the
beekeeper to whom the autumn months

' bring a heavy flow of nectar from fall
flowers.

More information about the honey plants
of foreign countries should be obtained.
Who can say what happy surprises Africa,
Asia, and the Pacific islands may yet af-
ford the beekeeper? It should not be for-
gotten that sweet clover, alfalfa, pin clover,
borage, euealj^tus, horehound, carrot, eat-
1 nip, wild marjoram, thyme, and red alsike,
and crimson clovers are all introduced
plants. Our agricultural and horticultural
I explorers are successfully seeking new
j fruits, grains, and flowers; but do they
! ever look for new honey plants ?

The possibilities of artificial pasturage
are only partially recognized. In many
localities the apiarist might greatly in-
crease the number of nectariferous flowers
j by sowing each season a few pounds of
sweet clover in waste places and along the
roadside. There are many plants which
produce paying crops, and are at the same
time valuable to the apiarist, such as cot-
ton, alfalfa, mustard, buckwheat, clovers,
the orange, and a great variety of fodder
i plants and fruit trees. When it is remem-
i bered that more than one-half of the prin-
cipal honey plants of Florida are arboreal,
and that many shade and timber trees yield
nectar freely, there would seem to be good
reason to expect that in the future forestry
and bee culture may be united.

By hybridization and selection many new
varieties of fruits and flowers have been
I originated; and the laws of heredity and
breeding are studied more zealously today
than ever before in the history of biology,
j Why should not plants, especially those
I valuable for fruits and seeds, be developed
with a greater capability for secreting nec-
tar? Insects have shown us what is possi-
ble in this direction. It is probable that
there would have been very few nectar-

producing flowers but for theii' agency.
There may yet be an apple tree that, in
addition to excellent fruit, wiU yield nectar
as freely as does the orange or basswood.
The orchardist of the next century may
obtain a crop of honey from fruit bloom
which will rival in value the later harvest
of fruit. No effort has yet been made in
this direction, and many of the achieve-
ments of the horticultural experimenter ap-
pear to have offered greater difficulties.
There may yet be plants of which it may
literally be said that they flow vvdth nectar.

POLLEN PLANTS.

An ample supply of pollen is of even
greater importance to honey bees than
large stores of honey. In limited areas
nectar famines not infrequently occur,
when in some localities, at least, the bees
are able to obtain partial supplies from
honeydew, the sweet juices of broken or
decayed fruits, and the sap of various
plants. But there is nothing in nature
which can be used as a satisfactory substi-
tute for pollen, tho bees sometimes coUect
the spores of fungi and mosses to a small
extent. Pollen famines do occur in some
of om^ Southern States, and in Australia,
according to R. Beuhne, when the brood
dies in the hive, and no artificial substitute
gives satisfactory results. The same scaic-
ity of pollen occurs in the tupelo section of
Florida and in many places in southern
Alabama.

Of the true flowering plants called an-
giosperms, because they have their seeds
enclosed in a seed case, and receive the pol-
len on a prepared surface known as the
stigma, there have been described in North
America north of Mexico about 14,600 spe-
cies. Of this number, at least 3000 are
nectarless, but of necessity produce pollen.
Very many of them have small green or
dull-colored flowers, and are pollinated by
the wind, as the alders, birches, poplars,
elms, beeches, oaks, and hickories; the
grasses, sedges, and rushes; many homely
weeds like pigweeds, ragweeds, nettles,
pondweeds, sorrels, hemp, and meadow rue.
Usually the stamens and pistils are in sep-
arate flowers, which are borne on the same
plant (moncpcious), or on different plants
(direcions) . They are commonly without
nectar, since they depend on the wind for

452

HONEY PLANTS

pollination ; but they produce great quan-
tities of pollen, and are consequently often
valuable to the apiarist. See Pollen.

Other pollen plants bear large handsome
flowers like the roses and poppies, which
are pollinated by insects, and are called
pollen flowers ; they contain no nectar, and
insects visit them for pollen alone. Mis-
takes are often made in regard to these
flowers, and bees are reported as bringing
in nectar when such is not the case. Possi-
bly some of these errors have arisen from
the presence of honeydew on the leaves. A
list of the more important pollen plants is,
therefore, given separately. No attempt
has been made to include all nectarless
flowers, but only those of importance to
beekeepers. A great number of flowers
yield both nectar and pollen ; but these are
placed under Honey Plants. The species
in the following list are nectarless unless
otherwise stated.

plants that yield pollen only.

Alder (Alnus). — Wind-pollinated; the small brown-
ish flowers apppear in early spring. The aments
(staminate) of the common or hoary alder (4. in-
cana) are visited by honeybees for pollen.

Anemone (^Anemone quinquefolia) . — Large white pol-
len flowers ; pollen gathered by bees in spring.

Ash (Fraiinus). — Some species are pollinated by
insects, others by the wind ; small greenish flowers.

Bayberry (My/ica). — Shrubs blooming in spring;
flowers small, greenish, wind-pollinated.

Beech (Fagus). — Large trees, with small wind-pol-
linated flowers. Honeydew is found on the leaves.

Birch {Betula). — Small greenish or golden-yellow
flowers, appearing with or before the leaves in spring ;
wind-pollinated ; mostly trees.

Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis). — ^Large hand-
some white pollen flowers in April or May. Visited
by honeybees in large numbers, which remove nearly
all the pollen.

California Poppy (Eschscholtzia calif ornica). — Large
orange-yellow pollen flowers ; great numbers of bees
visit them for pollen.

Castor-oil Bean (Ricinus communis). — The small
flowers are wind-pollinated ; stamens very numerous ;
an abundance of pollen ; extra-floral nectaries at the
base of the leaves.

Chestnut {Castanea). — The chestnut tree (C. den-
tata) has small, pleasantly scented, pale-yellow pollen
flowers; but chinquapin (C. pumila), a spread-shrub
is reported to be a valuable honey plant in the South.

Clematis. — A part of the wild species and the large
handsome flowers of the cultivated varieties of C.
Jackmanni are nectarless, but are visited by bees for
pollen. Other species yield nectar including the com-
mon wild Clematis (C virginiana).

Cockle-burr (Xanthium canadense). — Small flowers
from which bees obtain pollen in the fall. They con-
tain a little nectar.

Corn (Zea Mays). — Wind-pollinated; bees gather
pollen from the spindles ; are reported to obtain sap
from the stalks, but this should be confirmed.

Cone-trees {Coniferae). — Fir, spruce, pine, cedar,
juniper, and many other cone trees. While they pro-
duce enormous quantities of pollen, it is not much used

by bees — probably too resinous. From the foliage of
pine trees and spruces bees obtain much honeydew.
See HoKKYDEw. Gymnosperms.

Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) . — Large areas of
California and Arizona are adapted to date culture.
There are extensive plantations of great age in Lower
California and Mexico. In southern Asia and northern
Africa this tree is of inestimable value. The staminate
and pistillate flowers are produced on different trees,
or the trees are partly " male " and partly " female."
In nature pollination is eiTected by the wind, but un-
der cultivation by binding a sprig of staminate flowers
among the pistillate. Flowers small, in large clus-
ters ; in California bees visit the staminate flowers
freely for pollen. Bloom in early spring.

Elder (Sambucus). — Small white pollen flowers in
large clusters ; bees sometimes gather the pollen.

Elm {Ulmus americana) . — Small purple flowers which
appear in the spring, and are wind-pollinated. They
are visited by great numbers of bees for pollen.

Furze {Ulex europaeus). — Gorse. Introduced from
Europe. A pollen flower, yields considerable pollen,
which honeybees and wild bees gather and also search
the flowers for nectar. In Australia the large area
over which it has spread presents a golden landscape
in spring.

Grape {Vitis). — Valuable for pollen; yield some
nectar. Honeydew occurs on the foliage.

Grasses (Gramineae). — Small greenish flowers, with
a great abundance of pollen ; wind-pollinated ; spar-
ingly visited by insects. About 429 species in North
America.

Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) . — Valuable for pol-
len in early spring. Tliere are seven species of Celtis
in the South.

Hazelnut (Corylus americana). — Small yellowish
flowers, valuable for pollen in early spring ; wind-
pollinated.

Hepatica (Hepatica triloba). — Handsome blue or
white pollen flowers ; attractive to bees in early
spring.

Hemp {Cannabis sativa). — Small flowers pollinated
by the wind.

Hickory (Carya). — Pecan, mocker nut; large trees
with small wind-pollinated flowers ; valuable for pol-
len ; much honeydew on the leaves.

Hop (Humulus Lupulus). — Small greenish flowers,
wind-pollinated ; common. ■

Hornbeam (Carpinns caroliniana). — Large tree with
small wind-pollinated flowers.

Loosestrife (Lysimachia vulgaris). — Medium-sized yel-
low pollen flowers.

Lupine (Lupinus). — The flowers are nectarless, but
are frequently ^asited by honeybees and other bees for
pollen. Honej^bees' sometimes vainly attempt to suck
nectar from the flowers. Blue lupine (L. subcarnosus)
is very abundant in Texas, and is often visited by bees
for pollen.

Meadow-rue (Thalictrum) . — Common ; white or green-
ish pollen flowers visited by honeybees for pollen. Rue
anemone {Anemonella thalictroides) produces a great
abundance of white flowers in low land ; wind-pol-
linated.

Mullein (Verbascum).-— Common; bright-yellow pol-
len flowers. A part of the species are nectarless. Oth-
ers contain some nectar.

Mulberry (Morns rubra). — A tree with small wind-
pollinated flowers.

Nettle ( Urtica) . — Greenish flowers in summer ; wind-
pollinated.

Oak (Quercus). — Small greenish or reddish flowers;
wind-pollinated. Honeydew is found on the foliage of
many species. In California enough honeydew is gath-
ered from blue or rock oak (Quercus Douglasii) to
winter bees.

Pigweed (Chenopodium) . — Goosefoot. White mealv
garden weeds, with small greenish sessile flowers in
large clusters, wind-pollinated. Also amaranth ; also
called pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus) ; coarse wind-

HONEY PLANTS

453

pollinated weeds in cultivated gfround ; flowers in large
clusters, of some value for pollen.

Poppy {Pa-paver). — The poppies are very large showy
poUen flowers visited by honeybees. The scarlet color
does not repel bees, as has been reported.

Plantain (Plantago). — Partly pollinated by the wind
and partly by insects ; flowers contain a little nectar,
and have a pleasant odor ; very common weeds, visited
by honeybees.

Poplar (Populus). — Aspens. Small purplish flowers,
w ind-pollinated ; pollen abundant, forcibly expelled
from the anthers ; said to be valuable ; nectar-glands
at base of leaf-stalks. Honeydew sometimes occurs on
the foliage. It should be distinguished from the white
poplar. (Liriodendron Tulipifera).

Prickly Poppy (Argemone). — Large yellow or white
pollen flowers. A. platyceras in Texas blooms in June,
and honeybees gather large quantities of its pollen.

Ragweed {Ambrosia). — Small green flowers pollinated
by the wind ; valuable in the fall for their abundant
supply of pollen. Two common species are Roman
wormwood (A. artemisiifoUa) and great ragweed {A.
trifida) .

Rockrose (Flelianthemum canadense). — Large, soli-
tary, yellow pollen flowers; common in the Eastern
States.

Roses {Rosa). — These handsome well-known flowers
are nectarless, but yield much pollen which is gathered
by honeybees and many wild bees.

Rushes (Juncaceae). — Small green lily-like flowers;
wind-pollinated.

Sage-brush (Artemisia). — Wind-pollinated herbs and
shrubs, which produce a large amount of poUen. Thou-
sands of acres are covered with sagebrush in Utah and
Nevada.

St. John's- wort (Hypericum). — Small yellow pollen
flowers ; common ; attractive to bees after pollen.

Sedges (Cyperaceae) . — A large family of grasslike
plants ; flowers small, green, wind-pollinated. The
so-called " tule honey " has been reported to be gath-
ered from species of Scirpus growing along the Sacra-
mento River^ California ; but this is undoubtedly a
mistake.

Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare). — Pollen very abundant;
a grass.

Tick-trefoil (Desmodium). — Flowers resemble those
of the field-pea, or vetch ; many species are nectarless,
and do not appear to be visited by honeybees, tho the
pollen is gathered by bumblebees. Sometimes listed as
honey plants.

Walnut (Juglans). — Large trees with small wind-
pollinated flowers. Valuable for stimulating early,
brood-rearing in the spring.

Many handsome garden exotics, as pelargonium and
hybrid petunias, are nectarless.

PLANTS THAT YIELD NECTAE.

A honey plant may be defined as a plant
which secretes nectar, accessible to honey-
bees, in quantities sufficiently large to be
of practical importance to beekeepers. This,
of course, implies that in some locality it is
a common plant. If a list of all plants
secreting nectar were desired, it would be
easy to enumerate thousands of species;
but very few of them are of practical
importance in bee culture. Many are rare,
others grow in the deep recesses of forests
and swamps, while still others yield so little
nectar that the larger bees pass them by
unheeded. The bunchberry {Cornus cana-

densis ) is very common in open woodlands ;
but the small flowers contain so little nec-
tar that bumblebees ignore them entirely,
and honeybees visit them only occasionally.
They are left to flies, beetles, and the
smaller bees. Then there are many flowers
adapted to moths, butterflies, bumblebees,
and humming birds, which have the nectar
so deeply concealed that it cannot be
reached by honeybees. Many a beginner
in beekeeping has fondly imagined that his
flower garden would supply his bees with a
rich harvest, wholly unconscious that the
gaudy exotics of cultivation are often near-
ly or quite nectarless. In the following list
the more important honey plants in North
America, so far as known at present, either
wild or cultivated, have been briefly de-
scribed.

Acacia. — A large genus of shrubs and trees, contain-
ing 500 or more species, which are abundant and wide-
ly distributed in Australia ; honey white, of fine qual-
ity. The vernacular name is wattle. The wattles are
completely covered with bloom, and produce great
quantities of pollen very rich in protein, and are very
valuable in Australia for brood-rearing. The most im-
portant species in this country are A. Greggii, south-
eastern Texas, New Mexico and Arizona — see Catclaw ;
A. Berlandieri, along the Rio Grande — see Huajilla;
A. Farnesiana (huisache), along the lower Rio Grande
and Gulf Coast ; A. Roemeriana, southern Texas ; A.
dealbata (silver wattle), and A. decurrens mollis
(black wattle) in California.

Agave. — A large genus of North American plants
found chiefly in Mexico, with fleshy, spiny-toothed
leaves, blooming after many years of growth, flowers
open in the evening, nectariferous. — See Century
Plant.

Alfilerilla (Erodium cicutarium). — Maine to Texas
and California but most common in the West ; honey
of good quality and flavor. Blooms early, valuable for
pollen. E. moschatum is also an important honey
plant ; honey similar to that of the preceding species.

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa). — One of the most valuable
honey plants in irrigated sections of the Western
States. Honey water-white to light amber, thick, with
a pleasant slightly minty flavor. Granulates in a few
months. — See Alfalfa.

Almond (Prunus Amygdalus). — Extensively culti-
vated in the warm temperate regions of Europe and
Asia. Succeeds well in California. The large pink
flowers appear before the leaves, and yield both nectar
and pollen. Apiaries are sometimes placed in almond
groves.

Alsike. — See Clover.

Andromeda. — Shrubs, in northern Florida, yielding a
reddish-yellow pungent honey.

Apple (Pyrus Mains). — Often yields a small sur-
plus ; honey light in color and of good quality, rather
rank-flavored when newly gathered but becoming milder
and aromatic. Crab apple (P. coronaria) is also of
value.

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca). — Blooms very early in
the spring, helpful for brood-rearing. Flowers have
the odor of honey ; nectar concealed in a little cup.
Temperate regions.

Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis). — Widely culti-
vated. Yields an amber-colored honey, which loses its
peculiar flavor when ripened. Wild, it is very abun-
dant on the waste steppes of Russia, where it is eaten
by cattle.

454

HONEY PLANTS

Aster (Aster). — Common fall flowers; honey white,
when first gathered it is strong-flavored, but later it
acquires a pleasant aromatic taste. Granulates with a
finer grain than goldenrod. Most common in Middle
States, See Aster,

Artichoke, Globe (Cynara Scolymus). — Freely vis-
i<:ed by bees, but honey unknown. Cardoon (C. Car-
dunculus) is very common in Argentina.

Artichoke, Jerusalem {Helianthus tuberosa). — A good
honey plant, cultivated for its tubers.

Banana (Musa Sapientum and Musa Ensete). — The
flowers produce large quantities of pollen and nectar.
Cultivated in Florida,

Barberry (Berberis vvlffaris. Eastern States; B. pin-
nata, Cal, ; B. trifoliata, Texas). — Shrubs yielding
both pollen and nectar ; honey amber-colored, some-
times a surplus.

Basil (Pycnanthemum virr/inianum) . — Mountain
mint ; Minnesota to Georgia and Alabama. Bees visit
it freely.

Basswood (Tilia americana and T. heterophylla) . —
Among the most valuable honey plants of North Amer-
ica ; a white honey with an aromatic flavor. Central-
Northern States, and as far south as Texas. The
European basswood, or linden, is equally valuable, and
is widely planted as an avenue tree. See Basswood.

Beans, Lima (Phaseolus lunatus). — From lima beans
in California there is obtained a thick water-white
honey of delicious flavor. Horse beans (P. nanus) in
British Isles and Holland are also valuable.

Bearberry. — See Manzanita,

Bee-balm (Melissa officinalis). — In gardens, sparingly
wild,

Bitterweed, — See Sneezeweed.

Blackberry (Rubus). — Numerous closely allied spe-
cies, Rubus allegheniensis being the most common in
the Northern States. In northeastern North America
the blackberry, either wild or cultivated, j'ields very
little nectar, and is more frequently visited by wild
bees than honeybees. In north Georgia wild blackber-
ries yield in April about 25 pounds per colony of thick
amber-colored honey, which does not granulate readily.
In California from Rubus baileyanus and R. viti-
foEus surplus crops of light-amber honey of fine
flavor are obtained.

Black Gum. — See Tupelo.

Blue Curls (Trichostema lanceolatum). — Yields a
milk-white honey that granulates very quickly with a
very fine grain, often before it is sealed. Tons of
honey are stored from this plant in Fresno County,
Calif. Blooms in August and September when it gives
the dry fields and hills a soft purple tinge. Vinegar
Weed. Camphor Weed. Turpentine Weed.

Black Mangrove (Avicennia nitida). — Tide-water
marshes on the east and west coasts of southern Flor-
ida and on the Keys ; honey very white and mild with
a mere suggestion of a salty flavor that is in no way
objectionable, equal to that of orange or palmetto... A
remarkable yielder of honey,

Blackheart. — So called from a dark triangular spot
on the center of each leaf. See Heartsease.

Black Haw (Viburnum prunifolium). — Of value for
early brood-rearing.

Boston Ivy (Ampelopsis Veitchii). — Climbing vine
introduced from Japan ; covering acres of wall in
Northern cities. Blooms in July, very attractive to
bees ; honey strong or unpleasantly scented.

Blueweed (Echium vulgare) . — Viper's Bugloss. Showy,
bright blue flowers, very frequently visited by honey-
bees and a great many other insects for nectar. A
weed from E\)rope, common in places.

Bokhara. — See Sweet Clover.

Boneset, TTioroughwort (Eupatorium). — Very com-
mon in Tennessee and Kentucky, where it is reported
to yield a surplus. A large surplus was obtained at
Mt, Pleasant, Ala., in 1917. Honey a dark amber,
thick and heavy, with an unpleasant herby flavor and
odor. It improves with age. There are many species,
E. perfoliatum being one of the most common.

Borage (Borarjo officinalis). — Cultivated from Europe,
an excellent honey plant. It has spread to some extent
in southern Australia,

Box elder (Acer negundo). — Manitoba to Texas,
The small greenish flowers yield nectar.

Buckeye (Aesculus glabra). — Ohio to Kansas and
southward. Considerable honey is obtained from the
California buckeye (Aesculus calif ornica) .

Broomweed (Gutierrezia texana). — Plains of Texas
and Arkansas. Honey dark amber and strong flavored,
but good for winter. September to October.

Buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) . — TTiis species is
found in the Middle States. Cascara sagrada (R. pur-
shiana) is the main honey plant at Sonora, Calif.
Comb honey from this plant is so dark that it sells
poorly where it is known, but is highly valued for its
medicinal properties ; does not granulate ; a profu-
sion of flowers on which the bees work for about 2,5
days. The coffee berry (R. californica) yields a heavy
amber honey.

Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) .—A dark-pur-
plish honey, of heavy body, with a more or less sickish
taste to those unaccustomed to it. Extensively culti-
vated thruout the temperate regions of Europe, Asia,
and North America ; thousands of acres are grown in
New York and Pennsylvania. Yields nectar only dur-
ing the forenoon. See Buckwheat.

Buckwheat, Wild (Eriogonum fasciculatum) . — In parts
of southern California the most important honey plant ;
honey light amber, of good flavor, granulates.

Burr Clover (Medicago denticulata) . — Closely related
to alfalfa. Common in California ; occasionally yields
a surplus.

Buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis) . — Important
on the overflowed lands of the Mississippi, and in
swamps in many States. A mild light-colored honey.

Buttonweed (Senecio glabellus). — Several species of
Senecio, or groundsel, appear to be of value as honey
plants.

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea). — Cabbage, rape, tur-
nip, radish, cress, horseradish, mustard and many other
species of the mustard family (Cruciferae) are of
value. See Mustard.

Cactus, or Prickly Pear (Opuntia Engelmannii). —
Southwestern Texas, southward and westward. Some-
times a surplus of honey of light-amber color ; body
heavy and stringy, of rank flavor. Flowers yellow in-
side, red outside. The prickly pear introduced from
Rio de Janeiro into Australia in 1789 as food for the
cochineal insect now badly infests an area of 30,000
acres, to which about 1,000,000 acres are being added
annually by natural increase.

Campanula (Ipomoea sidaefolia and /. triloba). —
Christmas bells, Christmas pop. Honey pearly white,
equal to alfalfa in flavor. Mexico, Cuba, and Jamaica.
See Campanilla.

Canada Thistle (Cirsium arvense). — A common weed
from Europe ; honey light-colored, of fine flavor and
quality. Common in Canada, the Central States and
westward.

Carpet-grass (Lippia nodiflora). — One of the princi-
pal honey plants of central California, also valuable in
the West Indies ; honey light-colored, of mild flavor.
L. lanceolata and L. repens are likewise visited by bees,
but are less important. See Carpet Grass.

Carrot (Daucus Carota). — From Maine to California,
naturalized from Europe. A white honey, candies in a
few months.

Cascara sagrada. — See Buckthorn.

Cassia. — The species of Cassia bear pollen flowers.
The partridge pea (C Chamaechrista) , however, has
extra-floral nectaries on the leaf stems, which yield
large quantities of nectar for more than 100 days.
This species is common in the Southern States, and in
northern Florida ; the woods for miles are yellow
with the blossoms ; honey light amber, very clear and
thin, but with a strong flavor. Wild senna (C. mary-
landica) also has extra-floral nectaries,

HONEY PLANTS

455

Catclaw. — See Acacia and Catclaw.

Catnip (Nepeta Cataria). — Secretes nectar freely un-
der cultivation, but quality of honey unknown. See
Catnip.

Century Plant {Agave americana). — Extensively cul-
tivated in Mexico under the name of maguey. The im-
mense flower-clusters yield nectar copiously and are
visited by hundreds of bees. It thrives on semiarid
land, and blooms after 10 or more years.

Cherry (Prunus). — The cherries, of which there are
many species, are nectariferous. In Florida the black
cherry (Prunus serotina) is the source of a dark-red,
bitter honey with the flavor of the cherry pit ; a very
little of it spoils the first orange honey. In Sacra-
mento County, Calif., one of the most valuable honey-
producers among cultivated fruit trees is P. cerasus.

Christmas Berry (Heteromeles arbutifolia). — Com-
mon on the Coast Range of California; honey amber-
colored, thick, candying in a few months; often a
surplus.

Clover.— The genus Trifolium contains about 250
species, of which some 65 occur in North America.
White clover (T. repens) is the most important honey
plant in the Eastern and Central States ; honey white,
of the finest quality. A part of the nectar of red clover
(2*. pratense) is available in dry seasons; the honey is
similar to that of white clover, but is a little nearer
water-white. The honey of alsike clover (T. hybridum)
and of crimson clover (T. incarnatum) differs little,,
if at all, from that of white clover. The yellow clovers
are of no importance. Sour clover (T, furcatum) is
the source of considerable honey in the alkaline regions
of central California. See Clover.

Clover. — See Sweet Clover, Sainfoin Clover^ Pin
Clover and Burr Clover.

Coral-berry {Symphoricarpos orbiculatus) . — -Indian
currant. Found on rocky soil from New York to
Texas, secretes nectar freely. The snowberry (S.
racemosns) is the source of a large amount of honey
in Iowa. The wolfberry (S. occiden talis) is common
in the Missouri River basin, and in Washington and
Idaho.^ — See Bugkbush.

Cotton (Gossypimn herbaceum). — The cotton plant
possesses both floral and extra-floral nectaries ; most
of the nectar is gathered from the nectaries on the
under side of the leaves. In Texas and some other
parts of the South it yields well, but in some localities
no honey is obtained from it. Nectar secretion is
greatly influenced by the weather. The honey is thin
and of poor quality, but is light colored. See Cotton.

Cowpea (Vigna sinensis). — From China, widely cul-
tivated in the Southern States for forage. In Georgia
it is grown in all parts of the State, blooming from
June to September. The nectar is secreted not by the
flowers, but by extra-floral nectaries situated near the
ends of the long flower stems, which bear 2 or 3 flow-
ers ; the honey is light-colored, but of inferior quality.

Cucumber {Cucumis sativus) .—In the vicinity of
pickle factories there are hundreds of acres of cucum-
bers, which yield a small harvest of honey after clover
is over. The honey is pale yellow and at first has a
rather strong flavor suggestive of the fruit.

Currant (Ribes). — The many species of currants and
gooseberries, both wild and cultivated, are widely dis-
tributed and are of value in the spring.

Coral berry {Symphoricarpos orbiculatus). — Indian
currant. Found in rocky, soil from New York to
Texas, secretes nectar freely. The snowberry (S.
racemosus) is the source of a large amount of honey
in Iowa. The wolfberry {S. occidentalis) is common
in the Missouri River basin and in Washington and
Idaho. See Bucebush.

Cowitch {Cissus incisa). — A vine growing on sandy
shores from Florida to Texas. Sometimes there is a
small surplus of honey.

Crownbeard {Verbesina virginica). — Pennsylvania to
Texas. The white flowers appear in the fall, and are
the source of much honey of fine quality. The yellow-
flowered V, occidentalis is valuable in Tennessee.

Dandelion {Taraxicum officinale). — Eurasia, North
America, and many other parts of the world. Valuable
in spring for both pollen and nectar. Honey golden
yellow, thick, strong flavored, crystallizing in a few
weeks.

Eryngo {Eryngium articulatum) . — A dark honey of
good flavor. California.

Eucalyptus. — Abundant in Australia, and more rare-
ly found in New Guinea, Timor, and the Moluccas.
There are about 150 species, of which not far from 100
have been introduced into California. The flow of nec-
tar is surpassed in quantity by no other plant. The
honey varies in color from dark brown to amber, yellow
and nearly white ; and in flavor from a most agreeable
to a peculiar acid taste in blue gum {E. globulus).
which renders it unsalable at retail. The blooming
time varies so greatly that there are species in flower
during every month of the year. The future of
Eucalyptus in California promises to be of vast im-
Dortance to bee culture in that State. See Eucalyptus.

T'igwort {Scrophularia). — The figworts would be ex-
cellent honey plants if they were more common. In
S. marilandica (Simpson honey plant) the nectar is
secreted in two large drops by the base of the ovary.
Honeybees are constant visitors. Massachusetts to
Kansas and Louisiana. In southern California S. cali-
fornica is a valuable honey plant.

Gaura {Gaura filiformis) . — In sandy soil in Texas,
occasionally yields a surplus. Pink-purple flowers, in
summer.

Gallberry {Ilex glabra). — Georgia and other South-
ern States. A reliable yielder ; honey white, of
superior quality. An objection to many gallberry sec-
tions is the absence of later sources of honey. Also
several other species. See Holly and Gallberry.

Germander {Teucrium canadense). — Central States.
Honeybees common on the flowers sucking nectar.

Giant Hyssop {Agastache nepetoides) . — Vermont to
Nebraska and southward. In bloom about six weeks,
many honeybees.

Goldenrod {Solidago). — Numerous species. Surplus
in New England ; honey golden or dark amber ; thick,
of fine flavor. See Goldenrod.

Gooseberry. — See Currant.

Greasewood {Adenostoma fascicvlatum) . — In dry sa-
line localities in the West ; frequently visited by bees.

Gum plant {Grindelia squarrosa). — Many acres of
the dry plains of Manitoba and Minnesota are covered
with the yellow flowers which are very attractive to
bees.

Hawthorn {Crataegus). — A great number of closely
allied species, blooming in May ; valuable for both
nectar and pollen.

Heather {Calluna vulgaris). — Locally on the eastern
coast ; a prolific source of hone\' in Europe and the
British Isles ; honey rich amber, of pronounced flavor
and penetrating aroma.

Hedge nettle {Stachys). — Many species secrete nectar
freely, and attract a large number of bees.

Horsemint {Monarda punctata). — New York to Flor-
ida and Texas. One of the main yielders in Texas ;
honey of good quality, but rather strong-flavored. M.
clinopodioides is likewise very valuable ; honey has
been compared to that of basswood. See Horsemint.

Heartsease {Polygonum Persicaria). — Naturalized
from Europe thruout a large part of North America ;
honey varies from light to dark amber ; flavor very
good. Water smartweed (P. punctatum) occurs in wet
lands thruout North America ; hcney dark, and of poor
quality. Many other smartweeds are of more or less
value ; about 70 species in North America. See
Heartsease.

Hop tree {Ptelea trifoliata). — Florida to Texas and
northward ; nectar abundant ; honeybees common.

Horehound {Marrubium vulgare). — Good yields of
dark honey, but it is so bitter as to be almost worthless
except for medicine. See Horehound.

Holly (Ilex). — Common or American holly (/. opaca)
and white holly (/. myrtifolia) are eagerely visited b.^

456

HONEY PLANTS

bees in Georgia ; and the honey, tho not obtained un-
mixed, is regarded as excellent. The gallberries belong
to the same genus. See Gallberry.

Honeysuckle (Lonicera). — Honeybees suck the nectar
in the flowers of several species of bush honeysuckle,
as Sullivant's honeysuckle (L. Sullivantii) . The nectar
of the climbing garden honeysuckle (L. periclymenum) ,
adapted to moths, and of the trumpet honeysuckle (L.
sempervirens) , adapted to humming birds, is beyond
the reach of hive-bees.

Horse chestnut (Aesculus Hippocastanum) . — Adapted
to bumblebees ; but honeybees obtain both pollen and
nectar.

Huajilla. — See Acacia and Guajilla.

Jackass Clover. — See Stinkweed.

Judas tree (Cercis canadensis). — Redbud. From the
red-purple flowers honej'bees gather both nectar and
pollen.

Knotweed. See Heartsease.

Lemon {Citrus Limonium). — Valuable for honey in
San Diego Co., Calif. Honey light-colored, of excel-
lent flavor, with none of the tartness of the lemon.

Linden. — See Basswood.

Locust, Black (Robinia Psuedo- Acacia) . — Common in
the mountains of the Central and Southern States.
Widely cultivated. The cream-white flowers bloom in
April and May. Honey water-white, mild-flavored,
heavy and slow to granulate. A colony has been known
to store 15 pounds in one day. See Locust.

Logwood (Haematoxylon campechianum) . — Common
in the States bordering on the Bay of Campeche ; in-
troduced into Florida, Jamaica, and in the West In-
dies ; honey nearly water-white, of good body, and
unexcelled in flavor and aroma. See Logwood.

Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica). — Sometimes wrong-
ly named Japan plum ; South and in California ; val-
uable because it flowers late.

Lucerne.- — See Alfalfa.

Madrona (Arbutus Menziesii). — Evergreen trees com-
m.on in the Coast Ranges of California ; yield nectar
and pollen.

Magnolia. — Trees with very large white flowers ; not
very important.

Mallow (Malva). — The flowers of several species are
very frequently visited by honeybees for nectar and
pollen, but not important except perhaps locally.

Manchineel (Hippomane Mancinella). — Southeast
Florida and on the Keys. Nectar very abundant.
Small trees with apetalous, greenish flowers.

Manzanita (Arctostaphylos manzanita). — Valuable in
California for both nectar and pollen. Honey white to
amber-colored, with a fine flavor suggestive of the berry.
A surplus of more than 20 pounds may be obtained.
Blooms in December, and honey is used by bees for
spring breeding. A branching bush, about 12 feet tall,
covering large areas of the Coast Range slopes. White
to pink urn-shaped flowers. Manzanita is Spanish for.
'•' little apples," so called from the form of the berries,
Bearberry.

Maples {Acer). — The different species are of much
value, yielding both nectar and pollen for early brood-
rearing. The sugar maple {Acer saccharum Marsh)
produces a profusion of flowers.

Marigold {Gaillardia pulchella). — One of the main
honey-producing plants of Texas. Honey rich golden,
and of good quality. See Marigold.

Marjoram {Origanum, vulgare). — Introduced from
Europe ; in gardens, and sparingly escaped. A favorite
of honeybees, but not common enough to be of much
value.

Melilot. — See Sweet Clover.

Melons {Cucumis Melo). — Melons of all kinds are
valuable to apiarists.

Mesquite {Prosopis glandulosa). — Southwest in semi-
arid regions. Main source of honey in Texas. In the
Hawaiian Islands the mesquite is not only the chief,
but almost the only source of floral honey. The honey
is water-white, about as thick as that of white clover

and has an agreeable altho peculiar flavor. See
Mesquite.

Milkweed {Asclepias). — In northern Michigan S. syr-
iaca is very common, and may yield a surplus of 50
pounds per colony. Honey nearly water-white, thick,
fruity in flavor with a slight tang. Milkweed is also
valuable in California. The pollen-masses become at-
tached by dry membranous clips to the claws and
tongues of honeybees ; if they are unable to extract
them, they finally perish — dead bees are sometimes
found on the flowers. See Milkweed.

Mayweed {Anthemis Cotula). — Honey light yellow
and very bitter.

Milk-vetch {Astragalus). — The various species are
visited by honeybees, and the more common are val-
uable in favorable seasons.

Mint {Mentha spicata). — In Sacramento County,
Calif., yields in the fall a large amount of amber-
colored honey. Peppermint.

Mistletoe {Phorodendron flavescens). — Yields nec-
tar and pollen; valuable in Texas for early brood-
rearing; blooms in January and February.

Mustard {Brassica) . — Honey light, of mild flavor ;
not as heavy as alfalfa ; candies quickly ; a large
surplus in Lompoc Valley, Calif. See Mustard.

New Zealand Flax {Phormium tenax). — Sometimes
grown in the South ; covers thousands of acres in New
Zealand ; a valuable honey plant.

Onion {Allium Cepa). — Surplus yields of honey are
obtained from fields of onions cultivated for seed ; the
peculiar onion odor and flavor disapppear as the honey
ripens.

Orange {Citrus Aurantium). — Yields a surplus in
Florida and California. Honey nearly transparent, of
delicious flavor, with the aroma of the blossom ; can-
dies after a few months. See Orange.

Palmetto {Sabal Palmetto). — Southern half of Flor-
ida ; honey light-colored, very mild, but not as fine as
that from saw-palmetto ; grows in the hummock lands
thruout Florida ; honey lemon-yellow, thick, of the.
finest flavor. See Palmetto.

Scrub Palmetto {Sabal magacarpa). — Low shrubs,
very abundant in the hummock lands of Florida. A
\ery reliable yi elder ; honey nearly lemon-yellow,
thick, with an exquisite flavor and aroma. Candies a
little later than orange honey.

Partridge pea.— See Cassia.

Peach {Prunus persica). — Sometimes a small surplus.
Pepperidge. — See Tupelo,

Pear {Pyrus communis). — In some localities yields
nectar so freely that it drips upon the ground, in oth-
ers of little value. Less important than the apple. In
California a surplus is usually obtained if the weather
is warm during the bloom.

Pepper tree {Schinus molle). — California and Flor-
ida ; honej' amber-colored, and of pronounced flavor.
See Pepper Tree.

Pepperbush {Clethra alnifolia). — '\Vhite alder. On
the coastal plain of Georgia and in northern Florida it
yields a surplus ; honey white and of superior quality ;
blooms from June to October. Maine to Florida near
the coast.

Pepper vine. — See Snowvine.

Pennyroyal {Satureja rigida). — A small surplus in
the southern half of Florida, where it blooms in Jan-
uary ; honey is clear, and of good flavor and body.

Persimmon {Diospyros virginiana). — Connecticut to
Florida and Texas. A large tree ; blooms in spring ;
valuable.

Phacelia. — At Ventura, Calif., a water- white honey
is obtained from Phacelia hispida; it has a fine flavor,
but candies soon after extracting. In central Califor-
nia P. tanacetifolia yields a mild light-amber honey.
See Phacelia.

Pigeon cherry {Prunus pennsylvanica) . — Considerable
nectar is obtained from the flowers.

Plums and Prunes {Prunus). — All kinds of plums
yield nectar.

HONEY PLANTS

457

Prairie Clover {Petalostemum candidum) . — Belongs
to the pea or pulse familj' ; reported as valuable.

Pumpkin (Cucurbita Pepo). — Cultivated; honey am-
ber-colored ; candies quickly.

Raspberry (^Rubus idaeus, variety aculeatissimus) . —
Very common in northern Michigan ; a white honey of
the finest flavor. See Raspberry.

Rattan (Berchemia scandens). — In Texas, in favor-
able seasons, yields a surplus of dark-amber honey used
for manufacturing purposes.

Redbay {Persea Borbonia). — A southern tree with
small yellowish flowers growing near , the coast.

Redbud. — See Judas Tree.

Red gum (Eucalyptus rostrata). — Nectar abundant;
a promising species. See Eucalypttts.

Rhododendron and Kalmia. — The flame-colored azalea
(Rhododendron calendulaceum) and the mountain laurel
(Kalmia latifolia) when in bloom in the mountains of
North Carolina give a distinctive color to the landscape.
The honey has been reported to cause nausea and diz-
ziness. See Poisonous Hoxey,

Rockbrush (Eysenhardtia amorphoides) . — A branch-
ing shrub growing on the dry plains of southern Texas
and northern Mexico. Blooms in spring and yields a
good crop of fine honey.

Rocky Mountain Bee Plant (Cleome serrulata).
Very attractive to bees ; handsome rose-colored flow-
ers. See Rocky Mountain Bee Plant ; also Spider
Plant.

Sage (Salvia). — Black or button sage (S. mellifera)
is one of the chief honey plants of California ; honey
thick, white, of delicious flavor, not inclined to candy.
Purple or white-leaved sage (Salvia leucophylla) yields
a similar honey, but is less abundant. White sage (S.
apiana), tho one of the commonest, does not yield nec-
tar as freely as the two above-named species, but the
honey is equally good. Creeping sage (S. sonomensis)
is common in the mountains and Sierra foothills. The
honey is of about the same quality as black sage.
Annual sage (5. columbariae) yields a surplus of ex-
cellent honey in Monterey County, Calif. The lance-
leaved sage (S. lanceolata) is listed as a honey plant
in Nebraska, and the blue sage (S. azurea) in Texas.
Many species of sage are adapted to bumblebees, or in
South America to honey-sucking birds, but the nectar
cannot be obtained by honeybees. See Sage.

Sainfoin (Onobrychis sativa). — Cultivated for hay or
fodder. Honey similar to that of white clover. See
Sainfoin.

Sensitive Pea. — See Cassia.

Smartweed. — See Heartsease.

Sneezeweed (Helenium autumnale). — Swamp sun-
flower ; in wet land and thruout the Eastern States.
Honeybees gather both nectar and pollen. In Texas,
bitterweed (H. tenuifolium) yields a golden-yellow
honey of heavy body, but very bitter, " as if 50 per
cent quinine and some pepper were added."

Soapberry (Sapindus marginatus). — Yields a surplus
in favorable seasons in Texas. Common along small
rivers.

Sourwood (Oxydendron arboreum). — A splendid
honey-producer. The nectar is so abundant that it can
be shaken from the blossoms ; a white honey, with an
aromatic flavor, that does not candy readily. See
Sourwood.

Spanish Needles (Bidens aristosa). — Marshy lands of
Mississippi and Illinois Rivers. Honey golden-yellow,
of fine flavor and good body. See Spanish Needles.

Spider-plant (Cleome spinosa, formerly called G.
pungens) . — Introduced from tropical America ; culti-
vated; escaped in waste places from Illinois to Louisi-
ana. Thirteen flowers have yielded a spoonful of nec-
tar. " Under favorable conditions one of the most re-
markable honey plants in the world." The Rocky
Mountain bee plant (C. serrulata, formerly called C.
integrifolia) grows in dry saline soil from Minnesota
to Kansas, and westward among the mountains.

Spikeweed (Centromadia pungens). — " On the alka-
line plains of the upper San Joaquin (Calif.) this

species covers tens of thousands of acres ; honey am-
ber, of good quality, but granulates quickly."

Squash (Cucurbita maxima). — Nectar abundant in a
little reservoir at the bottom of the flower.

Stinkweed (Wislizenia refracta). — A rank-scented an-
nual, abundant in the San Joaquin Valley, Calif. A
mild water-white honey, becoming paste-like after gran-
ulation. Blooms heavily every other year, from August
to October. A large surplus is sometimes obtained. A
most promising honey plant, called by local beekeepers
" Jackass Clover."

Sumac (Rhus glabra). — New England and southwest-
ward. A surplus in Connecticut ; honey bright amber :
very heavy, but at first has a bitter odor and flavor
which disappear as it ripens ; waxes instead of gran-
ulating. Mountain sumac (R. Gopallina) yields a sur-
plus in Georgia and Texas. R. diversiloba is common
thruout California. See Sumac.

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus).- — Common, wild in
the West ; yields a surplus of amber-colored honey
with a characteristic flavor.

Sweet Clover (Melilotus alba and M. officinalis). —
Introduced from Europe; white and yellow sweet clover
are spreading thruout the entire country. Honey white
with a slight greenish cast, hardly equal to white
clover. See Sweet Clover.

Snowvine (Cissus arborea), Pepper Vine. — In wet
land, Virginia and southward. In southern Georgia
it blooms from June to September ; honeybees give it
the preference to cotton. Honey not as light-colored
as that of cotton, but of fair quality.

Sweet Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare). — CuMvated
from Europe, and escaped in waste land. Honey light
amber.

Tarweed (Hemizonia fasciculata) . — Along the coast
of southern California. Honey dark amber, with a
strong tarweed odor ; granulates in a few months ;
said to be used in the manufacture of chewing tobacco.
Yellow tarweed (//. virgata) yields in central Cali-
fornia a heavy light-yellow honey of good flavor.

Thistle. — See Canada Thistle.

Thyme (Thymus vulgaris). — The classical honey
from Mount Hymettus was from this species. Nectar
very abundant, with an aromatic flavor.

Titi, Black (Clif tenia monophylla). — An evergreen
shrub found in pine swamps from Georgia to Louisiana.
In Georgia very common along streams in the Altamaha
River region. Blooms in March and April ; an am-
ber honey, whiter in color and milder in flavor than
white titi honey.

Titi, White (Cyrilla racemiflora) . — Ivory bush. An
evergreen shrub or small tree, growing in pine swamps
from Virginia to Florida and Texas. In northwest
Florida it yields a small surplus in mid-February. In
Georgia white titi extends up to the middle of the
State. The honey is dark amber, with a peculiar fra-
grance probably that of the bloom and at first has a
decided flavor ; but becomes mild when well-ripened.
Its dark color is the only objection to its use as a table
honey. See Titi.

Tulip tree (Liriodendron Tulipifera). — White poplar,
whitewood. Common in the Southern States, blooms in
April and May ; honey bright amber when new, but
becomes darker with age and very thick, of fair quality.
See Tulip Tree.

Tupelo, Black (Nyssa Ogeechee). — Northwestern Flor-
ida and southern Georgia. Honey white to amber in
color; of good flavor, but rather thin. White tupelo
(N. aguatica) is most abundant along the Apalachicola
River. Honey is white, or with a slight yellowish tinge
in the sunlight ; thick, unsurpassed in flavor by any
other honey in the State. It does not candy, even after
years. See Tupelo.

Simpson Honey plant (Scrophularia marilandica) . —
S. nodosa is a European species. See Figwort.

Tobacco (Nicotiana Tabacum). — In Connecticut the
plants are permitted to flower and seed. From the
first of August to frost there are hundreds of acres
of tobacco flowers covered with bees. The honey is

458

HONEY PLANTS

reported to be of fair quality.

Varnish tree {Ailanthus glandulosd) . — -Tree of
heaven, Chinese sumac. Small greenish flowers ; the
staminate are ill scented, and the honey has a bad
flavor.

Verbena or Vervain {Verbena). — Once or tv^ice in
30 years at Center Point, Iowa, purple vervain {Ver-
bena hnstata) has been so abundant as to give the
landscape a bluish tinge. The honey is white, mild-
llavored, resembling white-clover honey ; it does not
(jrannlate quickly. The purple pollen gives the comb

bluish tinge. In California F. prostrata is of value
iilong the coast.

Vetch (Vicia). — Nectariferous bee-flowers, several
species are widely cultivated. Many species have extra-
floral nectaries on the under side of the leaf stems,
which secrete nectar in sunny weather .

Viper's Bugloss. — See Blueweed.

AVild Cherry. — See Cherry.

Wild Senna. — See Cassia.

Willow (Salix). — Valuable in early spring for both
nectar and pollen. In New York the honey resembles
that of apple bloom, and has a pleasant aromatic
taste ; but m California it is described as bitter-
flavored and amber-colored. See Willow.

Willow-herb (Epilobium angusiifolium) . — Canada,
the Northern States, especially Michigan ; confined
chiefly to regions where there have been forest fires.
Flowers red-purple ; honey clear, limpid, literally wa-
ter-white ; very sweet ; aromatic.

Wild Alfalfa (Lotus glaber). — An important honey
plant in the Coast Ranges of California ; honey white
to amber ; the yield is very variable in different years,
and in different localities.

Yucca, Spanish Bayonet {Yucca). — Common in arid
Southwestern States and in Mexico ; in New Mexico
immense tracts of land are covered with Y. filamentosa.
In California a surplus is reported from Y. Whipplei.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF NORTH
AMERICAN HONEY PLANTS.

The geographical distribution of North
American honey plants can be investigated
to much better advantage by the recogni-
tion of their relations to a few natural
regions than by their arrangement by
States. The point of view in the latter
case is often too narrow, and fails to offer
an explanation of the occurrence of a spe-
cies, when, if the region is considered, its
distribution is not diflftcult to understand.
Merely as a matter of convenience for ref-
erence, it is much easier to consider a few
nntnral divisions than a great number of
artificial State areas.

The following division of North America
into 12 nectar regions is based on the value
of the honey plants as sources of honey in
certain areas ; the topography, climate, and
soil of different sections of the continent,
and the geographical distribution of the
native flora. Many questions can be an-
swered by the comparison of the soils, cli-
mates, and floras of these respective re-
gions. Manifestly temperature and rain-
fall are most influential factors in limiting

the distribution of many honey plants —
the flora of the arid Southwest must neces-
sarily differ widely from that of the Ap-
palachian Region where there are frequent
and abundant rains. But it is also in past
geological history and in topographical
features, as well as in climate, that an ex-
planation must be sought of the abundance
of white clover in the Prairie Region, of
the prevalence of nectariferous trees in the
Appalachian Region, and of the exceeding
richness of the Californian flora. Nor must
the conditions of the soil be overlooked, as
the relation of black mangrove to tide-
water marshes, of willow-herb to forest
land recently burned over, of sweet clover
to a limestone soil, of alkali-weed to an
alkaline soil, and the Rocky Mountain
honey plant to a dry saline soil. The rela-
tion of honey plants to their environment
is still further emphasized by the fact that
of the many honey plants found in North
America not one is commercially valuable
to the beekeeper thruout the entire conti-
nent, or even thruout the United States.
White clover is very widely distributed;
but its value as a honey plant is confined
chiefly to the Eastern and prairie States.
Heartease is very extensively naturalized
from Europe, and in Nebraska and the
adjacent States yields an immense surplus;
but in the East it is negligible. Buckwheat
is most important in the East, but of little
value in the West. Alfalfa is cultivated in
every State in the Union, but it is chiefly in
the Rocky Mountain Highlands that it is
the main reliance of the apiarist. While
every beekeeper will wish to know thoroly
the honey flora of his own State, the study
of honey plants by States alone will bring
out none, or only a few, of these most in-
structive relations.

From time to time the geographical dis-
tribution of oar flora has been the subject
of investigation, and a few years ago an
imposing volume on the photogeography
of North America was published by Harsh-
berger. The continent has also been divided
into life and crop zones by the biologists
of the Department of Agriculture, by
whom the relation of crops to climate has
been carefully considered. None of these
divisions are suited to the needs of bee
culture, since the value of a honey plant
depends not on the extent of its distribu-
tion but upon its abundance and yield of

HONEY PLANTS

459

nectar. It is proposed, therefore, to divide
North America into the following 12 honey-
plant regions:

1. Arctic Region.

2. Coniferous Forest Eegion.

3. St. Lawrence Basin Eegion.

4. Appalachian or Deciduous-leaved Forest
Eegion.

5. Prairie Eegion or White Clover Beit.

6. Southern Eegion or Cotton Belt.

7. Florida Eegion.

8. Great Plains Eegion.

9. Arid or Cactus Eegion.

10. Eockj Mountain Highlands or Alfalfa
Eegion.

11. California or Coast Eegion.

12. Tropical Eegion.

(See maps, Figs, 1 and 2.)

Extensive areas in North America are
valueless, or nearly so, for bee culture.
This is true of the Arctic and most of the
Coniferous Region, while much of the east-
ern half of the St. Lawrence Basin Region
gives poor results. A large area in the
Appalachian Region is unavailable, while
much of the Great Plains, the Arid and the
Rocky Mountain Highland Regions have a
very scanty endemic flora. As might be
expected the honey products of California

Fig. 2. The Honey-Plant Regions of the United States.

_ 3. St. Lawrence Basin Region. 4 . Appalachian or Deciduous-leaved Forest Region. 5. Prairie Region or
^^^lite Clover Belt. 6. Southern Region or Cotton Belt. 7. Florida Region. 8. Great Plains Region 9. Avid
or Cactus Region. 10. Rocky Mountain Highlands or Alfalfa Region. 11. California or Coast Region.

Fig. 1. The Honey-Plant Regions of North America.

1. Arctic Region. 2. Coniferous Forest Region. 3.
St. Lawrence Basin Region. 4. Appalachian or Decidu-
ous-leaved Forest Region. 5. Prairie Region or White
Clover Belt. 6. Southern Region or Cotton Belt. 7.
Florida Region. 8. Great Plains Region. 9. Arid or
Cactus Region. 10. Rocky Mountain Highlands or
Alfalfa Region. 11. California or Coast Region. 12.
Tropical Region.

460

HONEY PLANTS

exceed those of any other State. Among
the larger regions the Prairie Region or
White Clover Belt easily stands first; but
the Cotton and Appalachian Regions also
make an excellent showing.

A preliminary survey of the physio-
graphic and floral features of these regions
will be found helpful and stimulating in
the further study of the North American
honey flora. In many instances it is aston-
ishing how little information is available
in regard to the honey plants of extensive
areas.

1. ARCTIC REGION.

Eeference to the map of North America
will show that the parallel of latitude 60°
passes south of Cape Farewell^ the most south-
ern point of land in Greenland, thru the mid-
dle of Hudson Bay, and the extreme southern
part of Alaska. The polar land north of this
line is treeless and of no value to beekeepers.
The ground is densely carpeted with mosses
and lichens, and the subsoil is permanently
frozen. In localities there are dwarf alders,
birches and willows, a few heath-like shrubs,
such as blueberries, Labrador tea, and An-
dromeda, while herlDaceous plants are repre-
sented by saxifrages, the showy Iceland poppy,
grasses and a few pinks, gentians, crucifers,
and hardy Compositas. The flora of Green-
land is closely allied to that of Europe, but
the species of Arctic North America are near-
ly the same as those of northwestern Asia,
as out of 364 species found in Alaska 320 oc-
cur in Asia. These barren grounds," or
tundras, are a melancholy wilderness over
which icy winds sweep unchecked.

2. CONIFEROUS FOREST REGION.

Between the parallels of latitude of 60°
and 50°, or on the west extending southward
to the northern boundary of the United
States, or a little below, there is a vast uni-
form coniferous forest extending from Labra-
dor across the continent to the shores of the
Pacific Ocean. This forest is composed chief-
ly of white and black spruce, fir, juniper, and
pine, with which are associated alders,
birches, and poplars, while willows grow thick-
ly on the banks of the streams. Thruout the
southern portion of this region there is a
great variety of shrubs, as blueberries, huckle-
berries, cranberries, currants, blackberries,
and raspberries, which yield nectar. Herba-
ceous plants are also numerous. Swamps and
peat bogs abound. This region is of little im-
portance to beekeepers, altho a beginning has
been made in bee culture in the southern part.
Small apiaries are maintained by the govern-
ment experiment stations in Manitoba, Sas-
katchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia.
The chief sources of honey are willows, ma-
ples, dandelion, white and alsike clover. Fire-
weed, alfalfa, dogbane, goldenrod and wolf-
berry are likewise reported helpful.

3. ST. LAWRENCE BASIN REGION.

This region includes New Brunswick, New
England, New York, Michigan, Wisconsin,
and the southern portions of the provinces of
Ontario and Quebec, States and provinces sur-
rounding the Great Lakes and the St. Law-
rence Eiver. The land was formerly largely
covered with pine, or in certain sections by a
hardwood forest; the honey flora is variable
and not as sharply defined as in the case of
most honey-plant regions. Southern Michigan
depends on clover and basswood, and in the
northern part of the State on fireweed and
raspberry, and in Emmet, Antrim, and Grand
Traverse Counties largely upon milkweed. The
chief honey plants of the Canadian provinces
are white and alsike clover and, to a less ex-
tent, sweet clover and goldenrod. Thousands
of acres of buckwheat are under cultivation in
New York, and there are besides very exten-
sive orchards. Sumac and tobacco are of
great local importance in Connecticut. In
much of this section goldenrod is the main
source of fall honey, and seldom fails to yield
ample winter stores.

4. APPALACHIAN OR DECIDUOUS-LEAVED
FOREST REGION.

As a result of the uniform and abundant
rainfall, which the eastern United States en-
joys, the Appalachian Eegion supports a mag-
nificent deciduous-leaved forest, which is un-
rivaled elsewhere in North America. This
forest reaches its highest development in west-
ern North Carolina. In the number of species
and the size of the trees it is surpassed only
by the forests of the tropics. Within an area
of a square mile 75 species have been counted.
Common species are birches, beeches, oaks,
elms, hickories, chestnuts, maples, walnuts,
magnolias, sycamores, tulip trees, locusts, red-
bud, and persimmmon; while a wealth of
beautiful shrubs abound, such as Rhododen-
dron, Kalmia, and Azalea.

In this region are included Pennsylvania,
Maryland, the Virginias, western Carolina,
northern Georgia and Alabama, Tennessee
and eastern Kentucky, as well as small por-
tions of other States. As would be expected
the principal honey plants are trees, as three
species of basswood, sourwood, tulip tree, su-
mac, locust, Judas tree, magnolia, maples, per-
simmon, honey locust, hoUy, horsechestnut,
and willows, besides a great variety of wild
and domesticated trees and shrubs. The three
most important honey plants are sourwood,
tulip tree, and clover. Sourwood is by many
assigned the first position, being widely dis-
tributed and yielding nectar in great quanti-
ty, which produces a water-white honey with
an aromatic flavor.

5. THE PRAIRIE REGION OR WHITE CLOVER BELT.

To the Prairie Eegion belong eastern Dako-
ta, Minnesota, southern Wisconsin, Iowa, Illi-
nois, Indiana, Ohio, Missouri (not strictly a
prairie State), and northern Kentucky. This

HONEY PLANTS

461

is a treeless region except along the water
courses, and where it merges into the Appala-
chian Kegion. The surface of the prairies is
partly level and partly rolling or wavy. A
large portion of the land was formerly cov-
ered by lakes and a great inland sea. The
soil is deep and rich, fine and compact, and
supports a luxuriant growth of grasses.

Thruout this region white clover is the most
important honey plant, and in favorable sea-
sons the source of an enormous surplus. Its
abundance in the prairie States finds its ex-
planation in the conditions of the soil and cli-
mate and the absence of extensive forests. A
surplus is very dependent on timely and ample
rains. A long-continued drouth in the fall or
in the following spring will prove fatal to the
honey flow; but during the blooming period
hot clear days with showers during the night
are desirable. In the arid region of the
Southwest and the highlands of the Eocky
Mountains white clover is of comparatively
little significance as a honey plant. In the
Prairie Eegion sweet clover and heartsease
are also very valuable; and in the river val-
leys the flowers of many hardy Compositse
display great sheets of brilliant color, as
Spanish needles, sunflowers, asters, golden-
rods, crownbeard, Eudbeckia, and Grindelia.

6. SOUTHERN REGION OR COTTON BELT.

This region comprises southeastern Texas,
Louisiana, Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama,
southern Georgia, and eastern North and
South Carolina. Florida might very properly
be included in the Cotton Belt; but, as the
honey flora of the southern half of the State
is tropical or semi-tropical and is peculiar in
other ways, it seems better to regard it as a
distinct region. In the cotton States there
are annually millions of acres of cotton under
cultivation offering a bee pasture of great ex-
tent but not of uniform richness. The secre-
tion of nectar is variable, and the surplus de-
pends largely upon locality, soil, temperature,
rainfall, and atmospheric conditions. The
honey flow lasts from July until long after
the first frosts. The cotton plant possesses
both floral and extra-floral nectaries, but it is
chiefly from the involucral and leaf -nectaries
that the nectar is obtained. Cotton is most
valuable as a honey plant in the rich alluvial
valleys and river bottoms, where often a hun-
dred pounds per colony is obtained in favora-
ble seasons.

In addition to cotton many other honey
plants are either locally or widely distributed
thruout the cotton belt. Southeastern Texas
is not especially attractive to the apiarist, but
there are thousands of acres of fruit trees and
cotton supplemented by horsemint, sumac,
broomweed, and basswood. On the lower coast
rattan vine yields a surplus of honey of fair
quality. In Louisiana there are tupelo, horse-
mint, goldenrod and smartweed; in Missis-
sippi, sweet clover, white clover, locust, tupe-
lo, black gum, persimmon, and in the fall bit-
terweed, aster, and goldenrod; and in Ala-

bama, sweet clover, titi, gallberry, black gum,
and field peas. In Georgia the tulip tree,
tupelo, titi, saw-palmetto, aster, and golden-
rod are important honey plants; while hun-
dreds of acres of the coastal plain are covered
with dense thickets of gallberry bushes, which
bloom in May and yield freely under very un-
favorable conditions. Partridge pea is also
valuable in this State. Horsemint occurs
thruout the whole Southern Eegion, but the
largest yields are obtained in Texas, where it
is one of the best honey plants. In eastern
North and South Carolina beekeepers depend
chiefly on the clovers, especially crimson clo-
ver, black gum, tupelo gum and thousands of
acres of gallberry.

7. FLORIDA REGION.

The honey flora of this State is largely de-
termined by the great southern extension of
the land which carries the southern end into
the Tropical Eegion, and also by its many
miles of seacoast. The more important sources
of honey are trees, tupelo, orange, palmetto,
and mangrove yielding the best products. Tu-
pelo is confined to northwestern Florida in the
vicinity of the Apalachicola Eiver. The cit-
rus district extends southward beginning with
the central portion of the 'State, and nearly
the same area is occupied by cabbage pal-
metto. Black mangrove grows on both sides
of the southern end of the peninsula on tide-
water land which is daily overflowed. An-
other tropical tree is manchineel, found on the
southeast coast, which in favorable seasons
yields heavily. Wild pennyroyal, titi, part-
ridge pea, and Andromeda are valuable in
localities. Thousands of acres of marshy or
meadow land in Florida are covered with a
dense growth of herbaceous plants, mostly
Compositse, as Gaillardia, burr marigold, Core-
opsis, thoroughwort, goldenrod, sunflower,
smartweed, and many other flowers. It is a
wilderness of weeds, a jungle of grasses and
flowers, sufficient to keep many an apiary
busy. In the extreme South flourish subtropi-
cal fruits like the pineapple, banana, soursop,
and cocoanut.

8. THE GREAT PLAINS REGION.

To this region belong eastern Montana,
most of North and South Dakota, Nebraska,
Kansas, and Oklahoma. From the Mississippi
Valley to the base of the Eocky Mountains
the Great Plains gradually rise in elevation
until an altitude of 5,000 to 6,000 feet is at-
tained. A large part of the land is highly
productive and valuable for agricultural pur-
poses, the Dakotas being an almost continuous
wheat field. The precipitation, however, is
much less than in the Prairie Eegion, and
large sections are seraiarid and covered with
sagebrush. Much of this region is destitute
of trees except along the rivers and in fertile
valleys. There are great extremes of heat
and cold, and the land is swept by fierce
winds.

462

HONEY PLANTS

It is a matter of surprise that so little in-
formation is available in regard to the honey
plants of this region. The northern portion
seems not well adapted to bee culture, and,
according to the census of 1910, in North
Dakota only 79 farms reported bees, and in
South Dakota only 1,300. But the recent in-
troduction of sweet clover into South Dakota
and its rapid extension westward are provid-
ing a bee pasturage capable of supporting a
much larger number of colonies. Except in
localities alfalfa is of little value in this
region; for instance, in Kansas, around To-
peka a bee is hardly ever seen on the flowers,
while along the rivers in the eastern part of
the State it yields nectar nearly the entire
season. Oklahoma reports bees on 4,800
farms. The principal honey plants are sweet
clover, sumac, heartsease, fruit bloom, rasp-
berry, locust, and white clover. In Kansas
and Nebraska 29,000 farms reported bees in
1910. In Nebraska 157 honey plants have
been listed ; but, unfortunately, little attempt
has been made to distinguish between those
which are the chief sources of nectar and
those which are of minor importance. Enor-
mous quantities of honey are obtained from
heartsease, and an entire apiary has been re-
ported to store on the average 250 pounds per
colony of heartsease honey. Basswood, sev-
eral species of clover, and a number of Com-
positae are also important. In parts of this
region the Eocky Mountain bee plant is highly
prized. The flora of the Great Plains is
scanty.

9. ARID OR CACTUS REGION.

This region includes northern and western
Texas, northern Mexico, New Mexico, Arizo-
na, south Nevada, and lower California. It is
largely a desert or arid area with a very light
rainfall. Northern Texas is a sandy plain,
often called the Staked Plains, and is desti-
tute of trees and streams. Much of western
Texas is broken country supporting a sparse
vegetation. This section is not suitable for
bee culture. New Mexico is traversed by nu-
merous short mountain ranges covered with
conifers; but much of the land requires irri-
gation for its cultivation. With an annual
rainfall of from three to five inches, extreme
aridity prevails over much of Arizona, and
the desert lands comprise some 35,000 square
miles. The province of Chihuahua in north-
ern Mexico contain 120,000 square miles and
at least one-half of this desolate country,
consisting of sand and alkali plains, is unfit
for cultivation, if not for human habitation.
Portions of the temperate lands are, however,
fertile.

The Cactus Eegion offers few inducements
to the apiarist; and according to the census
of 1910, in New Mexico and Arizona together
there were only 800 farms reporting bees. A
great variety of cacti, an exclusively Ameri-
can genus, in every form and shape, ranging
from the size of the finger to candelabra 30
feet tall, grow over or completely cover these
sand deserts. Prickly pear (Opuntii Engel-

manii) is a good honey plant, and yields a
surplus of light-yellow honey. Other plants
characteristic of this region are Yucca, Agave,
mesquite, and creosote bush. In Arizona tht
chief honey plants are mesquite, catclaw.
Acacia, and alfalfa. The mesquite, often the
only tree found in these arid regions, extends
from Trinity Eiver, Texas, to the San Bernar-
dino Mountains and northward to southern
Colorado. In Texas it is the main source of
honey. In New Mexico immense tracts of
land are covered with Yucca filamentosa,
while in Mexico there are many species of
Agave, including the well-known century
plant. Much of this barren country is cov-
ered with sagebrush and other useless shrubs.

10. THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN HIGHLANDS OR
ALFALFA REGION.

In this region are included western Mon-
tana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Ida-
ho, and southeastern Oregon. The larger part
of these highlands is arid or semiarid; and,
in consequence of the insufficient rainfall, ag-
riculture is universally dependent on irriga-
tion. In the Great Basin of Nevada and
Utah, which was formerly the bottom of a
great inland sea, extreme aridity prevails,
and in localities the annual rainfall does not
exceed five inches. The flora is sparse and
vast expanses are covered with sagebrush,
whence Nevada is called " the sagebrush
State. ' ' Further south the country is an
actual desert. Except where alfalfa is grown
there is little in this State to attract bee-
keepers, and, in 1910, only 176 farms reported
bees.

Thruout this region alfalfa is grown very
extensively, and is easily the foremost honey
plant. One may ride for miles thru fields of
alfalfa, and probably more colonies of bees
are supported by this honey plant than by any
other in America. The factors controlling
nectar secretion are not fully understood, but
it is well established that in a semiarid re-
gion calm hot weather following irrigation
will ensure a good flow. Notwithstanding the
aridit}^ of this region there are many flowers,
and in Colorado the display is truly lavish.
Many of the Compositse are valuable to bee
culture. See Alfalfa.

11. THE CALIFORNIA OR COAST REGION.

In Washington, Oregon, and California the
mountains are covered with a magnificent
coniferous forest; the climate is mild, flow-
ers blooming every month in the year, and in
the eastern part there is a heavy annual rain-
fall and over large areas sufficient to meet
the wants of agriculture. There is an im-
mense variety of shrubs and herbaceous
plants, which support a great number of colo-
nies of bees — in Washington and Oregon
there are not far from 100,000 colonies. Fruit
bloom is also the source of much honey in
these States.

The flora of California is so remavknhle
that it deserves special recognition. No other

HORSEMINT

463

State within an equal area contains so many
species of plants. There are many different
kinds of soil and great extremes in tempera-
ture and rainfall. In a day's ride one may
pass from a valley white with fruit bloom to
mountain summits white with snow, or from
a solitary desert to a land blooming with
flowers.

On the Coast Mountains are the mighty
redwoods, associated with oak and maple;
berries, raspberries, blueberries. Rhododen-
drons, and Azaleas. The great Valley of
California is the home of hundreds of beauti-
ful flowers, as lilies, buttercups, poppies Gilias,
Godetias, and endless Compositae. A chaparral
of scrub oaks, sumac, currants, and Ceanothus
cover the dry mountain slopes. Eastward of
this fertile valley the Sierra Nevada range
rises to a height of 15,000 feet, bearing on its
slopes the grandest coniferous forest in the
world, composed of giant Sequoias, pines, firs,
and cerads, with multitudes of handsome
flowers and shrubs in the valleys.

The honey flora of California is both rich
and varied and supports more than 2-00,000
colonies of bees. There are about 50 species
of honey plants which yield a surplus in an
average season, foremost among which are
the sages and alfalfa. Over 40 of these are
herbs and shrubs and the balance are trees.
Some 16 additional trees are under cultiva-
tion which would be valuable if more com-
mon. Besides the above species there are not
far from 50 more which are of importance to
bee culture. Many foreign or exotic plants
have been introduced into this State, as the
Eucalypti, which may prove of great value.
The endemic flora and naturally the honey
flora of California are easily distinguished
from that of every other State in the Union.

12. TROPICAL REGION.

The eastern and western coast of Mexico
below latitude 25°, Yucatan, Central America,
the West Indies, and the extreme southern end
of Florida belong to the Tropical Eegion.
For convenience southern Florida has been
included in the Florida Eegion, but mangrove,
manchineel, and mahogany are tropical trees,
as are also the cultivated cocoanut pakn, the
mango, and several species of anona. Among
the better known honey plants of Cuba are the
campanillas, mango, citrus fruits, royal palm,
and coffee tree. In Porto Eico there are log-
wood, mangrove, mango, guava, and guama.
Guama {Inga laurina) is considered the best
honey plant; it blooms several times a year
and so abundant is the nectar flow that bees
are seldom able to gather it all. The tropical
forests of the mainland contain more than
ICQ species of trees, many of which are no
doubt nectariferous. Logwood, a famous
honey plant, fringes the lagoons and much of
the seaboard of Yucatan. A great number of
fruit trees and forest trees valuable for their
economic products are also found in Jamaica.
The tropical flora is evidently rich in nectar-
iferous trees.

HONEY VINEGAR.— See Vinegar.

HOREHOUND {Marrubium vulgareh.).
— This is quite an important honey plant
in Texas and California. In Texas, Scholl
says it yields nectar freely and steadily
from February to J uly. It has been claimed
that the honey is very bitter; but he de-
clares that this is hardly the case in his
locality; that it has a very sweet taste
liked by some, but nauseating to others.
In California, according to Richter, it is
a splendid yielder of dark-amber honey,
too strong for table use, but largely used in
medicine. In Ventura and Los Angeles
counties horehound is quite a common
plant; but it is considered a pest on a
sage range; for if even only a smaU quan-
tity of its nectar is gathered, the color and
flavor of sage honey are impaired,

HORSEMINT {Monarda punctata L.).
—A perennial herb with lance-shaped
leaves and two-lipped yellowish flowers
spotted with purple. Like the sages it be-
longs to the mint family or Labiatae. li
grows in sandy fields and prairies from
Florida to Texas and northward to Wis-
consin and New York, blooming from mid-
summer until fall. Many species belonging
to this genus have very long floral tubes,
and are adapted to insects with much
longer tongues than the honeybee, so that
even when common they are of little value-
to the apiarist for nectar. Wild bergamot
(M. fistulosa), for example, is a bumble-
bee flower, with a tube three times the
length of the tongue of the domestic bee.
But in the horsemint the floral tube is
scarcely longer than the calyx; and, as
honej'bees can easily suck the nectar, they
resort to the flowers in immense numbers.
Along parts of the Mississippi River and
in Texas it is a leading honey plant.

Horsemint was first brought into notice
a few years ago when it was highly recom-
mended to beekeepers and the seeds sold
quite extensively. It was subsequently
dropped and almost forgotten until report^i
of large crops of honey, said to be from
this source alone, began to be published.
It first attracted attention again on the low
alluvial lands bordering on the Mississippi
River. Afterwards wonderful reports
came from different parts of Texas — one
man reporting as high as 700 pounds gath-

464

HUAJILLA

Texas horsemint.

ered by one colony in a single season. The
bees that performed this remarkable fest
were Cyprians, or, at least, were crossed
with Cyprian blood.

Horsemint is of more value to beekeep-
ers in Texas than in any other State. It
begins to yield in June, and is the source
of a large amount of light-amber honey.
The extracted honey is a clear light amber,
a little darker than the comb, and of gjod
body. Like buckwheat honey it has a pro-
nounced flavor, and for this reason has
been compared with the basswood honey
of the North. By persons who prefer a
strongly flavored honey horsemint honey is
liked better than that of white clover; but
the general opinion seems to be that while
the taste is good it is a little too strong.

Horsemint is also reported to be a com-
mon honey plant in western Wisconsin and
eastern Minnesota on the sandy jackpino

lands and oak barrens. Since this plant
yields an essential oil from which thymol,
a powerful antiseptic used in dressing un-
healthy wounds, can be obtained, it has
become economically important since the
beginning of the war. Its cultivation may
thus prove profitable.

Monarda clinopodioides Gray is also
very common on the dry plains of Texas.
The form of the flower, the time of bloom-
ing, and the quality of the honey are very
similar to those of the preceding species.
Horsemint is thu.s the source of one of the
main honey crops of Texas.

HOUSE-APIARY.— See Apiaey.

HUAJILLA {Acacia Berlandieri Benth.) .
— No portion of Texas is so well adapted
to beekeeping as the southwestern section
where the most important honey plants are

HYBRIDS

465

the mesquite (Prosopis) , catsclaw {Acacia
Greggii), and, most valuable of all, the
huajilla (pronounced wa-he-yah). This
shrub grows in dense thickets on dry bluffs
along the Rio Grande and also in Mexico.
It requires only a scant}^ amount of rain

Huajilla.

early in the spring, and survives in semi-
arid regions where chiefly desert plants
abound. The blooming period is in April
and lasts for about two weeks and the
flowers are the source of a large quantity
of a beautiful water-white honey. Almost
as clear as water, mild in flavor, delicate in
aroma, huajilla honey is considered the
finest produced in Texas.

The leaves are bipinnate like those of a
fern. The leaflets, as is shown in the flg-
ure which is natural size, are very numer-
ous.

HUMBLEBEES.— See Bumblebees.

HYBRIDS.— A hybrid may be a cross
between species or between varieties of a
species. Bees mentioned under this head

belong to the class last mentioned — a cross
between varieties, and usually between
Italian and common black bees. Every-
body who has had Italians very long prob-
ably knows what hybrids (a cross between
Italians and common black bees) are, es-
pecially if he had kept bees when the
honey crop was very suddenly cut short
during a long and severe drouth in the fall.
They are very much Grosser than pure Ital-
ians or blacks. Many of the old veterans
in the business have concluded, even tho
the hybrids will secure as much honey, and
sometimes even more, that it pa^^s to Ital-
ianize. A good strain of leather-colored
Italians* will be almost as gentle as flies,
and will gather fully as much honey as
hybrids. Generally the half-bloods can be
handled, when weather conditions are
right, nearly as easily as Italians; but as
a rule they require more time in that the
operator must proceed much more cau-
tiously in order not to stir them up.

While hybrids are by no means as hard
to handle as pure Cyprian and Holy Land
bees, they are bad enough. The very fact
that hybrid queens, if sold at all, bring
only about one-fourth the price of pure
Italians, gives one some idea of their rela-
tive value in the open market.

But the most serious objection to hybrid
and blacks is the fact that they are an easy
prey to the ravages of European foul
brood (see Foul Brood, sub-head " Euro-
pean Foul Brood"). While hybrids are
more immune than the blacks, the average
pure Italians seem to be able to resist the
disease much better than the average
crosses. In some parts of the country the
hybrids and the blacks are dying off for
the simple reason that they cannot stand
the ravages of European foul brood as do
the Italians.

Not all Italians are immune; but good
vigorous strains will resist the disease pro-
vided other curative measures are applied.
All they need is a little help from their
owner.

In many large apiaries thruout the coun-
try hybrids are tolerated simply because
their owners do not take the time to Ital-
ianize. Where one owns a series of out-
yards, comprising from 500 to 1000 colo-
nies, it would be rather expensive to buy

* For test as to what constitutes a hybrid, see
Italian Bees.

46C

HYBRIDS

Italian queens; but if he will follow direc-
tions given under Queen-reaeing in this
work he can rear his own queens ; and this
brings up the question whether the blacks
and the hybrids in a locality will not make
it impossible to rear pure stock. If one
will use drone-traps on all colonies where
there are black or hybrid drones, and then
insert a drone comb in the center of the
brood-nest of the best Italian colonies, he
will soon have a great preponderance of
pure Italian drones. The result will be
that the most of the young virgins will
meet drones of their own race. See
Drones; also Queen-rearing.

A beginner should never open a hive of
hybrids without smoke. A little should be
blown in at the entrance, and each move-
ment should be preceded by a light puff of
smoke. If the beginner is a little timid it
would be well to have an attendant operate
the smoker while he, with a pair of gloves,
proceeds to manipulate the colony. See
Manipulation of Colonies; Smoke and
Smokers; also Stings.

HYBRIDS of CARNIOLANS AND CYPRIANS
WITH ITALIANS.

In this country, at least, we have as yet
done very little to determine with accuracy
the value of different crosses which can be
made very easil3^ A cross between Italians
and Caucasians has been spoken of very

favorably by J. J. Wilder of Cordele, Ga.,
one of the most extensive beekeepers of
the country. Mr. Wilder says this cross
will rear brood under conditions and at
seasons of the year when pure Italians will
do practically nothing. In some parts of
the South it is very desirable to have a
strain that will rear brood in and out of
season, because of certain honey-flows that
may follow shortly after. A pure Italian
stock has a tendency to stop brood-rearing
almost entirely after the main honey-flow.
If there be another flow two or three weeks
later, without brood-rearing in the mean-
time, the force will be greatly reduced, and
the bees that are left will be of little value
in a honey-flow.

In the same way a cross between Carnio-
lans and Italians has been found to be
equally profitable.

Other hybrids may be considered by the
beekeeper who has in mind to produce a
superior strain of bees for some particular
purpose. It is well known that crossing,
as a rule, increases the size, courage, and
stamina of our domestic animals; and it is
probably so in bees, yet beekeepers have
made but little progress along thi^ line,
because it is so difficult to distinguish be-
tween the crosses and pure breeds in many
eases.

See Drones; Parthenogenesis; Dzier-
ZON Theory^ subhead "Recent Evidence in
Support of Dzierzon Theory."

INCREASE.— rnder the liead of Nu-
cleus several methods of formmg nuclei
are explained; but under this head we
shall deal with the subject more from the
standpoint of the honey-producer who
actually desires to increase and at the same
time to produce a crop of honey. One can
divide up a strong colony into thi'ee or
four nuclei; but in so doing he would
probably destroy all his chances of secur-
ing a crop of honey, and also would be
almost sure to cause some brood to die. It
should always be borne in mind that the
field bees will go back to the old stand.
The nucleus left will necessarily receive
more than its proper proportion of return-
ing bees, while those moved to the other
locations may or may not (depending upon
circumstances) have too few bees to take
care of young brood. The loss of brood
may be minimized to a great extent, if not
entirely, by making only one division —
that is, splitting the old colony into two
parts. Most of the sealed brood and two-
thii'ds of the bees are put into a hive on a
new stand. The old hive is left with most
of the unsealed brood, and one-thii'd of the
bees on the old stand. If the division is
made in the morning on a warm day. all
the old bees will go back to the old stand
before night. This will leave the division
of bees nearly equal. Both parts should
be left with a queen or queen-cell. When
both of the divisions are up to full colonies
the operation cam be repeated if the season
is not too far advanced. Other plans are
described imder Xucleus.

The following is also a good plan that
enables one to make a moderate increase
as well as secure a honey crop. It was
practiced and recommended by one of the
most extensive beekeepers in the United
States, the late E. W. Alexander, who was
recognized as an authority on general prac-
tical apiculture, for indeed his crops of
honey went up into the carloads. He first
made the plan public in 1905, after having
tested it many years. So many favorable

comments were received from beekeepers
who had tried it and found it to be a suc-
cess that we republished it with some
slight modifications in 1906. TTe here pre-
sent the plan as it was given in Gleanings,
page 423, 1906 :

TTheu a colony is nearly full enough to
swarm naturally, and you wish to make two
from it, lift it from its stand and put in its
place a hive containing frames of comb or
foundation the same as you would prepare
a hive for a swarm. Eemove the center comb
from this new hire, and put in its place a
frame of brood from the o'd hive, and be sure
to find the queen and put her on this frame
of brood in the new hive ; also look it over
very carefully to see that it contains no eggs
nor larvffi in any queen-ceUs. If it does, de-
stroy them. Put a queen-excluding honey-
board on top of this new hive that contains
the queen and frame of brood with their
empty combs, then set the full queenless col-
ony over the excluder ; next put in the empty
comb or frame of foundation taken from the
new hive, and close the upper hive except the
entrance they have thru the excluder into the
hive below. Leave them in this way about
five days, then look over the combs carefully,
and destroy any larv^ you may find in the
queen-ceUs unless they are of a good strain
of bees that you care to breed from, for they
frequently start the rearing of queens above
the excluder very soon after their queen was
placed below the excluder. If so, you had
better separate them at once: but if they
have not started any queen-cehs above, then
leave them together 10 or 11 days, during
which time the queen will get a fine lot of
brood started in the lower hive, and every egg
and particle of larva that was in the old hive
on top will have matured, so it will be capped
over and saved : then separate them, putting
the old hive on a new stand. It will then be
full of young bees mostly, and capped brood,
and in about 24 hours they will accept a ripe
cell, a virgin, or laying queen, as they will
then realize that they are hopelessly queen-
less. I would advise you to give them a lay-
ing queen, as I never like to keep my full
colonies without a laying queen for even a
day longer than I can help.

In this way you secure two strong colonies
from one, without losing a particle of brood
or checking the laying of this queen; and
with me it almost wholly prevents swarming.
This is the way we have made our increase
for several years, and we like it much better

468

INCREASE

than any other method we ever tried. In
doing so we keep all our colonies strong dur-
ing the whole summer, and it is the strong
colonies that count in giving us our surplus.

The mere fact of having a large number of
colonies does not amount to much unless they
are strong in bees and are well cared for at
all times. This is a fact that many have sad-
ly overlooked ; and when the season comes to
a close, giving them a small surplus, they feel
disappointed and lay the fault on many things
that have had but little to do with their
failure.

In making increase in the above way the
new swarm on the old stand is in fine shape
for a super of sections, as it has a large
working force backed up by having its hive
nearly full of brood, and but little honey, as
the bees have been in the habit of storing
their honey in the old hive that was on top,
so they wiU soon go to work in the sections
with no notion of swarming. Then the old
hive that has been set away can usually spare
15 or 20 lbs. of honey, which can be taken
with the extractor, giving its new queen
plenty of room to lay, and in a short time
will be one of your best colonies, and also
have no desire to swarm.

If you have followed directions as I have
recommended in the above, keeping them snug
and warm, and feeding them a little thin
warm syrup nearly every day for the first 30
days after they have commenced to fly, you
can have two good strong colonies in the place
of one ready to commence work on the clover
harvest, which here commences about June 15.

From an extensive experience along this
line I find T can get nearl}' twice the amount
of surplus by dividing as above stated over
what I was able to acquire either by letting
them go undivided or dividing in a way that
caused the loss of a greater part of their
brood. This losing of brood we must guard
against at all times if we expect to secure a
fine surplus. It costs both time and honey
to produce it, and it is the principal factor
in obtaining those strong colonies that give
us tons of honey.

I find that nearly all who have made a
failure of the method have taken colonies
that had already made some preparation for
swarming by having eggs or larvae in their
queen-cells.

During the summer I received a few let-
ters from parties who had made a failure of
this method in about the same way. Some
had taken colonies that had capped queen-
cells in their hives at the time they put the
queen in the under hive, and, of course, they
swarmed in a day or two. I cannot see that
these failures are any proof of fault in the
method. When wg work with our bees we
must always use some discretion in such mat-
ters. If a colony is very strong in bees it cer-
tainly requires different management from
one rather weak.

Several years ago one of my sons bought
nine colonies of bees in common box hives,
about the first of June. He brought them

home an 5 transferred them at once to mov-
able-frame hives, and in about three weeks
divided them, making 20 colonies of the 9 he
bought, using some queen-cells I had on hand
for his surplus colonies. He then attended
to those 20 colonies so they were all strong
at the commencement of our buckwheat har-
vest. I then lent him 20 hives of empty
combs to put on top of his colonies to ex-
tract from. He took 2849 lbs. of extracted
honey from those 9 colonies and their in-
crease, and left them in good condition so
every one came out the next spring in fine
order.

Another son, the same season, took one
colony, divided into three, and received 347
lbs. of extracted honey. They also came
thru the following v^inter in good condition.
I speak of these cases simply to show that it
is not necessary to keep hundreds of colo-
nies in order to get a little honey. If you
will keep only strong colonies and give them
the best of care you will soon find both pleas-
ure and profit in beekeeping.

Perhaps no one article that was ever
published in Gleanings in Bee Culture
called forth more discussion than this. A
few did not succeed with it to their entire
satisfaction; but the great majority made
a success of it. It is a fact today that
large numbers of some of the best bee-
keepers in the country practice the method,
believing that there is no other equal to it:
It is evident, however, that the article must
be read with some poetic license. That is
to say, it should be modified to suit pecul-
iar conditions. Mr. Alexander had a re-
markable locality. He had a fair clover
flow in June, and this was followed in
August by a heavy flow from buckwheat,
goldenrod, and aster. The locality was so
exceptional that for years he maintained
500 colonies in one location. Usually it is
not practicable to have more than 100 in
one place.

The basic principle of placing the brood
into an upper story for a few days over an
excluder before making the division is ac-
knowledged by all to be good. The saving
of all the brood and conserving the heat
are factors that make this superior to any
other method of dividing.

Dr. C. C. Miller, to whom reference is
made in various portions of this book, how-
ever, says that if he were to divide his
colonies before the clover flow as recom-
mended at the close of Alexander's sixth
paragraph it would be only at a loss of the
honey crop. It can generally be set down
as an axiom in beekeeping that it is not

IKgPECTORS

469

practicable, ordinarily, to secure increase J
and a full honey crop at the same time;!
and therefore Mr. Alexander's statement''
that he can secure by this plan " two good
strong colonies in the place of one, ready
to commence work on the clover harvest,"
seems impossible of accomplishment if we
take with it the other statement in the next
sentence that he secured nearly twice as
much of clover as he would have secured
without dividing.

The trouble seems to hinge on the point
of having two good colonies in place of one
at the opening of the clover harvest by
June 15. If the reader will turn to the
article, sixth paragraph, he will see that
Mr. Alexander recommends that the direc-
tions be followed exactly — that bees must
be kept snug and warm, and that they
must be fed a little thin syrup nearly every
day. The two colonies must be given every
help possible.

Note that he did not say that he secured
by this method " nearly twice the amount
of surplus " from clover as might be in-
ferred from the last sentence of the pre-
ceding paragraph. To one who knows his
locality it is clearly evident that he meant
of all honey — buckwheat, goldenrod, and
aster as well as clover. He could have
meant nothing else.

It will be npticed that Mr. Alexander
began his work of increase about April 15
with queens not over ten months old. He
does not claim that both colonies will be
equal in strength, nor that one colony will
gather as much as the other.

Many beekeepers will have to substitute
the word "alfalfa" for "clover," or "buck-
wheat" for "clover."

This method of making increase, if the
testimony of some of the best beekeepers in
the country is to be believed, gives the
largest returns, because all the brood is
saved. The expert beekeeper will be able
to make his own modifications; but the
beginner will do well to follow Mr. Alex-
ander, not forgetting the importance of
young queens, daily feeding, and keeping
bees in a warm hive, preferably double-
walled, or single-walled hives in packing-
cases.

INSPECTORS. — Under the head of
" Laws Relating to Foul Brood " will be
found references to bee inspectors, whose

duties are to discover and eradicate bee
diseases. Under this head an attempt will
be made to give the qualifications of a bee
inspector. First of all, he should be an
experienced beekeeper; second, he should
have a theoretical and practical knowledge
of all bee diseases, particularly those re-
lating to brood; third, he should be intel-
ligent, broadminded, and tactful.

Taking up the first requirement, a bee
inspector will be very seriously handi-
capped if he does not have both a theoreti-
cal and a practical knowledge of bees. One
of the most important factors in the elim-
ination of disease is the instruction given
the beekeeper in the first place on how to
keep bees, on the principle that preven-
tion is better than cure. The inspector
should explain the normal conditions in a
hive so that the owner of the bees will be
able to recognize at once those that are
irregular and abnormal. A large number
of those who keep bees have but little
knowledge of the business. In many cases
swarms alighted on the premises and were
hived. In other cases the bees were bought
at auction because they were cheap; in
still others, some of the family may have
gotten the bee-fever, and, after building up
the apiary to four or five colonies, left
home. The rest of the family have but
little or no interest in the bees, but are
glad to get the honey if there is any. These
little yards of bees, no matter how acquired,
are left to shift for themselves, and the re-
sult is they afford favorable places for the
attack of bee disease. Their owners are not
apt to read bee-books, but will receive per-
sonally any amount of instruction on how
to take care of them. A good bee inspector,
one who thoroly understands his job, can
be the indirect means of putting in nice
condition all these little j^ards that would
otherwise be neglected. The owners will
be getting a revenue; and if bee disease
does make a start they will be able to
arrest it in time.

The second requirement implies a theo-
retical and practical knowledge of bee dis-
eases. If the owner of the bees discovers
that a man sent out by the State does not
thoroly know disease when he sees it, the
inspector is under a big handicap. If the
beekeeper is himself a practical man, and
discovers that Mr. Inspector is not famil-
iar with his job, he will probably do just

470

INSPECTORS

Too frequentlj' inspGCtors meet conditiuns like this.

as he pleases, thinking he knows more than
the representative of the State. As a gen-
eral rule the bee inspectors are thoroly in-
formed in regard to bee diseases before
they are sent out.

The third requirement is sometimes hard
to meet. It is not difficult to. get a man
who understands bees and bee diseases;
but it is not so easy to add to those quali-
fications the third one — intelligence and
taetfulness. An inspector who goes out on
tours of inspection meets all kinds of peo-
ple. He should be able to size up his man
at a glance. If he should approach the
beekeeper and say, " I am the State inspec-
tor, and I require to see your bees," he

might meet with some

opposition; but if, on
the other hand, he ap-
proaches his man with
smiles and a hand-
shake, and asks him if
he has any bees, and
how they are doing, he
will usually meet with
a pleasant response.
The inspector can then
say that he is sent by
the State to give in-
structions on how to
keep bees, and that if
he can be of any help
he is free to command,
etc. Then the beekeeper
will be interested. Mr.

Inspector can very
gracefully volunteer the
statement that there is
considerable bee disease
in the country, and if
any is present in the
hives he will be glad to
tell how to eradicate it.
If he is tactful, he will
not put forth any show
of " authority," nor in-
vade the premises with-
out finding some mem-
ber of the family. If
the owner is not pres-
ent he can ask permis-
sion from some one in
the house to see the
bees, explaining the
matter in a tactful way.
Usually the good house-
wife is perfectly willing to tell him where
the bees are.

PAY OF INSPECTORS.

At this day and age a good inspector can
hardly be secured for less than $4.00 a day
and expenses. In some cases it may some-
times be necessary to pay as high as $6.00,
because a competent beeman can hardly
leave his own bees and work for three
months for the State at $4.00 a day and
then find his own bed and board for the
remaining nine months of the year. But a
good man can usually be secured for $4.00
a day provided the State can give employ-

But what can the poor inspector do?

INTRODUCING

471

ment the year round. If lie is a good bee-
keeper and a good talker he can be used to
give lectures and demonstrations at farm-
ers' institutes during winter, and he can be
used to assist in various ways in the gen-
eral state work outside of bee culture pro-
vided he is a man of some education and of
ordinary ability.

Students from apicultural schools that
are scattered over various parts of the
country can usually be secured for a very
moderate sum. These men, after having
taken an apicultural and agricultural
course, have a theoretical and practical
knowledge of general farm problems, such
as soils, fertilizers, fruit-growing, and the
like. And when it is not possible to use an
inspector in the line of beework, his talent
can be turned to very profitable account
along other agricultural lines. It is, there-
fore, desirable to have a bee inspector who
not only understands bee culture but agri-
culture in general.

The nursery inspectors who are sent out
over the country are rendering excellent
aid by telling farmers how to handle their
fruit trees in order to keep down blight,
San Jose scale, and, in general, how to se-
cure a large amount of fruit. These men
are rendering their respective States most
valuable service, because there is nothing
like a practical demonstration in the or-
chard of how to treat the trees and how to
trim them so as to secure the maximum
results. This kind of actual field demon-
stration work is invaluable, not only in
orchard work but in actual beekeeping. If
possible, a bee inspector should be one who
understands both orchard and bee work, as
they naturally go hand in hand.

Under head of laws relating to foul
brood, it will be seen that the better plan
is to make the bee inspector a bee advisor,
whose chief function will be to give in-
struction rather than to enforce law. For
other particulars see " Laws relating to
Foul Brood."

INTRODUCING.— Under normal condi-
tions only one queen will be tolerated in a
colony at a time. Should there by accident
be two, when they meet there is likely to be
a royal battle, until one of them is killed.
So it happens that queens are, as a rule,
jealous rivals; but there are exceptions.

Under certain conditions, as when an old
queen is about to be superseded, the young
daughter may be tolerated in the hive along
with her mother — both laying side by side ;
but in the course of a few days or weeks
the mother will be missing. Whether she
dies of old age or the daughter kiUs her is
not known. There are other conditions
where two and sometimes a dozen laying
queens will be found in the hive, but undei'
circumstances which seem to be abnormal.

Again, it may be stated that a normal
colony of bees will not readily accept a
strange queen, even tho they have no
mother of their own, much less will they
accept an interloper when there is already
a queen in the hive. It may, therefore, be
set down as a rule that has exceptions,*
that it is not safe to liberate any queen,
young or old, in a colony that already has
one. Moreover, bees that are queenless
will not, under ordinary conditions, accept
another, no matter how much they may
need one, until she has been " introduced."
It follows, then, that in the process of re-
queening we are compelled to put a new
queen in a wire-cloth cage and confine her
there (where the other bees cannot attack
her) until she has acquired the same colony
odor or individual scent as the bees them-
selves. This usually takes two or three
days, at the end of which time the queen
may be released and they will treat her as
their own royal mother. We do not know
how bees recognize each other, or how they
can tell a strange queen from their own,
except by the scent factor.

It is a fact well recognized that a dog
can pick out his master from hundreds of
others thru the agency of scent. He can
also track his master if he loses sight of
him by catching the scent where he has
walked, in spite of the fact that hundreds
of other people may have gone over the
same ground. This scent that is so acute
in a dog is undoubtedly highly developed
in the bee, otherwise it would be difficult
to account for some of the phenomena in
the domestic economy of the hive. See
pages 633 and 634.

* If a virgin queen, on returning from a mating-
trip, enters by mistake a hive where there is an old
laying queen she may, and very often does, supplant
the old queen. The virgin is young and vigorous, and
more than a match for the old queen full of eggs.
Even tho the colony odor be lacking, the bees in this
case accept the supplanter.

472

INTRODUCING

Hence it is natural to conclude that, by
the sense of smell, bees recognize their own
mother from a new or strange one.

Again, it is learned that, if two queens
have exactly the same colony odor after
being caged for two or three days in a
queenless hive, either one may be liberated,
and the bees will accept one just as readily
as the other. If both be liberated at the
same time, one in one corner of the hive
and the other in the opposite corner, both
will be tolerated by the bees; but once the
queens come together themselves there is
danger of a royal battle* resulting in the
death of one. From this fact it is inferred
that the bees, provided a queen or queens
have the requisite colony odor, will accept
at any time one or more such queens under
many conditions; that, further, when two
queens have the same colony odor, if they
can be kept apart by means of perforated
zinc both will continue to lay eggs in the
same hive without interference. This con-
dition will be allowed so long as the colony
prospers, or until a dearth of honey comes,
when the bees show a disposition to rob.
They may then destroy one of the queens.

Bees that have been thrown into a box
or pan, and then shaken or bumped again
and again until they are demoralized or
frightened, are much more tractable than
those not so disturbed. Such bees if made
queenless just prior to the shaking, and
confined without combs or brood in a cool
place for a few hours, will usually accept
a queen at once. The factor of colony odor
then apparently does not operate, for the
bees are put out of their normal condition.

Very often the queens of two colonies
may be made to exchange places. The two
hives are opened, and before either colony
can discover that it is queenless, the queens
are exchanged; but when this exchange is
made, the precaution must be taken to
open the hives very quietly, using but little
smoke. The idea seems to be to disturb the
colony as little as possible, so that their
normal condition may continue. Not sus-
pecting any change in queens, the bees are
not looking for any, and allow the new
mothers to go right on where the previous

* We say " danger " of a battle. Queens will not
always fight when so put together. The relative ages
of the queens makes a great difference. If one queen
be an old one there probably will be no fight, and even
if there is, the 3'oung queen will be more than a match
for the old one.

queens left off. On the other hand, if
either colony is queenless long enough so
that it sets up a loud buzzing or a cry of
distress, it will be pretty sure to ball any
queen that may be given it.

Young bees just hatched will at any time
accept any queen. Therefore, it comes
about that, when one desires to introduce a
valuable breeder on which he desires to
take no chances whatsoever, he causes her
to be released on a frame of very young
or hatching bees; but consideration will be
given to this later.

Virgin queens, if just hatched, will usu-
ally be accepted by a colony, if not too
long queenless, without the process of in-
troducing or even of caging; but when one
of these queens comes to be four or five
days old she is very much more difficult to
introduce than a normal laying queen.

When a little honey is coming in, it is
much easier to introduce and unite bees
than during a dearth.

A queen in the height of her egg-laying
will be accepted far more readily than one
that has been deprived of egg-laying, as in
the case of one that has been four or five
days in the mails.

Some colonies are more nervous than
others. To open a hive of such on an un-
favorable day might arouse the inmates to
a stinging fury. Indeed, such colonies will
often ball and sting their own queen when
the hive is opened if the day is unfavor-
able.

It is easier to introduce toward night, or
after dark, than during the day. The rea-
son of this is that after dark the excite-
ment of the day has subsided. There is no
chance for robbing and no reason for vigil.
In short, bees are not expecting trouble
and are not inclined to make any.

A fasting queen, or, rather, a queen that
is hungry, will usually ask for food, and
hence will generally be treated more con-
siderately than one that shows fear or fight.

A colony queenless long enough to have
ripe queen-cells, or long enough to have
laying workers, will not accept a queen as
readily as one that has been without a
mother for only a few hours. Reference
to this will be made later.

Having stated, therefore, the basic prin-
ciples governing the relation of the queen
to the bees the reader can now more intel-

INTRODUCING

473

ligently proceed to the methods of intro-
duction, most of which are based on the
theory that the queen to be introduced
must first have acquired the colony odor of
her new subjects.

The cages that are sent thru the mails
are supplied with soft bee candy (see
Caxdy), so that, in case the bees do not
feed the queen, she will not starve. In
some cages the bees release the queen by
eating away the candy and letting her out.
Other cages are so constructed that bees
outside the cage must tunnel under the
cage by tearing away the comb, in order to
release her. In still other cases the apiarist
himself liberates her after she has been
confined the requisite length of time or
until such time as she has acquired the
colony odor.

Most of the cages are sent out by queen-
breeders with directions how to perform
this operation; and it is usually safer for
the beginner to follow these dii-ections im-
plicitly.

MAILING AXD IXTEODUCIXG CAGE.

The mailing and introducing cage that
has been used over the country is caUed the
Benton, and is shown in the accompanying
illustration. It consists of an oblong block
of wood with three holes bored nearly
thru, one of the end holes being filled with
soft candy (see Caxdy), and the other two
are left for occupancy by the bees and
queen. On the back of the cover are
printed full directions for introducing, and
at each end of the cage is a small hole
bored thru lengthwise the grain of the
wood. One hole (next to the bees) is cov-
ered with a piece of perforated metal,
secured in. place with two small wire nails
driven thru the perforations. The other
hole (that is, at the candy end) is covered
over with a piece of pasteboard slightly
narrower than the hole. In this way the
bees have an opportunity to taste the
candy at the edges, and finally puU away
the pasteboard entirely.

Very often, after the cage has been thru
the mails, and been on the journey for
several days, the bees in the cage will have
consumed two-thirds or three-fourths of
the candy. If those in the hive to which
the queen is to be introduced gain access to

the candy direct they would eat out what
little there is of it in five or six hours, lib-
erate the queen, and probably kill her. In
order to accomplish introduction safely the
cage should be on the frames (where the
bees can get acquainted with the queen)
for at least 24 hours, and longer wherever
pTacticable. As it takes anwhere from 12
to 24 hours for the bees to gnaw away the
pasteboard before they can get at the
candy, and from 6 to 24 hours to eat out
the candy, we are assured of at least 18
hours before the bees can release the
queen; and generally the time is longer —
anj^here from 24 to 48 hours. The paste-
board has another advantage, in that it
makes the introduction entirely automatic.
The one who receives the queen pries off

Benton mailing-cage. Postage on this cage is one
cent. A larger size for longer distances, as showTi next
page, requires two cents.

the cover protecting the wire cloth, and
then by the directions which he reads on
the reverse side of this cover he learns that
aU he has to do is to lay the cage wii-e
cloth down over the space between two
brood-frames of the queenless colony, and
the bees do the rest. It is not even neces-
sary for him to open the hive to release the
queen; indeed, he should let the colony
entirely alone for three or four days, as
opening the hive disturbs and annoys the
bees to such an extent that very often they
wiU ball the queen, seeming to lay to her
door what must be to them a gi^eat distur-
bance in having their home torn to pieces.

There are several sizes of these Benton
cages — the larger ones being used for
longer distances. The one above is good
for 1000 miles thm the mails, altho very
often used for twice that distance. This

474

INTRODUCING

may be called a combination mailing and
introducing cage. Ordinarily, if we have
much introducing to do we prefer some-
thing especially adapted to the latter pur-
pose alone; we have, therefore, used with
a great deal of satisfaction the Miller in-
troducing-cage, mentioned later.

As many of the readers of this work
may possibly do something at mailing
queens, it might be well to add a word
about making the candy for Benton cages.
This should be prepared as directed under
Candy. It should be made several days in
advance of the time it is expected to be
used; for after it has been made it will
soften down and become quite sticky. If
put in cages in this condition it will result
in the death of the bees and queen before
accomplishing half their journey. After
the candy has stood several days it is likely
to become soft again, when more sugar
should be kneaded in. It would be better
then to let it stand two or three days, and
then, if necessary, knead in more sugar
until it holds its consistency so that the
dough is stiff, moist, and mealy. This is
important. It is almost equally important
to have the candy hole coated over with
hot paraffin. This is for the purpose of
preventing the absorption of the honey out
of the candy into the wood. The candy
should then be crowded into the candy hole,
and then the hole in the end over which the
pasteboard is to be tacked should be
plugged full of candy, after which the
pasteboard is nailed on.

The manner of filling a cage with bees
and queen for mailing is to pick it up with
the left hand in such a way that the thumb
covers the hole over which the perforated
metal has been nailed, but which, before the
time of filling, should be revolved around
on one side or taken off entirely. The
queen is first to be picked up by the wings,
and her head is pushed into the hole as far
as possible. After she runs in, the thumb
is placed over the hole. Worker bees are
next picked up in a similar manner, and
poked in, selecting those that are filling
with honey from open cells until there are
a dozen bees. If the cage is larger, two
dozen may be used; and if it is extra
large, four or five dozen. When cages are
mailed during cold weather there should be
more bees put in, to help keep up the ani-
mal heat. During hot weather a dozen

bees are quite sufficient in the smallest
Benton cage.

It is very convenient to have in the
apiary small special cages for introducing
and holding queens that come out with
swarms until they can be introduced or

How bees and queens are put up in a mailing-cage.

disposed of. The one illustrated here is
an excellent one. It is especially handy
for introducing young virgins. The cage is
so flat it can slide in at the entrance with-

C. C. Miller's introducing-cage.

out even removing the cover of the hive,
and the bees will release the queen by the
candy method. Yet for introducing fertile

INTRODUCIXG

475

or valuable queens it should be insei-ted
between two combs which are then drawn
together until they hold the cage. The
queen thus acquires the scent of the combs,
brood, and the cluster, and hence when re-
leased will be more likely to be accepted.

This cage, like the Benton, will give very
much better results if a piece of paste-
board is nailed over the end. This the bees
will gnaw away, gaining access to the
candy, which they eat out. Subsequent to
the use of the pasteboard as stated, with
either the Benton or the Miller cage a
larger per cent of all queens are intro-
duced, provided, of course, the colony has
not been queenless more than four or five
days. One that has been without a mother
longer may get to depending on cells : and
when the work has so far progTessed they
are liable to destroy the introduced queen
and await the hatching of one of the vir-
gins.

Another feature of this cage, of gi'eat
importance to beginners, is as a queen-
catcher. It can be put down over the
queen after the wooden slide is removed,
and when she crawls upward the plug may
be replaced.

PUSH-IXTO-COMB-CAGE PLAJ^" OF
IXTRODUCIXG.

Dui'ing 1911 and '12, and again in 1919.
there was considerable discussion in the
bee journals concerning the method of in-
troducing known as the push-into-comb-
cage plan — that is to say, a plan which
permits a queen being caged over a few
cells of honey and brood. This is accom-
plished by taking a square of wire cloth of
suitable size and cutting a small square out
of each of the four corners. The project-
ing ends are then folded down so as to
make a wire-cloth box without bottom.
This is pushed into a brood-comb with the
queen under it. If it is not pushed in too
deep, the bees will usually release her in
24 to 48 hours by gnawing under or tim-
neling under the wire cloth. Reports of
this method of introducing have been uni-
formly favorable, and one reason for this
is due to the fact that the queen has imme-
diate access to ceUs of honey: and if she
should lay a few eggs in the comb before
she is released she will have the odor of a
laying queen, and this odor is one of the

elements that go to make up successful
introduction.

Some years ago one of our prominent
queen-breeders offered to replace all queens
that he sent thru the mails, providing this
plan of introduction were followed. He
reported that it was so successful that he
scarcely ever had to replace a queen; and
he believed that these replacements were
due mainly to the fact that the recipient
failed to carry out his instructions.

But one difficulty with a plan like this
is that not eveiy one will have on hand the
proper material nor have the necessary
skill for making up a cage of this sort.
Another and more serious difficulty is the
problem of getting the queen transferred
from the mailing-cage to the introducing-
cage pushed in the comb, without injuring
her or allowing her to get away during the
process. Another difficulty is that some
push the cage into the comb so far that the
bees fail to release her, altho in such cases
no harm results, because the apiarist can
remove the cage and release her.

The difficulty of making a combination
mailing and introducing cage that can be
sent in the mails, without increasing the
postage, is solved by making the introduc-
ing-cage of just the right size to telescope

The mailing and introducing-cage with carton.

over the mailing-cage. Both can then be
slipped into a neat carton to stand the
rough usage of the mails. The accompany-
ing illustrations will show how this scheme
can be carried into execution.

476

INTRODUCING

The following are the directions that are
used in cages of this kind :

On receipt of the queen go to the hive
where she is to be introduced, and remove
the old queen, and, before the bees discover
that the old mother is gone, cage the new
queen among them. To do this, select a comb
containing hatching brood, eggs, and cells of
honey. Find a spot on the comb where there
are hatching brood, eggs, and cells of honey,
about the size of the cage. If there is no
hatching brood, cells of pollen and honey will
do very well. Shake the bees off the comD
and carry comb and queen received from the
mails into the house before a window.

Gently raise the wire-cloth top that tele-
scopes over the wood part until it is almost
off. Wait a few moments until the queen
works her way upward on to the wire cloth;
then quickly lift the wire-cloth cover, with
queen on it, off the wood part and shove it
on to the selected spot on the comb. If, dur-
ing the operation, she flies, don't get excited.
She will quickly go to the window, where it
wiU be easy to cage her by gently slipping
the wire-cloth introducing part over her. The
next operation is to shde a postal card be-
tween the wire-cloth cage and the window,
being careful not to pinch the queen in the
operation. Lift cage and all with the postal
card away from the window, and lay both
on the comb. Gently draw out the postal
card until the queen crawls on the comb,
then shove the wire-cloth cage down into the
comb almost a quarter of an inch. In doing
this, care should be exercised so there may
be no gaps at the corners where the wire-
cloth sides and ends are folded down.

In from 24 to 48 hours the bees may tun-
nel under and release the queen. If at the
end of 48 hours the queen is not out, she
may be released by pushing a pencil thru the
comb from the side opposite where the queen
is caged. In an hour or so the queen will
find her way out easily. It is important that
she should have her liberty when conditions
in the colony are entirely normal. A dis-
turbed colony, or one that is opened up and
pulled to pieces, is much more apt to ball a
queen than one that is going on with its regu-
lar routine.

One very great advantage with this form
of introducing is that it avoids the possi-
bility of transmitting bee diseases thru
queen-cage candy. See Foul Brood. If
the candy is made of honey that has come
from a hive infected with foul brood, it
would be the means of carrying the disease
thru the queen-cage to the hive, provided
the candy method previously described
were used. To offset this difficulty the
Postoffice Department, during the early
part of 1912, issued a ruling (which ruling
is still in effect) that no queen should be

sent thru the mails unless accompanied hj
a copy of a certificate from a bee inspector
or a copy of a sworn statement to the

The manner of folding the cage.

Wire-cloth corners cut out before folding to m*ake the
introduction cage that telescopes over the
wooden part.

Cage pushed into the comb, showing the manner of
introducing the confined queen.

effect that the queen-breeder boiled his
honey that he used in his queen-cage candy
for thirty minutes in a closed vessel; but
not every one would do this work properly,
and perhaps not every queen-breeder would
be conscientious in carrying out this regu-

INTRODUCING

4V7

iation. If the push-into-comb-eage plan is
used, it eliminates all possible carrjdng of
disease in this way unless the recipient of
the cage is careless enough to throw it out-
doors where his bees can get at it; and he
would hardly do that. See Candy.

THE MILLER SMOKE OR DISTRESS METHOD OF
I^s^TRODITCIXG.

In 1913 Arthur C. Miller of Providence,
R. I. (who wrote the article on Bee Be-
havior and Nucleus in this work), intro-
duced to the beekeeping world a new method
of introducing queens. While one feature
of it was old, the general procedure was
original with Mr. IMiller. Many years ago
Henry Alley introduced queens by smudg-
ing the colony and queen with tobacco
smoke. While the plan was successful in
many instances, it was too often a failure
and for that reason it seems to have been
dropped. A. C. Miller's method, while sim-
ilar only in the use of smoke, is enough
different to make it practically new, and
fairly reliable when directions are followed.
There are conditions under which it is su-
perior to any other plan of introducing
queens; and some of our best beekeepers
and queen-breeders use it at times to the
exclusion of all other methods. It has an
advantage in that virgin queens of any age
can be introduced to colonies that would
kill them nine times out of ten by the old
methods as soon as released. Moreover, the
Miller plan is found to be superior in in-
troducing even laying queens to a colony
that has been long queenless, and when the
chances of successful introduction would
be somewhat doubtful. It works so weU in
some cases that safe introduction can be
accomplished even when there is a laying
queen already in the hive. If the alien
queen is younger or more prolific than the
old queen, the latter may be superseded
automatically.

The plan has been used for requeening
box hives with a considerable degree of
success, and that, too, without finding or
removing the old queen. But the success
of this method of requeening without de-
queening wiU depend on the superiority of
the alien over the old queen; for by the
smoke method both queens will be equally
acceptable to the colony; and so far as the
'3olony is concerned it appears to be a

choice between the two, resulting in favor
of the better queen.

HOW to INTRODUCE BY THE MILLER SMOKE
METHOD.

The colony to receive a queen has its
entrance reduced to about one square inch.
Strips of wood, entrance cleats, or even
grass or weeds, may be used for the pur-
pose. The smoker bellows is worked until
a white smoke is blown out — not a hot
transparent smoke, as that would be de-
structive. Three or four long puffs are
then blown in at the entrance. The amount
may vary according to the size of the
colony, the condition of the fuel, and the
fuel itself. At all events, enough smoke is
blo^vn in at the entrance until the colony
sets up a roar, which will take place in 10
or 20 seconds. If the roar does not take
place it shows not enough smoke has been
used. The queen to be introduced is now
run in, either from the fingers or from a
queen-cage, and followed by a gentle puff
of smoke, when the entrance is entirely
closed, and left so for 10 or 15 minutes.
At the expiration of that time it is re-
opened and the bees allowed to ventilate
and quiet down, but the opening should not
be wider than the original contraction of
one inch, as the idea is to let the colony
quiet down slowly from its distress. A full
entrance is not given for an hour or more,
and better not till the next day. Where
grass or leaves are used they may be left
to wilt and be pushed out by the bees.
They are handy at outyards.

In order to make the plan work success-
fully there are several important require-
ments.

(1) The colony should not be larger than
one story and the frames and bees should
occupy the whole of the story. It has been
found impracticable to use this plan of
introduction when only a third or a half of
the hive is occupied with bees and combs,
for the simple reason that the bees and
queen may get out of the smoke and thus
be remote from the smoke that induces the
necessary condition — distress.

(2) The hive must be smoke-tight. If it
has gaps at the corners, or if the covers do
not fit tightly, the bees will recover from
their distress too quickly, and may kill the
queen. AU possible chance of ventilation

478

INTRODUCING

must be prevented except at the entrance,
and that should be opened by using only
the narrow opening thru which the smoke
is introduced.

(3) The smoke must be such as to create
the greatest distress, and at the same time
avoid the least danger of overdoing it.
There is no need of torturing the colony by
causing the individual bees to curl up and
lie on their backs. Just enough smoke
should be given to cause a general roar.

(4) Enough smoke should be used to fill
every portion of the brood-chamber. This
is important.

(5) The bees should be confined for 10
or 15 minutes.

(6) The whole entrance should not be
opened up at the end of the 15 minutes.

While a portion of these directions may
seem like a repetition, yet the number of
misunderstandings and failures that have
occurred show that the essential features of
the method cannot be stated too strongly.

The theory of this method is based on
the principle that bees in distress know no
enemy or alien. Each is looking to the
other for help or food. The colony spirit
is entirely broken up, and every bee that
comes under the influence of the uproar is
seized with the same emotion, to be relieved
of her distress. It is important, also, that
the queen be under the same spell or in-
fluence; hence the directions to follow her
up, after she goes into the hive, with a
puff of smoke.

This method can be used for introducing
virgin queens five or six days old. Such
queens are usually rejected by a colony,
or even by a nucleus. These six-day-old
queens after introduction by this plan have
been known to take a flight the very next
day, and to be laying shortly after.

The question might be raised here, why
the smoke or distress method is not used in
the directions for introducing sent out by
queen-breeders in the mailing-cages con-
taining queens. The reason of it is, there
are some very nice points in introducing by
the distress method, and the average begin-
ner will succeed better by the cage plan.
As a general thing, queen-breeders use the
cage plan for introducing virgins, which
are usually quite young, because it takes
less time to go thru the procedure of in-
troduction. An introducing-cage is in-
serted between the frames and left there.

That is all there is to it. The smoke
method of introducing requires considera-
ble time and a great exactness of proced-
ure, or the plan will fail.

But the general scheme is so useful that
experienced beekeepers can use it to very
great advantage. The begiimer or veteran
should understand that, when he tries it
for the first time, he must follow exactly
the method outlined.

A SURE WAY OF INTRODUCING.

There is one perfectly sure way of intro-
ducing a very valuable queen, such as an
imported one, if the conditions are ob-
served carefully. Two or three frames of
hatching brood are removed from several
hives; every bee is shaken off, and the
brood put into an empty hive contracted
to a small space; and unless the weather
is very warm., the whole is placed in a
warm room, or over the hive of a strong
colony with screen wire cloth between the
two. The queen and her attendants are let
loose in this hive, and the young bees, as
they hatch out, will soon make a colony.
As several who have tried this plan have
been so careless as to leave the entrance
open and let the queen get out, the begin-
ner is v/arned especially to have the hive
closed, so that no bee can by any possibil-
ity get out.* If the frames selected con-
tain no unsealed brood, there will be very
little loss; but otherwise the larvae, having
no bees to feed them, will mostly starve.
As soon as a few hundred bees are hatched,
the queen will be found with them, and
they will soon make a cluster. When the
combs have been taken from strong colo-
nies, where the queen is laying hundreds of
eggs in a day, the colony will become
strong in a week or two. Three frames
will do very well at first, and one or two
more may be added in the course of a week
or two. No live hee is to be given to the
queen, and the hive must be kept in a
warm place — the nearer 90 degrees F. the
better.

INTRODUCING TO YOUNG BEES.

There is another way that has proved to
be good. In order to describe it we can
do no better than to make an extract from

* The entrance can be opened in four or five days.

INTRODUCING

479

an editorial in Gleanings in Bee Culture,
page 539, Vol. XXI. :

We have just received a consignment of
30 imported Italian queens, direct from Italy,
by express. Every queen came thru in good
order, and they are now introduced into the
apiary without the loss of one. Our method
of introducing with this lot was something we
had not tried before on so large a number of
queens. We took four or five strong colonies,
and divided them up into 30 one-frame nuclei.
This was done in the forenoon. In the after-
noon we transferred the imported queens,
without any attendants, to Miller introducing-
cages, placing one in every nucleus above
mentioned. Most of the queens were out at
the expiration of two days, in good order, and
they are now all out.

You see, the point is here: These newly
divided nuclei will have old and young bees,
and more or less hatching brood. Before the
imported queen is released, the old bees will
have returned to the. old stand, and it is
these old bees that always make trouble in in-
troducing. By the time the queen is released,
there are none but young bees, including
those that were brought to the nucleus-
stand and those that are hatched out in the
interim. These, of course, all being young,
will accept their new mother, without any
trouble. The plan has proved to be so satis-
factory that we shall employ it hereafter
for all valuable queens.*

DIRECT METHOD OF INTEODUCTION.

Where it is desired to introduce a queen
from a nucleus to a queenless colony, both
in the same yard, the operation can usually
be performed with safety and with very
little labor, as follows: The colony to re-
ceive the queen should be made broodless a
few hours in advance. Go to the nucleus
and lift out two frames, bees and all, with
the queen in between. Put these dovm in
the center of the queenless colony ; close up
the hive and don't go near it for several
days. The bees that have been queenless
and broodless are crying for a mother.
When she is given them with a large force
of her own subjects, she seems to be pro-
tected, even if she does not have the odor
of the new colony which, by the way, has
been modified by the bees and brood given
them from the other hive.

This is a modification of the Simmins
direct method of introducing. It could not
be used in the case of a queen sent thru
the mails.

* I've used the same plan with a full colony. Set
the colony on a new stand, leaving the old stand a
hive with a frame of brood to catch the fielders. After
introduction the hive may be returned. — C. C. Mill

THE SIMMINS FASTING METHOD.

While this has been discussed to a greater
or less extent in the bee journals, the plan,
while very simple, is not one that we would
recommend in the case of a valuable queen,
or in any event to a beginner. It is as fol-
lows: The queen to be introduced should
be put in a cage at night without attend-
ants and without food. She should thus be
confined for 30 minutes when she must be
released at dusk over the frames of the
queenless colony. The hive is not to be
opened again for 48 hours.

DUAL PLAN OF INTRODUCING.

Another plan is to introduce two virgins
or laying queens at one operation to save
the necessary time it takes for the bees to
get acquainted with the queen. This is
described in detail under the head of
QuEEN-REARiNG;, to which the reader is
directed.

HOW SOON WILL AN INTRODUCED QUEEN
BEGIN TO LAY?

As a general thing, she may be expected
to begin laying in two days; but some-
times, if the queen has been a long time
prevented from laying, as in the case of an
imported queen, she may not lay for three
or four days, or even a week. If intro-
duced in the fall, she may not commence
laying at all until spring, unless the colony
is fed regularly every day for a week or
more. This will always start a queen that
is good for anything if the weather is
warm enough.

HOW TO TELL WHETHER A COLONY IS
QUEENLESS OR NOT.

Having discussed mailing and introduc-
ing cages, it may be pertinent at this point
to give one of the prime essentials in suc-
cessful introducing. The very first thing
to be determined before an attempt to in-
troduce is made, is to determine that the
colony is certainly queenless. The fact that
there may be no eggs nor larvae in the hive,
and that the queen cannot be found, is not
sufficient evidence that she is absent, altho
such a condition points that way. But
during the earlier part of the summer
there should be either brood or eggs of
some kind if a queen is present. Yes, there

480

INTRODUCING

should be eggs or brood clear up until the
latter part of summer. In the fall in the
Northern States, or after the honey flow is
over, old queens generally stop laying, and
shrivel up in size so that a beginner might
conclude that the colony is queenless, and
therefore he must buy a queen. In at-
tempting to introduce the new queen, of
course he meets with failure, as she is stung
to death, in all probability, and carried out
at the hive-entrance. If eggs or larvsB
cannot be found at any season of the year
when other stocks are breeding, and the
supposedly queenless colony builds cells on
a frame of unsealed larv83 given them, it
may be concluded as a general rule that
the colony is probably queenless, and it
will be safe to introduce a new queen. But
when eggs, larvse, and sealed worker brood
are found, the presence of queen-cells sim-
ply indicates that the bees are either pre-
paring to supersede their queen or making
ready to swarm. See Swarming.

We said old queens would stop laying in
the fall if no honey was coming in. It
should be noted that young queens will lay,
flow or no flow.

HOW LONG SHALL A COLONY BE QUEENLESS
BEFORE ATTEMPTING TO INTRODUCE?

Colonies that have not been queenless
more than two days are to be preferred — •
just long enough to determine whether
cells are started, and just long enough so
the bees begin to recognize their loss, but
not long enough for them to get cells under
way. Cells nicely started or capped over
are quite apt to make the colony act as if
it wanted something of its own ; and when
a laying queen is introduced to them they
take a notion sometimes that they won't
have anything but their own raising.

The worst colony to introduce a laying
queen to is one that has been queenless
long enough so that there is a possibility
of one or more virgin queens being in the
hive. It is hard to decide definitely in all
cases when such colonies are queenless.
Most virgins, after they are three or four
days old, are very apt 'to be mistaken for
workers, especially by a beginner.

WHAT TO DO IF BEES BALL THE QUEEN.

When queens were introduced in the old-
fashioned way — that is, before cages were

constructed so as to release queens auto-!
matically — much trouble was encountered ?
by bees balling queens. If they were not In
ready to accept her when she was released ?
by the apiarist, they were pretty sure to \
ball her. But here is a point that it is '
well to observe : When the bees let out the
queen they very rarely ball her. But when
it is necessary for the apiarist to perform
the work, opening the hive, accompanied \
by general disturbance, is apt to cause
them to ball her as soon as released. Sup-
pose they do. The ball should be lifted out
of the hive and smoke blown on it until the
bees come off one by one; but hot smoke
must not be blown on the queen. When
the queen is found, get hold of her wings
and pull the rest of the bees off from her by
their wings. Put more candy in the open-
ing, and give her another trial. The advice
has been given to drop the queen, when she
is balled, into a vessel of lukewarm water.
The angry bees will immediately desert the
queen, when she can be easily taken out of
the water, and recaged.

Another way of saving the queen with-
out having to recage her is to carry a small
oil can with a spring bottom, such as is
used on a sewing machine, filled with thin
syrup. When the bees are found balling
her, saturate the ball thoroly by pressing
hard upon the bottom of the can, causing
the syrup to penetrate thru the ball. Close
the hive and the bees will turn their atten-
tion to cleaning themselves and the queen,
when she will be accepted without further
trouble.

It may be well to explain in this connec-
tion that bees are very much more apt to
ball a queen that shows fear than one that
behaves as if she expected kind treatment.
If a new queen just introduced throws up
her feet, and squeals, she is pretty sure to
get into trouble.

WHAT TO DO WHEN THE QUEEN FLIES
AWAY.

Sometimes a beginner is very nervous,
and by a few bungling motions may man-
age to let the queen escape from the hive
where he expects to introduce her. Or this
may happen: The queen may take wing
right from the frame — become a little
alarmed because there are no bees about
her, and fly. In either case, one should

INTENTIONS RELATING TO BEE CULTURE

481

step back immediately after opening the
] hive, and in 15 or 20 minutes she is quite
, likely to return to the same spot and enter

the hive. If she is not discovered in the

hive is about half an hour, she may be
] found in one of the other hives near by.
' If a ball of bees 'somewhere down among

Ihe frames is found, it may be surmised
' that here is the queen that flew away, and

that she has made a mistake, and entered

the wrong hive.

INTRODUCING VIRGIN QUEENS.

As previously explained, a young virgin
just hatched, generally weak and feeble,
can usually be let loose in a queenless col-
ony without caging, and be favorably re-
ceived; but one from two to six days old
j is, as a rule, much more difficult to intro-

!duce than a laying queen; and one ten
days old, more than old enough to be fer-
tilized, is most difficult. Such queens can
be introduced to a strong vigorous colony
, by using the Miller smoke or distress
I method. Better by far give them a cell or
( a vii'gin just hatched, thus saving time and
vexation; for even should the old virgin be
I accepted, she may be deprived of a leg, or
I be so deformed from rough treatment as to
; become in a large measure impaired for
i usefulness. Under head of Queen-rearing
I are described "baby nuclei;" and, as already
stated, it is much easier to introduce any
queen, either virgin or laying, to a nucleus
or weak force of bees than to a strong vig-
orous colony; so if one would attempt to
introduce four or five day-old virgins, give
them to nuclei — the smaller and weaker the
better, or use the Miller smoke method.

INVENTIONS RELATING TO BEE
CULTURE.— It would be quite impossible
m the limits of an article in this work to
record all the inventions relating to bee
culture; but it is perfectly feasible to in-
clude those that have been adopted, and
which are in use more or less by the pro-
gressive beekeepers of the country.

There are four inventions that revolu-
tionized the methods of work with bees,
and which really form the basis of all mod-
ern methods of management today. First
and foremost was the invention of movable
frames by L. L. Langstroth in 1851. No
one today, either in Europe or this country,
IG

questions Mr. Langstroth's right to the
honor of this great invention, for practical-
ly all hives and frames in use today are
Langstroth. See Frames, Hives and Hive-

MAKING.

Next followed the invention of comb
foundation by J. Mehring in 1857. But
the foundation he made had no side walls,
and so it remained for Samuel Wagner,
A. I. Root and A. Washburn to develop
the product that we now use with side
walls.

The next was the invention of the honey-
extractor, by Major Francisco Hruschka,
in 1865. The fourth was the invention of
a bellows bee-smoker by Moses Quinby.

There have been a large number of im-
provements that have made the inventions
of Langstroth, Mehring, Hruschka and
Quinby much more workable than they
were originally. However, it is but fair to
say that Langstroth came very near making
his hive and frame almost perfect at the
very start; and there are possibly a
few of our readers who would consider
the later improvements made in the Lang-
stroth frame and hive of doubtful value.
It is, nevertheless, a fact that the old mov-
able frame, as first made by Mr. Lang-
stroth, both as regards dimensions and
styles, is still in use all over the world.
For extracting purposes some of our large
honey-producers will have no other. They
regard anything in the way of a self-
spacing attachment, either as part of the
hive or frame, as unnecessary, and a back-
ward step. See Frames, Self-spacing.

The original comb foundation by Mehring
was a very crude product; and it may be
questioned whether or not Wagner should
not share equal honor in the invention. The
great improvements that were made in this
article had more to do with the machinery
for making the product than the thing it-
self. A. I. Root did more to perfect comb
foundation than perhaps any other man
unless it was his colaborer and mechanic,
Alva Washburn. He certainly introduced
it to the beekeeping public. The first foun-
dation was turned out on plates, and was,
therefore, a very crude article; but A. I.
Root conceived the idea of having it made
by means of a pair of rolls. This sugges-
tion came to him when noticing the wet
clothes as they came out from a common
wringer in his own home. After consult-

482

INVENTIONS RELATING TO BEE CULTURE

ing his friend and mechanic, Mr. Wash-
burn, a pair of rolls were made, the prod-
uct of which was nearly the equal of any
comb foundation made on modern machines.
To Mr. Washburn belongs the credit of
making perfect foundation on rolls that
were mechanically correct. The only im-
provement made on the Washburn mills
was in the method of making them, by
which they could be duplicated, and manu-
factured not by hand but by machinery, in
such a way that every roll is perfect.
Later improvements were made by E. B.
Weed, which will be referred to later.

As regards the invention of Hruschka,
several machines were made and put on the
market. The one made by J. L. Peabody
consisted of a can that revolved without
gearing. The limitations of this were such
that very few of them were ever sold. To
A. I. Root belongs the credit of making
some of the first all-metal extractors that
use gearing, a stationary can, and a reel
with baskets to hold the combs, said reel
connected to the gearing, and mounted to
revolve independently of the can. Thou-
sands and thousands of these machines
were sold, and very little in the way of
improvement was made until the reversible
extractor was put on the market. The
Cowan principle was applied to the two-
frame machines, and later came the Root
principle of a series of baskets geared to-
gether in such a way that the reversing of
one pocket reversed all at the same time.
A few years later came the invention of
Frank G. Marbach, by means of which the
pockets could be reversed automatically by
simply applying a brake and slowing down
the speed of the machine. This was fol-
lowed by a slip gear and better mechan-
ism, by which the extractor of today has
from two to ten times the capacity of the
earlier machines. In this connection men-
tion should be made of the honey-pump
that is now being used successfully on the
large-sized extractors to deliver the honey
from the extractor to a tank at one side or
in an adjoining room.

The fourth important invention is the
bee-smoker. Quinby was the inventor of
the bellows bee-smoker, which he brought
out in 1875. This was further improved
by T. F. Bingham, L. C. Root, and H. H.
Root, younger son of A. I. Root. The
modern bee-smoker is almost as indispens-

able as an extractor and movable frames; or
for without smoke, applied by means of a ei
convenient instrument, the work of han- co
dling bees would be disagreeable if not d(
impossible at times. The invention of Mr|. %
Quinby forms the basis of all the modeni , ai
smokers. But to T. F. Bingham belong* sf
the credit of devising a smoker that blowSf oi
air into the fire-cup without sucking any i
smoke into the bellows. Mr. Bingham's T
invention consisted in leaving out the tube tl
connecting the two parts of the instrument^ p
While that at first thought might seem ta o
be no invention, yet it made all the differ-l i
ence in the world between a workable tool [
and an unworkable one. The latter would
go out and clog up with creosote, while the \ 1
former would continue burning, burn any* c
kind of fuel, and not clog up. t

E. B. Weed, formerly of Medina, was 1
the inventor of what is known as thc^;

Weed New Process " for making comV [
foundation of a very superior kind in large j (
quantities. His automatic machinery, with ' (
Washburn's and Howk's improvements for i
turning out the product, is now used i4' i
nearly all civilized countries of the world?
This invention almost ought to be classed
among the four great inventions.

An invention which is now in almost
universal use, in this country at least, is
that of the late Julius Hoffman, in what is
known as the Hoffman self -spacing frame.
While the old-style Langstroth non-spacing
frame was once the leader, yet during late
years the Hoffman-Langstroth is one that
is listed by large and small manufacturers
and dealers all over the country. It is an
invention that has come to say. However, I
the present Hoffman frame is not the same
as the original Hoffman; or, to put it in
another way, the modern Hoffman retains
only the self-spacing end-bars of the origi-
nal, and not the Hoffman top-bar. m

Another improvement was suggested b^fl
Francis Danzenbaker — namely, the locaB
cornering on hives. This feature has no^
come to be adopted by all modern hive-B
makers thruout the United States, and, tc|
a great extent, thruout the world.. ■

The invention of the sectional honey-boM
is not attributable to any one person ; how-B
ever, A. 1. Root was the first to make onmL
holding one pound. His first pound sec-B
tions were dovetailed all around. Later on
came the invention of the one-piece sectionH

TOTENTIONS RELATING TO BEE CULTURE

483

on which J. H. Forucrook secured a pat-
ent; but after long litigation from one
court to another, the Supreme Court finally
declared it " null and void for want of
novelty." It was shown that one J. Fiddes
and a number of others had made and used
sections of this kind; so in the matter of
one-piece sections the honor will have to be
divided among four or five dilf erent people.
The late James G. Gray of Medina made
the first practical machine for making one-
piece sections. Later, machines for turning
out section honey-boxes in lots of one hun-
dred thousand a day were the invention of
George L. Howk.

The Porter bee-escape is one of the best
little inventions that have been brought
out. It is one of the few patented inven-
tions that survived and is now used very
largely.

Queen-excluders in the form of perfor-
ated zinc and spaced wires are inventions
of merit. In connection with these we find
entrance-guards and Alley traps that are
useful. The Alley trap is another patented
invention that survived.

The steam uncapping-knife (see Ex-
tracting) is an invention that is coming
more and more into use. The capping-
melter for melting cappings as fast as they
come from the knife gives promise of being
one of the inventions that will last; for it
enables a competent man who follows direc-
tions to melt his cappings and separate the
honey from the cappings immediately, so
that when the day's work is done he will
have his honey free from cappings, and
the cappings converted into wax ready for
use.

Arthur C. Miller was the discoverer or
inventor of the principle that is now used
in all modern foundation-fasteners using a
hot plate; yet, strangely enough, not one
of these fasteners bears his name. Mr.
Miller was also the inventor of two or three
different uncapping-machines, and of the
steam-heated uncapping-knife. If he had
applied for letters-patent on this kind of
knife it would have been granted him, and
he would be today considered the inventor,
as he really is, of the steam-heated uncap-
ping-knife.

T. F. Bingham and Mr. Hetherington
were really the inventors of the modern
uncapping-knife popularly known as the
Bingham. The Bingham-Hetherington shape

is now used in all uncapping-knives, whether
steam-heated or plain.

No one seems to have invented the double-
walled packed hive for outdoor wintering;
but A. I. Root was, perhaps, in connection
with J. H. Townley, the first to apply the
principle of chaff packing in double walls.
As chaff is not now obtainable, other pack-
ing material is used. Langstroth in the
early '50's used double hives but not packed.

In the early 'SO's there was a hoard of
inventions relating to feeders, foundation-
fasteners, and reversing attachments for
movable frames, nearly all of which died a
natural death because they were imprac-
ticable and only increased the cost of man-
agement.

Among the later hive inventions that
have merit is the Aspinwall hive, based on
the principle designed to prevent swarm-
ing, (See Sv7 ARMING.) But its cost of
construction, and the large number of extra
parts that must be manipulated at inter-
vals, will probably prevent this hive from
displacing the present standard hives to
any great extent. The swarming problem
is not a serious one in the production of
extracted honey ; and while probably three-
fourths if not four-fifths of all the honey
produced in the world is extracted, it will
be seen that there will be a very limited
demand at best for non-swarming hives.

In the way of minor inventions or im-
provements mention should be made of the
omission of porticos on hives, and of bevel
edges between the parts of the hives. A
hive plain and simple, with a detachable
bottom-board and a plain simple cover, is
much more workable than some of the com-
plicated domiciles of the early days with
moth-traps, porticos, etc.

It is another improvement to have the
hive body and supers of the same dimen-
sions and the same depth, except in the
case of half -depth supers. In a word, the
modern hive is made up of multiples of
parts that will fit each other in any com-
bination, permitting of any degree of ex-
pansion and contraction to accommodate a
large or small colony. This feature of in-
terchangeability is prized almost as much
as any one single invention, barring only
the four great inventions first mentioned.

It might be interesting and perhaps en-
lightening to some would-be inventors to
record here a list of the inventions that

484

liSrVERT SUGAR

have died a natural death. Some of these
at the time were heralded as revolutionary ;
but they never " revolutionized," but, on
the contrary, sickened and died, as thou-
sands of others had done. It is well that
they did.

It is but fair to say to inventors that a
patent or patents on any invention or im-
provement relating to bee-feeders, methods
of wiring frames, or foundation-fasteners,
are generally a waste of time, and can only
lead to disappointment. There is a large
list of patents in the Patent Office covering
all forms of bee-feeders, not one of which
is equal to any of the unpatented feeders
described under the head of Feeders. In
the same way it is a waste of time to try to
invent a beehive, something new and better
than those that are generally accepted by
the fraternity at large. Every conceivable
form of hive has been made the subject of
a patent. With perhaps a dozen import-
ant exceptions there is hardly a patent on
bee-fixtures that is worth the paper on
which it is printed; and the beginner, at
least, will be very wise if he accepts the
standard hive and appliances which are de-
scribed in this or any standard work on
bees. It is true, patents will be granted on
almost anything ; but any one who is famil-
iar with patent claims knows that they can
be and usually are so loosely drawn that
they are worthless. The poor inventor sup-
poses that because he has been granted a
government parchment a fortune awaits
him. But he is doomed to disappointment
as sure as fate. (See Patents^, elsewhere.)

INVERTINa.— See Reversing.

INVERT SUGAR.— Chemically consid-
ered, this is a mixture of equal parts of the
two sugars, dextrose and levulose, coming
from the inversion or breaking down of
sucrose. In common terms, sucrose is the
ordinary white sugar of commerce, such as
beet sugar or cane sugar. This breaking
down of sucrose occurs when it is dissolved
in water and boiled. The action then is
very slow; but by the addition of a very
small percentage of any acid the action
is made more rapid. Hence, in the com-
mercial preparation of this product white
sugar is dissolved in water, then tartaric,
acetic, phosphoric, or hydrochloric (muri-
atic) acid is added and the whole boiled.

Of the two sugars of invert sugar, dextrose
is easily crystallizable, while levulose re-
mains a liquid under most conditions, but
on long standing and under concentration
the dextrose will crystallize out. As re-
gards sweetness, dextrose is not so sweet
as sucrose, while levulose is much sweeter;
hence invert sugar is generally said to be
sweeter than sucrose.

The preparation of invert suger from
sucrose by using water and tartaric acid
was patented a number of years ago by
Herzfeld in Germany. The proportion he
uses is approximately as follows: cane
sugar, 25 lbs.; tartaric acid, % oz. (avoir-
dupois) ; water, 1 gallon. Bring to a boil
and keep at that temperature for % to %
hour.

When prepared as above the product is
liable to be yellow or brown in color, but
it is perfectly possible by concentrating in
vacuum or under reduced pressure to pro-
duce an invert sugar water-white. It can
be made to appear like a high-grade clover
honey. Its analysis is very similar to that
of a clover honey.

During the preparation of this sugar, a
small amount of the levulose is broken
down into furfurol or methylfurfurol. This
product even in very small quantities gives
strong color reactions with some reagents
as resorcin — aniline acetete which forms a
partial test for invert sugar.

Attempts have been made to make invert
sugar which would not give these color re-
actions, but on a commercial scale they
have not been altogether successful. The
enzyme, invertase (from yeast) will break
down sucrose into dextrose and levulose
without the formation of these furfurol
bodies, but on concentration these bodies
are formed. Other ways have been tried.
It is true, tho, that invert sugar can be
made commercially that gives only slight
color reactions, and improvements in man-
ufacture of late years have yielded a prod-
uct which has very much less of these fur-
furol bodies present, but the chemist does
not need these color reactions altogether to
prove the presence of commercial invert
sugar in honey.

Commercial invert sugar is generally put
on the market as a water-white liquid at
the same price as granulated sugar. It has
anywhere from 50 per cent to 75 per cent
invert sugar, from 1.5 per cent to 30 per

ITALIAN BEES

485

cent of sucrose, and from 18 per cent to
30 per cent of water. If a mineral acid as
phosphoric, muriatic, or sulphuric is used
for the inversion, this is generally partially
neutralized with soda, and hence the prod-
uct will have from 0.5 to 3.08 per cent of
ash. Where acetic acid or phosphoric acid
unneutralized is used, or where tartaric
acid is used, there is practically no ash un-
less the sucrose carried some. For the
detection of commercial invert sugar see
Honey Analysis and Adulteration.

ISLE OF WIGHT DISEASE.-

EASES OF Bees.

-See Dis-

of absolute and known purity. Altho a
first cross might do very well, unless he had
this one pure queen to furnish queen-cells
he would soon have bees of every possible
grade, from the faintest trace of Italian
blood, all the way up. The objection to
this course is that these blacks, with about
one band (with the exception of the East-
ern blood), are much crosser than Italians;
they also have a very disagreeable way of
tumbling off the combs in a perfectly de-
moralized state whenever the hive is opened.
Neither will they repel bee disease like
pure Italians. See Foul Brood^ subhead
"European Foul Brood;" also "Hybrids.'^

Characteristic markings of pure Italians.

ITALIAN BEES.— At present the Ital-
ians, and even hybrids, have shown them-
selves so far ahead of the common bee that
we may safely consider all discussion of
the matter at an end by the great major-
ity of beekeepers. Many times we find
colonies of hybrids that go ahead of pure
stock; but as a general thing (taking one
season with another), pure Italians, where
they have not been enfeebled by choosing
light-colored bees to breed from, are ahead
of any mixture. There has been a great
tendency with bees, as well as other stock,
to pay more attention to looks than to real
intrinsic worth, such as honey-gathering,
prolificness of the queens, hardiness, etc.

Even if it were true that hybrids pro-
duce more honey than pure Italians, each
beekeeper would want at least one queen

If for no other reason, one can well afford
to Italianize because in no other way can
European foul brood be controlled. This
disease, in some sections of the country, is
cleaning out the blacks and hybrids, while
the Italians are nearly immune to it.

The pure Italian stocks can be opened at
any time and their queens removed, scarce-
ly disturbing the cluster, and, as is some-
times the case, without the use of any
smoke, by one who is fully conversant with
the habits of bees. A good many hybrids
will not repel the moth as do the pure
Italians.

The queens, and drones from queens ob-
tained direct from Italy, vary greatly in
their markings, but the normal worker bee
shows three yellow bands.

486

ITALIAN BEES

While the presence of three yellow bands
has for many years been supposed to be an
absolute test of purity, a recent work by
Prof. Wilmon Newell, then of College Sta-
tion, Texas, shows that this may not be
entirely correct. But reference to this is
made later.

Every worker bee, whether common or
Italian, has a bodj" composed of six tubes,
or segments, one sliding into the other,
telescope fashion. When the bee is full of
honey these segments slide out, and the
abdomen is elongated considerably beyond
the tips of the wings, which are ordinarily
about the length of the body. Sometimes
one sees bees swollen with dysentery
spreading the rings to their fullest extent,
and in that condition they sometimes would
be called queens by an inexperienced per-
son.

On the contrary, in the fall when the bee
is preparing for its winter nap, its abdo-
men is so much drawn up that it scarcely
seems like the same insect.

The engraving shows the abdomen of ihe
bee detached from the body, that one may
get a full view of the bands or markings
that distinguish the Italians from our com-
mon bees. It is important to observe par-
ticularly that all honeybees, common as
well as Italian, have four bands of bright-
colored down, J, K, L, M, one on each of
the four middle rings of the body, but none
on the first and none on the last. These
bands of down are very bright on young
bees, but may be so worn off as to be
almost or entirely wanting on an old bee,
especially on those that have been in the
habit of robbing very much. This is the
explanation of the glossy blackness of rob-
bers often seen dodging about the hives.
Perhaps squeezing thru small crevices has
thus worn off the down, or it may be that
pushing thru dense masses of bees has
something to do with it. Such shiny black
bees are often seen in great numbers, in
stocks that have been nearly suffocated by
being confined to their hives in shipping, or
at other times.

These bands of down differ in shades of
color from nearly pure white to a rich
orange or to a brown, many times, and this
is the case with the commomn bee as well
as with the Italian. Under a common lens
the bands are simply fine soft hair, or fur,
and it is this principally which gives the

light-colored Italians their handsome ap-
pearance. One may have noticed the pro-
geny of some particular queen when they
first came out to play, and pronounced
them the handsomest bees he ever saw; but
a fev7 weeks after they would be no better
looking than the rest of the bees. This is
simply because they had worn off their
handsome plumage in the " stern realities "
of hard work in the fields. Occasionally
will be found a queen whose bees have
bands nearl3^ white instead of yellow, and
this is what has led to the so-called albino
bees. When the plumage is gone, they are
just like other Italians. These bands of
down have nothing to do with the yellow
bands that are characteristic of the Ital-
ians; for, after this has worn off, the yel-
low bands are much plainer than before.
A, B, C are the normal yellow bands of
which so much has been said, and they are
neither down, plum.age, nor any thing of
that sort, as will be seen by taking a care-
ful look at an Italian on the window. The
scale, or horny substance of which the body
is composed, is yellow, and almost trans-
parent, not black and opaque, as are the
rings of the common bee, or the lower rings
of the same insect.

The first yellow band, A, is down next
the waist. It is very plain, when one
knows what to look for, and no child need
ever be mistaken about it.

At the lower edge of this first yellow
band is the first black band; this is often
only a thin sharp streak of black.

The second, B, is the plainest of all the
yellow bands, and can usually be seen in
even the very poorest hybrids. The first
band of down is seen where the black and
yellow join, but it is so faint one will hard-
ly notice it at first in some specimens.

At the lower edge of the scale there is
a narrow line of black; when the down
wears off, this shows nearly as broad as the
yellow band.

In hybrids are found a greater diversity ;
for while the bees from one queen are all
pretty uniformly marked with two bands,
another's will be of all sorts, some beauti-
fully marked Italians, some pure black,
others one or two-banded. Some will sting
with great venom, while others with only
one or two bands will be as peaceable as
the best Italians. Without a doubt, many
queens have been sent out as pure that pro-

ITALIAN BEES

487

dueed only hybrids; but since the author's
recent studies in the matter he is quite well
satisfied that several queens have been sold
as hybrids that were really full-bloods.

In the matter of rearing queen-cells,
either the Cyprians or Holy Lands will
rear more queens than any Italians, Car-
niolans, blacks, or hybrids.

As many as 100 natural cells are not in-
frequently found on one fi-auie. One in-
stance is lecorded where 25 cells from a
Holy-Land queen hatched within a few
minutes of each other; and so vigorous
were they that some of them actually flew
the moment they popped out of their in-
closures.

The recent craze for five-banded bees,
golden bees, and yellow-all-over bees, has
complicated the marking problem some-
what. For instance, a colony that produces
four- or five-banded bees, when crossed
with a black or Carniolan drone, may pro-
duce the same kind of bees ; but the second
cross, at least, will show three-banded bees
that are in reality hybrids but still showing
the typical three yellow bands.

Under the Dzierzon Theory^ subhead
" Recent Evidence in Support of the The-
ory," it will be found that the first cross
between an Italian queen and a Carniolan
drone may have generally the markings of
the yellow bees. The second cross will
make one, two, or three-banded Italians,
and the bees will be distinctly hybrid, show-
ing characteristics of the two races.

While the presence of three yellow bands
does not necessarily prove the purity of
Italian stocks, the test is fairly reliable in
an Italian apiary that has not been run to
color to get four and five bands, or in a
yard where there have not been raised
Carniolan, Caucasian, or black drones for
several years previously.

FOUR- AND FIVE-BANDED ITALIANS.

Reference has already been made to the
extra-yellow bees. For a good many years
back there has been a demand for beautiful
bees, and in all probability there always
will be such a demand. A large number of
queen-breeders in the country have been
endeavoring to meet it. The time was when
breeders guaranteed to furnish queens that
would furnish " yellow-all-over bees " and
" five-banded bees." While an occasional

queen may produce a majority of such
bees, it should be said that the most of the
extra yellow stock does not show more than
four bands ; and the yellow-all-over bee is
a " rare bird " indeed. It may be said that
there is no such thing as a five-banded Ital-
ian or yellow-all-over Italian. The nearest
approach to it is the very yellow three-
banded bees and four-banded — perhaps the
fourth band showing a predominance. As
to the real practical value of these bees
there is considerable discussion. While it
is true that some of these very yellow bees
are also good workers and good bees to
winter, the facts are that very many of
them, at least, are worth very little in the
field, and die early in the winter. Many
breeders, in their efforts to get color, have
lost sight of other desirable qualities; and
it is, therefore, coming to pass that very
many extra-yellow bees are poor workers,
very cross, and lacking in hardiness. On
the other hand, it is only fair to saj^ that
there are some very yellow bees that com-
bine to a remarkable degree other desirable
qualities.

A good many readers of this will prefer
good bees and those that are gentle. LTsu-
ally the typical Italians that have been
bred for business will be found to have not
more than three yellow bands, often not
more than two showing distinctly. These
are usually called " leather-colored " Ital-
ians because they are typical of the native
bees in Italy. These two-banded Italians,
however, will show a third band if full of
honey and placed on the window. These
may often be confused with the ordinary
two-banded hj^brids. There is, however, a
very marked difference in their general de-
portment and general behavior.

HOLY-LAND AND CYPRIAN BEES.

In 1882 considerable excitement arose
over two new races of bees brought over
from the Old World by D. A. Jones of
Beeton, Ontario, Canada, who was the
leading beekeeper of his country. They
were called Cyprian and Holy-Land bees,
from the places where he found them. The
former, from the Isle of Cyprus, seem to
have been for many years isolated, and are
a very distinct and uniform race.

While they look like Italians, and might
be classed as such by beekeepers not famil-

488

iar with their peculiarities, they have a few
distinct characteristics. Holy-Land bees
show whiter fuzz-rings, and the bodies are
slimmer than those of the ordinary Ital-
ians. They are more like the ordinary
albinos. In fact, most of the albinos for-
merly sold were of Holy-Land extraction.
The Cyprians look very much like the
four- and five-banded Italians. The yellow
bands are of a deeper orange than those of
the Italians, slightly wider, and sometimes
more than three in number. Just at the
base of the thorax, and between the wings,
there is a little yellow spot that is quite dis-
tinct and prominent, called the " shield."
This is seen on some Italians, but less dis-
tinctly.

When Italians are crossed with Cyprians
or Holy Lands it is a little difficult to see
the difference except by their nervousness.

TEMPERAMENT OF EASTERN BEES.

Eastern bees are more nervous, especial-
ly the Cyprians. Sometimes smoke seems
to have no power over them. They, will fly
up 20 or 30 at a time without warning,
and sting the moment they touch the apia-
rist. The more they are smoked, the more
enraged they become. Cyprians especially
are the crossest bees ever brought into this
country — so cross, indeed, there is scarcely
a breeder in the United States who has
them for sale. The same objection, tho to
a less extent, applies to the Holy Lands.

The author once sold an imported
Cyprian queen; and the customer, after
he had kept her for a while, returned her,
saying that her bees were so vicious that
on one occasion they stung everything in
sight, and drove the family down cellar.
We bought the queen back; but after we
had had her for a few weeks and her bees
had begun to hatch out we found it would
be hardly safe to keep them in the yard.
They would become so enraged at times
that the whole colony would rush out in
battle array. While the progeny of this
queen was exceptionally cross, the general
run, both of Cyprians and Holy Lands, is
so disagreeable to handle that they are now
well nigh discarded in the United States.

The only possible redeeming feature is
that they are good brood-rearers ; but they
breed to excess after the honey flow, using
up all their available stores in raising bees,

when Italians would conserve their energies
and leave enough honey for winter.

ITALIANIZING. — Few questions are
asked oftener than, " How shall I Italian-
ize?" and "When shall I do it?" There
is generally a loss in removing a queen and
substituting another, even where one has
laying queens on hand; and where he is
to use the same colony for rearing the
queen, there is still greater loss. Under the
heads of Nuclei and Queen-rearing these
points will be found fully discussed.
Where one has an apiary of black bees, his
cheapest way, especially if he has plenty
of time to devote to the subject, is to pur-
chase three or four choice tested queens,
and rear his own queens from them after
the honey flow. He should then put drone-
traps on all his black and hybrid colonies,
leaving only the Italian drones the freedom
of the air. (See Drones.) If the breeders
are bought in the spring or summer
months, the old queens should not be re-
moved until the summer flow of honey is
over. Instead of allowing natural swarm-
ing, two or three frames from each old
stock may be taken about swarming time,
making nuclei, and giving cells from the
breeding stock.

When these queens are hatched and lay-
ing, the nuclei can be built up, with frames
of brood given one at a time until they are
full stocks. By such a course one will have
the full benefit of old queens during the
honey season, until the new ones are ready
to take their places. After the honey yield
the old queens can be removed, new ones
introduced, and the now small colonies
given queen-cells. This does the swarming
for the season, and the Italianizing, at one
and the same time. -See Increase; also
Nucleus.

If one has more money than time to
spare, and wishes to have the work done
up quickly, he can purchase as many
queens as he has colonies, and introduce
them at any season of the year, as directed
under Introducing. He can purchase
all tested queens, but we would advise tak-
ing untested Italian queens during the
months of July and August, when they are
the cheapest, as this is also the best time of
the year to Italianize. If done in the spring
it is liable thru change of queens to cut oft'
brood-rearing, and, hence, cause too few

ITALIAN BEES

LABELS FOR HONEY

489

workers when the harvest comes on. Some
find it more convenient to change queens
during the swarming season, first for the
purpose of stopping swarming, and, sec-
ond, because there are plenty of cells usu-
ally at this time from choice stocks. See
Cell-protector under Queen-rearing.

After the stocks have all been provided
with Italian queens, by either of the plans
given above, if one wishes the bees to be-
come pure Italians he is to commence re-
placing all queens that prove to be hybrids,
as soon as the young bees are hatched in
sufficient numbers to enable him to decide.

(See Italian Bees.) If honey only is the
object these hybrids should not be replaced
until after the honey flow; for they will
average nearly if not quite as good honey-
gatherers, and will raise just as pure
drones as pure Italians. If the bees of any
particular queen are too cross to be endur-
able she can be replaced. These hybrid
colonies should not be allowed to swarm
naturally; for if they raise a queen she
will produce hybrid drones;* and this is
something we wish most scrupulously to
guard against.

L

LABELS FOR HONEY.— The Federal
Food and Drug Act has been amended by
the " Gould Amendment," which changes
the wording of the original act regarding
the labeling of net weight and makes it
compulsory for food in package form to
bear a statement of its net weight, etc.
The section as amended reads :

That, for the purpose of this Act, an article
shall be deemed to be misbranded :

(3) If in package form, the quantity of the
contents be not plainly and conspicuously
marked on the outside of the package in terms
of weight, measure, or numerical count. Pro-
vided, however, that reasonable variation shall
be permitted, and tolerances and also exemp-
tions as to small packages shall be established
by rules and regulations made in accordance
with the provisions of section three of this
act.

In the case of extracted honey, packages
holding two ounces or less weight, or one
fluid ounce or less by measure do not have
to have the contents stated on the label, but
for larger ones the statement must be on
the label in a conspicuous place. The net
weight so placed must be the actual net
weight, and the variations in individual
packages must be as often above as below
to relieve one of prosecution under this act.

In the case of comb honey, " The net
weight of the comb honey is considered to
be the weight of the honey and comb, ex-
clusive of the wooden section. As it is not
practicable to mark the exact net weight on
each, the sections are sorted into groups
and on each section in the group should be
marked its minimum net weight. (See
Comb Honey^ to Produce.) This may be
marked in accordance with paragraph (h)
of Food Inspection Decision No. 154. (A
copy of this can be obtained by addressing
the Bureau of Chemistry, United States
Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C.)

" The individual units must be marked,
and the shipping case may be if desired.
The marking should be done before their
introduction into interstate commerce.

" While the regulations do not prescribe
the manner of marking, as to whether a
rubber stamp may be used, the law requires
that the statement shall be plain and con-
spicuous. Stamping by means of aniline
ink is frequently illegible, owing to failure
to print or to the running of the ink. If
such a stamp is used, care should be taken
to make the statement plain and conspicu-
ous, as required by the act."

* To get rid of black drones, see Drones.

490

LANGSTROTH

The above is a letter signed by the Sec-
retary of the Committee on Regulations,
Net Weight, and Volume Law, and repre-
sents the committee's views as to which
weight be considered final.

LARV^. — Brood while in the worm
state. See Brood and Brood-rearing; Be-
havior OF Bees; and Development of
Bees.

LANGSTROTH. — Lorenzo Lorraine
Langstroth was born in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Dee. 25, 1810. He graduated at Yale Col-
lege in 1831, in which college he was tutor
of mathematics from 1834 to 1836. After
his graduation he pursued a theological
course of study, and in May, 1836, became
pastor of the second Congregational Church
in Andover, Mass., Avhich position ill health
compelled him to resign in 1838. He was
principal of the Abbott Female Academy
in Andover in 1833-'9, and in 1839 removed
to Greenfield, Mass., where he was principal
of the High School for Young Ladies, from
1839 to 1844. In 1844 he became the pas-
tor of the Second Congregational Church
in Greenfield, and after four years of labor
here, ill health compelled his resignation.
In 1848 he removed to Philadelphia, where
he was principal of a school for young
ladies from 1848 to 1852. In 1852 he re-
turned to Greenfield; removed to Oxford,
0., in 1858, and to Dayton, 0., in 1887.

At an early age the boy Lorenzo showed
a fondness for the study of insect life ; but
"idle habits" in that direction were not
encouraged by his matter-of-fact parents.
In 1838 began his real interest in the
honeybee, when he purchased two stocks.
No such helps existed then as now, the first
bee journal in America being issued more
than 20 years later, and Mr. Langstroth at
that time had never seen nor heard of a
book on bee culture ; but before the second
year of his beekeeping he did meet with
one, the author of Avhieh doubted the ex-
istence of a queen! But the study of the
bees fascinated him, and gave him the
needed outdoor recreation while engaged in
literary pursuits, and in the course of time
he became possessed with the idea that it
might be possible to construct a hive so
that its contents in every part might be
easily examined. He tried what had been

invented in this direction, bars, slats, and
the " leaf -hive " of Huber. None of these,
however, was satisfactory, and at length
he conceived the idea of surrounding each
comb with a frame of wood entirely de-
tached from the walls of the hive, leaving
at all parts, except the points of support,
space enough between the frame and the
hive for the passage of the bees. In 1852.
the invention of the movable-comb hive
was completed, and patented October 5 of
that year. See Frames^, Hives^. and Bee-
space.

It is well known that, among the very
many hives in use, no other make is more
popular than the Langstroth; but it may
not be so well known that, in a very im-
portant sense, every hive in use among
intelligent beekeepers is a Langstroth; that
is, it contains the most important feature
of the Langstroth — the movable comb.
Those who have entered the field of api-
culture within a few years may faintly
imagine but can hardly realize what bee-
keeping would be today, if, thruout the
world, in every beehive, the combs should
suddenly become immovably fixed, never
again to be taken out of the hive, only as
they were broken or cut out. Yet practi-
cally that condition of affairs existed thru
all the centuries of beekeeping up to that
time when, to take out every comb and re-
turn again to the hive without injury to the
colony, was made possible by the inventive
genius of Mr. Langstroth. It is no small
compliment to the far-seeing inventive
powers of Mr. Langstroth, that, altho
frames of different sizes have been devised
and tried, and improvements, so-called,
upon his hive have been made by the hun-
dreds, yet today his hive and frame still
stand, and their use is almost universal
thruout this country and over a large part
of Europe.

As a writer Mr. Langstroth takes a high
place. " Langstroth on the Hive and Hon-
eybee," published in May, 1853, is consid-
ered a classic; and any contribution from
the pen of its author to the columns of the
bee journals was read with eagerness. In-
stead of amassing the fortune one would
think he so richly deserved, Mr. Langstroth
at the time of his death was not worth a
dollar. He sowed, others reaped. At the
date of his invention he had about 20 colo-
nies of bees, and never exceeded 125.

492

LANGSTROTH

In August, 1836, Mr. Langstroth was
married to Miss Anna M. Tucker, who died
in January, 1873. He had three children.
The oldest, a son, died of consumption con-
tracted in the army. Two daughters sur-
vive.

After his twentieth year, Mr. Langstroth
suffered from attacks of " head trouble "
of a strange and distressing character.
During these attacks, which lasted from
six months to more than a year (in one
case two years) he was unable to write or
even converse, and he viewed with aversion
any reference to those subjects which par-
ticularly delighted him at other times. Mr.
Langstroth was a man of fine presence,
simple and unostentatious in manner,
cheerful, courteous, and a charming con-
versationalist.

In reply to a question, he wrote, under
date of March 26, 1888: "I am now a
minister in the Presbyterian Church. Al-
tho not a settled pastor, I preach occa-
sionally, and delight in nothing so much as
the Christian work. My parents were
members of Mr. Barnes' church, in Phila-
delphia, the mother Presbyterian church in
the United States."

Mr. Langstroth died Oct. 6, 1895, at the
Wayne Avenue Presbyterian Church, Day-
ton, Ohio, where he was preaching that day.
Before he began, the pastor of the church.
Rev. Amos 0. Raber, moved the pulpit to
one side and placed a chair in front where
Mr. Langstroth could sit while speaking,
for his enfeebled condition would not per-
mit him to stand. After a few preliminary
sentences, and requests for prayer on the
part of the congregation, he said : " I am
a firm believer in prayer. It is of the love
of God that I wish to speak to you this
morning — what it has been, what it is, what
it means to tis, and what we ought — "

His daughter, Anna L. Cowan, who was
present, thus describes the last scene :

"As he finished the last word he hesi-
tated; his form straightened out convuls-
ively ; his head fell backward, and in about
three minutes he was absent from the body,
at home with the Lord.

" There was no scene of confusion in the
church. Tears were running down every
cheek, but there were no screams, no loud
sobbing. As one person remarked, 'Heaven
never seemed so near before. It seemed
but a step.' "

Then, with no fiery throbbing pain,
No slow gradations of decay,

Death broke at once the vital chain

And freed his soul the nearest way.

Thus was finished the remarkable career
of one of the great men of the country.
He would have been great had he never
known anything about bees ; but his con-
tributions to bee literature, and his basic
invention that revolutionized beekeeping
thruout the world, place him in the very
front if not the greatest beekeeper who
ever lived — not in the money he made, but
what he did in making money for others
who followed the directions given in his
delightful book, "The Hive and the Honey-
bee." (The publishers of this work have
published a reprint just as he wrote it —
price $1.00.)

For further particulars regarding his in-
vention, see Frames^ also Hives.

The statement was made that Mr. Lang-
stroth was a great man. Some interesting
sidelights showing the greatness of his
character are set forth in an article by his
old friend A. I. Root in Gleanings in Bee
Culture for Oct. 15, 1895, just after Mr.
Langstroth's death.

A. I. root's personal recollections of the

REV. L. L. langstroth.

In the introduction to our ABC book you
will find some mention of the incidents of my
first acquaintance with the honeybee, and how
I came into possession of Langstroth's book.

I made the acquaintance, by letter, of Sam-
uel Wagner; got hold of Vol. I. of the Amer-
ican Bee Journal. I wonder whether there is
anybody living now who will enjoy reading
the first edition of Langstroth and the first
volume of the American Bee Journal as I en-
joyed it then. Why, the very thought of those
old days of enthusiasm makes the blood even
now tingle to my fingers ' ends.

As soon as I found that Mr. Langstroth
was living at Oxford, Butler Co., O., I com-
menced correspondence. Then I wanted the
best queen-bee to start with that the world
afforded. It was pretty well along in the
fall, but I could not wait till spring, as some
of my friends advised me to do. I soon
learned to look up to friend Langstroth with
such confidence and respect that I greedily
read again and again every word I could find
from his pen — even his advertisements and
circular in regard to Italian bees. When the
book was read thru ouce I read it again.
Then I read certain chapters over and over;
and when summer time came again, and I
had little miniature hives or nuclei under al-
most every fruit tree in our spacious door-
yard, each little hive containing a daughter

LANGSTROTH

493

of that $20 queen, iLen 1 read Langstroth 's
book with still more avidity and eagernesc,
finding new truths and suggestions in it eacli
time.

I think I met him first and heard him talk
at a convention in Cincinnati. He was a
wonderful talker as well as writer — one of
the most genial, good-natured, benevolent men
the world has ever produced. He was a poet,
a sage, a philosopher, and a humanitarian, all
in one, and, best of all, a most devoted and
humble follower of the Lord Jesus Christ.
His fund of anecdotes and pleasant memories
and incidents was beyond that of any other
man I ever met; and his rare education and
scholarly accomplishments but added to it all.
No one I ever saw could tell a story as he
\vould tell it. A vein of humor and good-
natured pleasantry seemed to run thru it aU.
1 think he enjoyed telling stories — especially
stories with good morals ; and they all had to
have a good moral or they could not come
from L. L. Langstroth. jSTot only the play of
Ids benevolent face and the twinkle of his
eye, but the motion of his hands as he gave
emphasis to the different points in his narra-
tion, showed how thnroly he entered into Ms
topic.

It was my good fortune to listen to him
oub or more times from the pulpit. He
preached to us once here in Medina. The
church was full, but 1 hardly believe any one
else in that large audience enjoyed his talk as
I did. They did not know him as I did.

You must not think from what I have said
that our good friend always agreed with
every one else. He had opinions of his own,
and he could be stubborn and almost contrary
when he got ' ' hot " in a discussion. But the
gentle spirit was back of it all. I remember
once being out in his apiary, explaining to
him some wonderful improvement I had just
been working out. He, however, did not see
it as I did, and stoutly maintained that the
old way — his way, in fact — was better. All
at once I stopped and concluded we had better
give up the subject. Pretty soon he laid his
hand on my arm, and said :

" Friend Eoot, will you not forgive me? 1
was rude and uncourteous. You have prac-
ticed this thing, and are succeeding. Very
likely you are right and I am wrong. ' '

Mr. Langstroth paid us a visit. He told
us a long story about his patent. This poor
man had dwelt on it so long that even he, a
minister of the gospel, and a successful one,
had lost his peace of mind; and if he had
not lost his faith in God it shook his faith
in humanity. I called his attention to the
hopeful text, " But I say unto you, Love ye
your enemies; do good to them that hate
you; bless them that curse you, and pray for
them that despitefuUy use you." But even
he did not catch on. I urged until he seemed
annoyed, and I was afraid of a return of
his malady. With a sad heart I gave it up.
As it was getting to be late and toward bed
time I went with him to his room. He said
very little, altjio he was naturally exceedingly

talkative, and I felt I had offended him by
my importunity. In the morning, when break-
fast was ready, as he had not put in an ap
pearance Mrs. Boot thought I had better go
to his room. It was warm weather, and the
door was wide open. The old gentleman was
awake and partly sitting up, leaning on his
elbow. As soon as he saw me he beckoned
me to come up near him, with his finger. I
was really afraid he was going into one of his
" spells." He took his watch out from un-
der his pillow and asked me to listen. As I
was a watch repairer I supposed there was
something wrong with the beat; but when I
told him that it seemed to be in perfect order,
and that it beat clearly and regularly, what
do you think he said? He asked me what the
watch said to me. I replied that it did not
" say " anything, and now felt sure that he
was losing his mind. This is what he said:

" Mr. Eoot, that watch has been saying
' Quinby ; Quinby ! Quinby ! ' all night long,
and I can't stand it any longer. I am going
to start today. I am going to see Mr. Quinby.
I am not going to say a word about the pat-
ent or about the hive. I am going to him as
tho we had always been friends."

Friend Langstroth went to see Mr. Quinby,
as he declared he would do, and they had
' ' the best time in the world. ' '

His last public talk to beekeepers, if I am
correct, was the one given at Toronto; and
I felt anxious at the time that some short-
hand reporter might be at hand who could
give all his words and even Ms little stories
just as he gave them to us. Perhaps others
did not enjoy this talk as I did, because they
did not know him as I did. Why, that Ms-
tory of long ago, telling of the troubles, blun-
ders and mistakes in introducing the Italian
bees from Italy to America, should be handed
down to coming generations. It should be
embodied in some of the standard works on
bees, in order to secure its preservation.

Langstroth and Quinby — those two old pio-
neers— have now both passed away, but ' ' their
works do live after them, ' ' and shall live for
a thousand years or more. I feel anxious that
the first edition of both Langstroth and Quin-
by should be preserved. There is sometMng
to me more interesting in their first efforts —
Quinby 's book, for instance, telling how to
keep bees with a box hive, and Langstroth
telling his first experiments with the movable-
frame hive. Those early editions should be
preserved.

When quite a child I was greatly interested
in reading the life of Benjamin Franklin.
When I first became acquainted with Lang-
stroth I could not resist the suggestion that
he was much like Franklin. The maxims of
Poor Eichard suggest the thought. Mr. Lang-
stroth was remarkably weU read in ancient lit-
erature. He was familiar with the writings
of great men in all the ages. It rejoices my
heart now to know that he has been remem-
bered for many years at our national con-
ventions, and to know that he was even pres-

494

LAWS RELATING TO BEES

ent with his daughter at the one that oc-
curred so short a time before his death. He
never seemed to have a faculty for accumulat-
ing property, but what is millions of money
compared to the grateful remembrance with
which Langstroth's name will be spoken in
every civilized land on the face of the earth?

LAWS RELATING TO BEES. — The

subject of bees takes up but little space in
law. The old law writers, the men who
really laid down the basic principles of our
law during its formative period, classified
bees and defined the rights of the keepers
of bees in a few brief paragraphs, yet they
seem to have covered the subject as fully as
was necessary at the time at which they
wrote.

As to legal opinions handed down in
cases that have been adjudicated by a
court of last resort, and which opinions
form the bulk of our law of today, those per-
taining to bees are very meager in volume.
There have been, no doubt, many cases in
the minor courts, but the decisions in such
cases are binding only on the courts that
decided them, and then only where there is
a lack of higher authority. It matters not
how much was involved in a case nor how
ably it was presented and argued, nor how
learned and scholarly was the opinion
handed down by the trial judge, nor what
the verdict of the jury was, provided it was
a jury ease; unless the case was appealed
to a court of last resort the decision is not
available law. For it is only the decisions
that have been handed down in cases that
have been appealed to a court of last re-
sort that are published, and available to
the lawyers and the courts in general and
can be considered as law by them.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LAW PERTAINING
TO BEES.

But the fact that but little litigation
concerning bees has reached the courts of
last resort does not mean that the laws
governing bees and their keeping was in an
undetermined state. Law deals primarily
with principles; the subject matter is sec-
ondary. To ascertain what the law is in a
given instance, all that is really necessary
to do is to apply an established principle
of law to the facts in the case. For exam-
ple, to steal the property of another person
is larceny, and it matters not whether the

subject matter stolen be an automobile, a
caged lion, an aeroplane, or a hive of bees,
as it is the act that constitutes the offense.

The law as laid down by Blackstone and
other law writers of his time and of times
prior is briefly as follows :

That bees are wild by nature ; therefore,
tho they swarm upon your tree they are not
yours until you have hived them, any more
than the birds that have their nests in your
trees or the rabbits that run wild thru your
fields. But when they have been hived
you they are your property the same as
any other wild animal that you may have
reduced to possession. Animals that are
wild by nature and have been captured by
you, should they escape, you still have a
right in them if you follow them with the
idea of recovery. A swarm of bees that has
left your hive continues to be yours so long
as you can keep them in sight and under
any probability of recovery; 2 Blackstone
Com. 392; Coopers Justinian Inst. Lib. 2,
tit. 1, No. 14; Wood's Civil Law, bk. 2,
chap. 3, p. 103 ; Domat's Civil Law, vol. 1,
bk. 3, pt. 1, Subd. 7, No. 2133; Puffen-
dorf's Law of Nature, 4, chap. 6, No. 5;
Code Napoleon No. 524; Bracton's Law,
2, chap. 1, No. 3; and see notes in 40
L. R. A. 687; 62 L. R. A. 133.

During the early developm.ent of our
Eastern States the general principle of
law relative to ownership of bees was ad-
judicated in a number of cases. The ques-
tions raised .and the decisions rendered are
briefly as follows; Where bees have es-
caped and so properly may be considered
as wild bees and without any owner at the
time of their discovery, it has been held
that such bees in a tree belong to the
owner of the soil where the tree stands.
Merrills vs. Goodwin, 1 Root 209; Fergu-
son vs. Miller, 1 Cow. 243; 13 Am. Dec.
519; Gofe vs. Kilts, 15 Wend. 550.

That bees are ferae noiurae, that is, wild
by nature, but when hived and reclaimed
may be a subject of ownership. State vs.
Murphy, 8 Blackf. 498; Gillet vs. Mason,
7 Johns. 16; Rexroth vs. Coon, 15 R. I.
35; 23 Atl. 37.

But the finding of a swarm of bees in a
tree on the land of another, marking the
tree and notifying the owner of the land
does not give the finder such property in
the honey as will entitle him to maintain

LAWS RELATING TO BEES

495

trover for the honey. Fisher vs. Steward,
Smith 60.

Where one discovers wild bees in a tree,
and obtains license from the oMner of the
land to take possession of them, and marks
the tree with his initials, he gains no prop-
erty in them until he takes them into his
possession. Gillett vs. Mason, and Fergu-
son vs. Miller, supra.

Where bees take up their abode in a tree,
they belong to the owner of the soil even
tho they are reclaimed; but if they have
been reclaimed and their owner is able to
identify them as in a ease where he fol-
lowed the bees and saw them enter the tree,
they do not belong to the owner of the soil,
but to him who had former possession,
altho he cannot enter upon the land of the
owner of the tree and retake them without
subjecting himself to an action for tres-
pass. Goff vs. Kilts, 15 Wend. 550.

In a case decided in 1898 and entitled
State of Iowa vs. Victor Repp, 101 Iowa,
305, 40 L. R. A. 687, it was held that the
mere finding of bees in a tree on the land
of another did not give the finder any title
to the bees or to the tree. The facts were,
one Stevens who found the bees trespassed
on the land and hived the bees in a gum
belonging to another. The defendant Repp
removed the bees from where they had been
hived and was for that act arrested and
tried for larceny, Stevens, the man who
hived the bees, being the complaining wit-
ness. The trial court convicted Repp, and
the case was appealed to the Iowa Supreme
Court. The court reversed the trial court,
and in rendering the decision. Justice Ladd
said: "The title to a thing ferae naturae
cannot be created by the act of one who was
at the moment a trespasser, and Stevens
obtained no interest in the bees by the
mere wrongful transfer of the bees from
the tree to the gum. Having neither title
nor possession he had no interest therein,
the subject of the larceny. As the infor-
mation alleged ownership in Stevens, and
the case was tried on that theory, we need
make no inquiry as to any taking from
Cody (the owner of the land)."

"WHERE BEES SHOULD BE LOCATED.

Bees should be located by their owner so
that in the natural course of events they
will not molest others. If a keeper of bees
locates his bees so that they will be prone

to attack other people or their horses he is
guilty of negligence. A case in point is
Parsons vs. Manser, 119 Iowa 92, 62 L.
R. A. 132, decided in 1903, the facts of
the case being that the beekeeper had a
hitching post in front of his house. This
post was located in the public highway;
about 25 feet from the post, but in the
beekeeper's yard, there were two bee-gums.
The plaintiff. Parsons, was a medicine ped-
dler. He called at Manser's house and tied
his horses to the hitching post. The bees
attacked the horses and stung them to
death. . The beekeeper was held liable for
the death of the horses, as the evidence
showed that he was aware of the fact that
the bees would attack horses when hitched
to the post. A beekeeper is not liable,
however, unless he has been negligent. In
other words, the beekeeper must have been
at fault, and if thru no fault of the bee-
keeper some other person is injured, the
beekeeper is not liable. It was so held in a
New York case. Earl vs. Van Alstine, 8
Barb. 630, which was an action for dam-
ages caused by plaintiff's horses being
stung, resulting in the death of one of the
horses.

EARL vs. VAN ALSTINE.

The facts in this case were: That Van
Alstine was the owner of 15 hives of bees.
The bees were kept in his yard, adjoining
the public highway. Earl, the plaintiff in
the case, was traveling along the highway
Avith a team of horses, and when he passed
Van Alstine's place the bees attacked his
horses and stung them so severely one died.

Action was brought in the Justice's
Court and Earl secured judgment for the
sum of $70.25 and costs. The case was
appealed to the County Court of Wayne
County where the judgment was reversed.
From the County Court the case was ap-
pealed to the Supreme Court, Seventh Ju-
dicial District, which court affirmed the de-
cision of the County Court, the decision
being of date June 4, 1850.

The opinion was written by Justice Sel-
den, and he discussed very thoroly the
questions involved, the opinion being in
part as follows :

This case presents two questions:
1. Is any one who keeps bees liable, at all
events, for any injury they may do!

496

LAWS RELATING TO BEES

2. Did the defendant keep those bees in an
improper manner or place, so as to render
him liaWe on that account?

It is insisted by the plaintiff that, while
the proprietor of animals of a tame or do-
mestic nature (domitge naturae) ig liable for
injuries done by them (aside from trespasses
upon the soil) only after notice of some
vicious habit or propensity of such animal;
that one who keeps animals ferge naturae is
responsible at all events for any injury they
may do, and that as bees belong to the latter
class, it follows, of course, that the defendant
is liable.

In order to determine this question, upon
which no direct or controlling authority ex-
ists that I have been able to find, it becomes
necessary to look into the principles upon
which one who owns or keeps animals is liable
for their vicious acts. It will be found upon
examination of the authorities upon this sub-
ject that this classification of animals by the
common law into animals feras naturae and
domitae naturae has reference mainly, if not
exclusively, to right of property which may
be acquired in them ; those of the latter class
being the subject of absolute and permanent
ownership, while in regards to the former
only a qualified property can exist, and the
distinction is based upon the extent to which
they can be domesticated or brought under the
control and dominion of man, and not at all
upon the ferocity of their disposition .^or their
proneness to do mischief. For instance, tht3
dog, some species of which are extremely sav-
age and ferocious, is uniformly classed among
animals domitse naturae, while the hare, rab-
bit, and dove are termed ferae naturae altho
comipletely harmless. It would not be natural
to suppose that a classification adopted with
exclusive reference to one quality of animals
could be safely used to define and regulate
the responsibilities growing out of other and
different qualities; nor would it accord with
that just analysis and logical accuracy which
distinguishes the common law, that it should
he resorted to for that purpose.

Chitty, under the head of actions on the
case for negligence, gives the following rule:

The owner of domestic or other animals,
not naturally inclined to do mischief, as dogs,
horses, and oxen, is not liable for any injury
committed by them to the person or personal
property unless it can be shown that he previ-
ously had notice of the animal's mischievous
propensity; " Chitty Plead. 82. This accu-
rate elementary writer did not fall into the
error of applying the rule to the whole of the
class of animals domitse, but adds the qualifi-
cation, " not naturally inclined to do mis-
chief. ' ' By his arrangement of the subject,
too, he confirms the view of Peake that the
liability is based upon negligence.

These authorities seem to me to point to the
following conclusions :

1. That one who owns or keeps an animal
of any kind becomes liable for any injury
the animal may do, only on the ground of
some actual or presumed negligence on his
part.

2. That it is essential to the proof of negli-
gence and sufficient evidence thereof that the
owner be shown to have notice of the pro-
pensity of the animal to do mischief.

3. That proof that the animal is of a savage
and ferocious nature is equivalent to proof of
express notice. In such cases notice is pre-
sumed.

Having shown then, I think

clearly, that the liability does not depend
upon the classification of the animal doing
the injury, but upon its propensity to do
mischief, it remains to be considered whether
bees are animals of so ferocious a disposition
that any one who keeps them, under any cir-
cumstances, does so at his peril. If it is nec-
essary for the plaintiff to aver and prove the
mischievous nature of the animal, nothing of
the kind has been done in this case ; but if the
courts are to take judicial notice of the nature
of things so familiar to man as bees, which I
suppose they would be justified in doing, then
I would observe that however it may have
been anciently, in modern days the bee has
become as completely domesticated as the ox
or cow. Its habits and instincts have been
studied, and thru the knowledge thus ac-
quired it can be controlled and managed with
nearly as m.uch certainty as any of the domes-
tic animals; and altho it may be proper still
to classify it among those ferae naturae, it
must nevertheless be regarded as coming very
near the dividing line, and in regards to its
propensities to do mischief, I apprehend that
such a thing as a serious injury to person or
property from its attacks is very rare, not
occurring in ratio more frequent certainly
than injuries arising from the kick of a horse
or the bite of a dog.

There is one rule to be extracted from the
authorities to which I have referred, not yet
noticed, and that is that the law looks with
more favor upon the keeping of animals use-
ful to man than such as are noxious and use-
less. And the keeping of the one, altho in
some rare instances they may do injury, will
be tolerated and encouraged, while there is
nothing to excuse the keeping of the other.
In the case of Vrooman vs. Lawyer, 13 John.
Eep. 339, the court says: " If damage be
done by any animal kept for use or conven-
ience, the owner is not liable to an action
without notice. ' ' The utility of bees no one
will question, and hence there is nothing to
call for the application of a very stringent
rule to the ease. Upon the whole, therefore,
I am clearly of the opinion that the owner
of bees is not liable at all events for any
accidental injury they may do. The question
is still left whether the keeping of bees so
near the highway subjects the defendant to
a responsibility which would not otherwise
rest upon him. I consider this question sub-
stantially disposed of by the evidence in the
case. It appears that the bees had been kept
in the same situation for eight or nine years,
and no proof was offered of the slightest in-
jury having ever been done by them. On the
contrary, some of the witnesses testified
that they had lived in the neighborhood and

LAWS RELATING TO BEES

497

had been in the habit of passing and re-
passing frequently with teams and other-
wise without ever having been molested.
This rebuts the idea of notice to the defend-
ant, either from the nature of the bees or
otherwise, that it would be dangerous to
keep them in that situation; and of course
upon the principles already settled, he could
not be held liable.

The judgment of the county court must be
affirmed.

The two cases last mentioned (Parsons
vs. Manser and Earl vs. Van Alstine) are
in perfect harmony. In the first case the
evidence showed the beekeeper was at
fault; in the second, no negligence of the
beekeeper was proven. From these cases
it can be seen that the law governing the
location of bees is very simple. For a bee-
keeper not to be liable for any injury that
his bees may inflict on some other person
who is acting within his rights the bees
should be located in such a way that the
beekeeper knows or should ordinarily know
that they will not be troublesome, for if he
has knowledge that in the course of ordi-
nary events the bees in the position where
they are located are liable to molest others,
he can be held to answer for whatever dam-
ages they may commit, and that means not
only actual but punitive damages should
the facts warrant.

BEES NOT A NUISANCE.

The liability of a beekeeper for any in-
jury done by the bees to another person or
the property of another rests on the doc-
trine of negligence, and not on the doctrine
or theory that bees are a nuisance per se;
that is, in themselves a nuisance. In the
case of Petey Manufacturing Co. vs. Dry-
den (Del.) 5 Pen. 166; 62 Atl. 1056, the
court used the following language : " The
keeping of bees is recognized as proper
and beneficial, and it seems to us that the
liability of the owner as keeper thereof for
any injury done by them to the person or
propertj^ of another rests on the doctrine
of negligence." Also see Cooley on Torts,
349.

CITY ORDINANCES DECLARING BEES A
NUISANCE.

The right to follow any of the ordinary
callings of life, to pursue any lawful busi-
ness vocation, is one of the privileges oi

citizens of this country; but it must be
done in such a manner as is not incon-
sistent with the equal rights of others.
Butchers Union vs. Crescent City, etc. Ill
U. S. 746; 28 L. Ed. 591.

A city has a right under what is termed
in law " Police Power " to pass ordinances
for the public welfare, evea tho the thing
prohibited limits and restricts some person
in the exercise of a constitutional right, if
the act is for the public health and welfare.
For example, laws prohibiting the main-
taining of slaughter-houses in certain dis-
tricts and the prohibiting of livery stables
on certain streets have been held to be valid
police legislation. But the act specified in
the ordinance must, in the particular in-
stance mentioned therein, be a nuisance.
The mere fact that the city has passed an
ordinance declaring the keeping of bees a
nuisance does not of itself make it so un-
less the bees are in fact a nuisance.

ARKADELPHIA VS. CLARK.

Arkadelphia vs. Clark, 52 Ark. 23; 11
S. W. 957, is a case in point. This particu-
lar ease was decided in 1889, and a report
and history of it was published by Thomas
G. Newman, then General Manager of the
National Beekeepers' Union, for free dis-
tribution to the members. From the his-
tory of the case as given by Newman it
seems that Z. A. Clark, the defendant in
the case, was not in political harmony with
those in power. He was a beekeeper, and
it was sought to punish him and get rid of
his presence by prohibiting the keeping of
bees within the corporate limits of the city
of Arkadelphia. So in May, 1887, the
Arkadelphia city council adopted an ordi-
nance which read :

Be it ordained by the Council of the City
of Arkadelphia, That it shall be unlawful for
any person or persons to own, keep, or raise
bees in the City of Arkadelphia, the same
having been declared a nuisance.

That any person or persons keeping or
owning bees in the City of Arkadelphia are
hereby notified to remove the same from the
corporate limits of Arkadelphia within thirty
days from the dnte hereof.

The ordinance also provided a penalty
of not less than $.'^.00 nor more than
$25.00 for violation of the ordinance.

In June, 1887, Clark was given noticBvto
remove his bees. This he did not do, and

498

LAWS RELATING TO BEES

he was arrested on January 2, 1888, and
fined day after day for ten successive days.
He did not pay his fines, so was committed
to jail by the order of the mayor of Arka-
delphia. Being a member of the National
Beekeepers' Union, he appealed to it for
protection; and as it was considered that
Clark was in the right the National Bee-
keepers' Union engaged attorneys to de-
fend the suit.

The decision as handed down by the
Supreme Court was that " Neither the
keeping, owning, or raising of bees is, in
itself, a nuisance. Bees may become a
nuisance in a city, but whether they are so
or not is a question to be judicially deter-
mined in each case. The ordinance under
consideration undertakes to make each of
the acts named a nuisance without regard
to the fact whether it is or not, or whether
the bees in general have become a nuisance
in the city. It is therefore too broad and
is invalid."

Another instance where a city tried to
prohibit beekeeping within the city oc-
curred in 1901, when the city of Rochester,
N. Y., enacted an ordinance similar to the
one enacted by the city of Arkadelphia.

W. R. Taunton, a member of the Na-
tional Beekeepers' Association, was living
in Rochester. The National Association
had an investigation made, by which it was
ascertained that Taunton was handling his
bees in such a manner as not to annoy his
neighbors, and that he ought to be pro-
tected, so advised him not to remove his
bees, and assured him that in case of trou-
ble the association would defend him.

Taunton was arrested for refusing to
comply -with the ordinance and was tried in
police court. The defense was that the or-
dinance was unconstitutional and void, and
it was so held by the court, and the de-
fendant was discharged.

A case where the bees were, from the
evidence given at the trial, declared to be a
nuisance, is that of Olmsted vs. Rich, 25 N.
Y. S. R. 271; 6 N. Y. Supp. 826, which
was an action for an injunction prohibit-
ing the keeping of bees in a certain place
and for $1500 damages. At the trial the
evidence showed that the beekeeper had a
large number o'f hives of bees on a village
lot adjoining the man who desired the in-
junction, and that during the spring and
Slimmer the bees interfered with the enjoy-

ment of his premises. The bees drove him
and his servants and guests from his gar-
den and grounds, stinging them, and other-
wise making his dwelling and premises un-
fit and unsafe for habitation, constituting
a nuisance. The verdict was against the
beekeeper for six cents dam.ages and a per-
manent injunction was granted, which was
affirmed on appeal.

SHIPPING BEES BY RAIL.

The general rule is, that it is the duty of
a common carrier to carry all freight that
is tendered to be carried. As to the right
to refuse shipment, in Porcher vs. North-
eastern R. R. Co. 14 Rich. L. 181, the court
quoted with approval from Story, Bail-
ments : " If he (the can-ier) refuses to
take charge of the goods because his coach
is full or because they are of a nature
which will at times expose them to extraor-
dinary danger or to popular rage because
he has no convenient means of carrying
such goods with security, etc., these will
furnish reasonable grounds for his refusal,
and will, if true, be a sufficient legal de-
fense to a suit for the non-carriage of
goods." In Boyd vs. Moses, 74 U. S. 7
Wall 316; 19 L. Ed. 192, it was held that
"A carrier may refuse to take lard which
is packed in such a condition that it can-
not be carried without injury to the rest of
the cargo." Also see note in 36 L. R. A.
649.

The law, therefore, appears to be that if
bees are properly packed for shipment it
is the duty of a common carrier of freight
to take them, but should they be not prop-
erly packed for shipment so that the car-
rier could refuse the shipment on any of
the previously stated grounds he could le-
gally refuse to accept them.

LIABILITY OF RAILROADS FOR LOSS IN
SHIPMENT OP BEES.

It is the duty of a railroad to furnish a
proper car when they undertake the trans^
portation of bees; and the railroad com-
pany with which the contract for shipment
is made is liable for injury caused by a de-
fective car, even tho the car has left the
initial road and was in the possession of a
connecting railroad. This was held to be
the law in the case of International and

LAWS RELATING TO FOUL BROOD

499

G. N. R. R. Co. vs. Aten, a Texas case re-
ported in 81 S. W. 316, in which case the
station agent was mformed that the car
was desired for a shipment of bees. The
car furnished was not suitable, and by rea-
son of the car not being suitable the bees
were injured on a connecting railroad.

BEES INJUEIOUS TO FRUIT.

That bees are an essential agent in the
pollination of fruit blossoms, and that they
are never injurious to sound fruit, or in
any way injure fruit trees are matters that
are firmly established.

That bees do not injure fruit or fruit
trees has also been established in a court of
justice to the satisfaction of a jury. It
was in the case of Utter vs. Utter, tried at
Goshen, N. Y., in 1901. As the case was
not appealed from the trial court, the de-
cision is not to be found in the reported
cases. In the Utter case, like the Arka-
delphia case, the bees were merely inciden-
tal. The facts were, that there had been
years of previous trouble between the par-
ties, and the suit over the supposed or
alleged injury caused by the bees was but
the culmination of the long-continued quar-
rels.

It was claimed by the plaintiff that the
bees of defendant ate and destroyed plain-
tiff's peaches, and the trial was to ascertain
if such were the case.

At the trial there appeared as witnesses
for the defense A. I. Root and E. R. Root
of Medina, Ohio ; Frank Benton of Wash-
ington, D. C, and several others promi-
nent in the world of apiculture. Frank
Benton, at that time Assistant Entomolo-
gist of the Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C, by reason of his stand-
ing as a scientist and his general knowledge
of matters pertaining to apiculture, was a
very important witness.

The testimony of Mr. Benton established
the following facts :

That the honeybee has a soft, pliable
tongue, and could not puncture sound
fruit; that the inner tongue of the bee is
spoon-shaped and covered with hairs ; that
the tongue of the bee cannot become rigid ;
that the bee laps up the nectar; and that
the feelers of the bee are soft and cannot
pierce anything, being only organs of
touch and smell. Mr, Benton's further

testimony was to the effect that birds and
other insects do the puncturing, and that
then the bees may suck the wasting juices.

The jury found the bees not guilty of
injuring the fruit and returned a verdict
for the defendant, J. W. Utter.

FRUIT DRYING.

Where fruit is being dried is another
matter, and there is no doubt but that
damage is done by bees to drying fruit if
they are allowed to work upon it. The
sugar that bees carry away from the dry-
ing fruit is deducting just that amount of
weight from the fruit, besides injuring its
appearance. Bees can also make themselves
a nuisance to those at work where fruit is
being dried. In one instance known to the
writer a beekeeper in California by reason
of there having been a poor season in the
mountains brought his bees to the small
town where he lived. The principal crop
in and about this town was fruit, and when
the apricot drying season came on the
bees became so thick on the newly cut
fruit that a large force of girls who wer6
cutting the fruit had to be laid off and
operations stopped for the day. That
night the beekeeper removed his bees some
three miles away, and the next day made a
satisfactory settlement with the fruit-
dryer, and so the trouble ended.

LAWS RELATING TO FOUL BROOD.

— In controlling bee diseases in a commu-
nity, past experience has sho^vn that it is
necessary that every beekeeper do his part ;
otherwise the work done by individuals is
largely nullified by the carelessness or neg-
lect of a few. Where all the beekeepers
are progressive, a simple plan of co-opera-
tion would be enough; but, unfortunately,
there are in almost all communities some
beekeepers who are either ignorant, care-
less, or willfully negligent. If any of these
will not voluntarily care for their bees
there must be some legal means of com-
pelling them to abate a public nuisance
when disease appears among their colonies.

Laws providing for inspection of apia-
ries with the object of controlling diseases
a^e. therefore, drafted prim.arily for the
beekeeper who does not voluntarily treat
di^ea'^ed colonies. The progressive bee-
keeper needs no such law to compel him tg

500

LAWS RELATING TO FOUL BROOD

do his duty. The inspector of apiaries,
however, in actual practice, is much more
than a police officer; in fact, his police
duties are but a small part of his work.
However the law may be worded, the good
which an inspector does is due in the
greater part to his work as an educator.
It is the duty of the inspector, specified in
the law in most cases, to instruct the bee-
keepers how to know disease and how and
when to treat. The great good which has
been done by the various inspectors in the
past has been due almost entirely to this
part of their work.

It would, however, be unwise to set the
inspector to work merely as an educational
officer without any power to enforce his
orders. This has been tried, and appears
to be a failure. There are, unfortunately,
in almost all communities beekeepers who,
from obstinacy or spite, must be driven to
their duty. Most men, however, when once
they learn that they must treat disease will
accept the teachings of the inspector.

Hawaii and the following States now
have laws of some kind providing for in-
spection: Arizona, California, Colorado,
Connecticut, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa,
Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachu-
setts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Ne-
braska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico,
New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Penn-
sylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota,
Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Wash-
ington, West Virginia, Wisconsin. Some-
what similar laws exist in New Zealand,
some States in Australia, Ontario, Ireland,
and parts of Europe. The beekeepers in
several other States are now agitating the
passage of similar laws.

These laws may be divided into two
groups — those in which the work is done
by men employed by the State, and those
in which the county authorities appoint in-
spectors for the county only. Of these the
work by the State officers has proven much
more effective. In States where the coun-
ties are small, as in the East, county in-
spection is practically of no value.

In California the county plan for in-
spection has given fairly good results. The
counties are very large, some of them as
large or larger than some States in the
East. However, it has been felt that the
State ought to have one general State Bee
Inspector or State Bee Adviser, so that the

work of the various counties would corre-
late a little better than it does now.

The chief weakness in county inspection
is the lack of co-operation among the in-
spectors in neighboring counties. The dif-
ference in the ordinances or laws neces-
sarily make inspection in one county more
rigid than in another. In some cases, there
is not only a lack of co-operation, but too
often a jealousy between the various bee
inspectors. In California this could be
remedied by having a State Apiarist who
might have more or less of a supervision of
the various inspectors or bee advisers of
the various counties. Where the States are
smaller and likewise the counties, the
scheme of county inspection has proven to
be a failure

Practically all laws in force, whether
State or county, provide for inspection of
apiaries; penalties for resisting the en
trance of the inspector on the premises:
penalties for failing to comply with in
structions for treatment if the hives are
found to be diseased, and penalties for
selling or bartering bees, hives, or appli
ances before the apiary has been pro
nounced free of disease. Usually addi
tional provision is made for more than one
inspection of queen-rearing yards. This, is
very wise as they might spread infection
far and wide.

Several laws of the various States are
based on the Ohio law, a copy of which is
here given. Such a law is practicable
where there is a State Board of Agricul-
ture, with sufficient funds to carry on, not
only its general work, but any additional
special work, like bee inspection.

APICULTURAL INSPECTION LAW OF OHIO

Section 1155-1. The Ohio State Board ot
Agriculture is hereby authorized to establish
a division of apiary inspection in the Ohio
department of agriculture, and to appoint
a competent entomologist as the chief inspec-
tor of said division, and the necessary assist-
ants, who shall, under the direction of the
board, have charge of the inspection of apia-
ries as hereinafter provided; he may imesti-
gate, or cause to be investigated, apiaries as
hereinafter provided; he may investigate or
cause to be investigated outbreaks of bee dis-
eases and cause suitable measures to be taken
for their eradication or control.

Section 1155-2. The inspector or his assist-
ants shall, when notified in writing by the
owner of an apiary, or by any three disinter-
ested tax-payers, examine all reported apia-

LAWS RELATING TO FOUL BROOD

501

ries, and all others in the same locality not
reported, and ascertain whether or not the
diseases known as American foul brood or
European foul brood, or any other disease
which is infectious or contagious in its nature,
and injurious to honeybees in their egg, lar-
val, pupal, or adult stages exists in such api3
ries; and if satisfied of the existence of anj
such diseases he shall give the owners or care-
takers of the diseased apiaries full instruc-
tions how to treat such cases, as in the in-
spector's judgment seems best.

Section 1155-3. The inspector or his assist-
ant shall visit all diseased apiaries a second
time, after ten days, and, if need be, burn
all colonies of bees that he may find not
cured of such disease, and all honey and ap-
pliances which would spread disease, without
recompense to the owner, lessee, or agent
thereof.

Section 1155-4. If the owner of an apiary,
honey, or appliances wherein disease exists
shall sell, barter, or give away, or move with-
out the consent of the inspector any diseased
bees (be they queens or workers), colonies,
honey, or appliances, or expose other bees to
the danger of such disease, said owner shall,
on conviction thereof, be fined not less than
fifty dollars nor more than one hundred dol
lars, or imprisoned not less than one month
nor more than two months or both.

Section 1155-5. For the enforcement of the
provisions of this act the State inspector of
apiaries or his duly authorized assistants shall
have access, ingress, and egress to all apiaries
or places where bees are kept; and any per-
son or persons who shall resist, impede, or hin-
der in any way the inspector of apiaries in
the discharge of his duties under the provi-
sions of this act shall^ on conviction thereof,
be fined not less than fifty dollars nor more
than one hundred dollars, or imprisoned not
less than one month nor more than two month?
or both.

Section 1155-6. After inspecting infected
hives or fixtures or handling diseased bees,
the inspector or his assistant shall, before
leaving the premises or proceeding to any
other apiary, thoroly disinfect any portion of
his own person and clothing and any tools
or appliances used by him which have come
in contact with infected material, and shall
see that any assistant or assistants with him
have likewise thoroly disinfected their persons
and clothing and any tools and implements
used by them.

Section 1155-7. It shall be the duty of any
person in the State of Ohio, who is engaged in
the rearing of queen bees for sale, to use
honey in the making of candy for use in
mailing-cages which has been boiled for at
least thirty minutes. Any such person en-
gaged in the rearing of queen bees shall have
Ms queen-rearing apiary or apiaries inspected
at least twice each summer season; and on
the discovery of the existence of any disease
which is infectious or contagious in its na-
ture and injurious to bees in their egg,
larval, pupal, or adult stages, said person

shall at once cease to ship queen bees from
such diseased apiary until the inspector of
apiaries shall declare the said apiary free
from all disease. Any person engaged in
the rearing of queens who violates the pro-
visions of this section shall, on conviction
thereof, be fined not less than one hundred
dollars nor more than two hundred dollars.

Section 1155-8. The Ohio State Board of
Agriculture shall make an annual report to
the governor of the State concerning the oper-
ations of the division of apiary inspection,
which shall give the number of apiaries in-
spected, the number of colonies treated and
destroyed by the direction of the chief inspec-
tor, and such other information as may be
deemed necessary.

Section 2. That sections, 5853, 5854, 5855,
5856, 5857, 5858, 5859, 5860, 5861, 5862, 5863,
5670, and 13368 of the General Code be and
the same are hereby repealed.

The above is a correct copy of the apiary-
inspection law now in force.

N. E. Shaw, Chief Inspector.
Effective May 21, 1910.

The few years that this law has been in
force has shown that some changes might
be made to advantage. Section 1155-3,
where the funds are somewhat limited, has
not been found to be workable. It would
make a large expense for the inspector to
come back in ten days and reinspect. The
section should authorize the inspector or
assistant to use his discretion. In ninety-
nine cases out of a hundred the average
man is very willing to act on instructions
for treatment.

In section 1155-4 the owner of bees hav-
ing disease shall not sell, barter, nor give
away, without the consent of the inspector,
any diseased bees, colonies, hives, nor ap-
pliances, including honey. There is reaUy
no objection to one selling honey in the
general market. To require the owner of
a diseased apiary not to sell his crop, that
might be worth several thousand dollars,
would be an unnecessary restriction and
hardship. The presumption is that honey
in supers will be free from disease anyway ;
and even if it were diseased it could not
possibly a:ffect human beings. However,
the Ohio law aUows the inspector to give
his consent to sell either the honey or the
bees. So the matter is up to his discretion.

THE IOWA PLAN.

There is a general defect in not only the
Ohio law, but in practically every foul-
brood law in the United States, with the

I

502

LAWS RELATING TO FOUL BROOD

exception of Iowa, reference to which will
be made fuither on. With this exception
all the laws clothe the bee inspector with
police authority, under which he may arrest
a person refusing to obey his instructions
or destroying his property, or both. The
very fact that he may exercise such author-
ity very often causes a feeling of antagon-
ism on the part of the person whose bees
are to be inspected.

Frank C. Pellett, formerly of Iowa, now
Assistant Editor of the American Bee
Journal at Hamilton, 111., was for a num-
ber of years inspector of Iowa. He came
to the conclusion that the law of that State
based on the old plan of coercion or " the
big stick " ought to be modified, and he
had it changed. Instead of clothing the
state apiarist or inspector with police
authority, the new law makes him a bee
adviser or bee lecturer, whose chief and
only function is to give instruction on how
to keep bees and keep them better. In-
stead of going to a beekeeper as a police
officer, he goes to him as an agent of the
State, with the glad hand, ready to assist
and help in any way he can in his general
bee work. A part of his duties is to give
instructions on how to distinguish and how
to treat the various form.s of disease. This
policy at the very outset secures the good
will of the beekeeper, and instead of oppo-
sition, his co-operation in eradicating bee
disease is secured.

In order that this bee adviser or state
apiarist may reach a large number he an-
nounces that a meeting will be held at Mr.
So-and-So's apiary on such a date. This
is widely advertised with the result that he
will have, instead of only one beekeepe--,
two or three dozen to whom he can give hi^
instruction. This enables him to cover the
entire state, which he can not do under the
old plan of visiting one beekeeper at a
time, often finding him not at home.

Whenever a case arises where a bee-
keeper is negligent or refuses to carr}'- out
certain instructions for the eradication of
disease, the bee inspector instead of caus-
ing the arrest of such individual and the
destruction of his property, places the
whole matter in the hands of the properly
constituted authorities, the prosecutor and
the sheriff. The sheriff under this kind of
law will have the moral backing of prac-
tically all the beekeepers, with the result

that Mr. Bee Man, who refuses to comply
with the instructions of the bee adviser
bumps up against the regularly constituted
authorities, whose business it is to see that
the laws are enforced.

In Iowa the plan here outlined has given
most excellent results.

A BILL FOE AN ACT

Creating the office of State Apiarist at the
Iowa State College of Agriculture and Me-
chanic Arts in connection with the work in
entomology and agriculture, providing foi
the inspection of bees and the prevention of
disease among the same, making appropria-
tions therefor, and to repeal the law as it
now appears in sections twenty-five hundred
seventy-five-a-fifty-three (2575-a-53) inclusive,
supplement to the code, 1913.

Be it enacted by the General Assembly of
the State of Iowa :

Section 1.— That the State Board of Edu-
cation is authorized and directed to appoint
a State Apiarist who shall work in connec-
tion and under the supervision of the director
of Agricultural extension and the professor
of Entomology of the Iowa State College of
Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, the term of
said Apiarist to commence on the first day of
July, 1917, and continue during the pleasure
of said Board of Education.

Section 2. — It shall be the duty of the said
apiarist to give lectures and demonstrations
in the State of Iowa on the production of
honey, the care of the apiary, the marketing
of honey, and upon other kindred subjects
relative to the care of the bees and the
profitable production of honey. Upon the
written request of one or more beekeepers in
any county of the State, said apiarist sha'.l
examine the bees in that locality suspected of
being affected wdth foul brood or any other
contagious or infectious disease common to
bees. If upon examination the said apiarist
finds that said bees to be diseased he shall
furnish the owner or person in charge of said
apiary with full written instructions as to the
nature of the disease and the best methods
of treating the same, which information shall
be furnished without cost to the owner. Said
apiarist shall also make an annual report to
the Governor, stating the number of apiaries
visited, number of examinations made, num-
ber of demonstrations held, number of lec-
tures given, together with such other matters
of general interest concerning the business
of beekeeping as in his judgment shall be of
interest and value to the public.

Section 3. — Any one who knowingly sells,
barters, or gives away, moves or allows to be
moved, a diseased colony or colonies of bees,
without the consent of the State Apiarist, or
exposes any infected honey or infected appli-
ances to the bees, or who willingly fails or
neglects to give proper treatment to diseased
colonies shall be deemed guilty of misde-
meanor, and, upon conviction thereof before

LAYING WORKERS

503

any justice of the peace of the county, shall
be fined not exceeding the sum of fifty
($50.00) dollars or imprisonment in the
county jail not exceeding thirty days.
Section 4. — Appropriations * * *

Dr. E. F. Phillips of the Bureau of En-
tomology, Washington, D. C, who has had
an opportunity to have a direct knowledge
of the workings of the various state laws
under the old system, says the Iowa plan
is much to be preferred. He also says that
the spread of bee disease over the country
is due more to ignorance many times over
than to wilfulness — and he is right.

Those who have examined into the mer-
its of the Iowa plan give it as their opinion
that it would be far more effective than
the plan outlined under the Ohio law.

LAYING WORKERS.— These queer in-
mates, or, rather, occasional inmates, of the
hive are worker bees that lay eggs. Aye,
and the eggs they lay hatch too; but they
hatch only drones, and never worker bees.
The drones are rather smaller than the
drones produced by a queen, but they are
nevertheless drones, in every respect, so far
as we can discover. It may be well to re-
mark, that ordinary worker bees are not
neuters, as they are sometimes called; they
are considered undeveloped females. Micro-
scopic examination shows an undeveloped
form of the special organs found in the
queen, and these organs may become, at
any time, sufficiently developed to allow the
bee to lay eggs, but never to allow of fer-
tilization by meeting the drone as the queen
does. See Paethenogenesis^ Dzierzon
Theory and Queens.

CAUSE OF LAYING WORKERS.

It has been over and over again sug-
gested that bees capable of this egg-laying
duty are those reared in the vicinity of
queen-cells, and that by some means they
have received a small portion of the royal
jelly necessary to their development as bee-
mothers. This theory has been entirely dis-
proved by many experiments; and it is
now pretty generally conceded that laying
workers may make their appearance in any
colony or nucleus that has been many days
queenless, and without the means, of rear-
ing a queen. With Cyprians, Syrians, and
their crosses the laying workers are com-

mon, even tho the colony has a good queen ;
and a case is known of a yearling queen in
full vigor, a queen a few weeks old and
reared in the same colony, and scores of
laying workers, aU busily laying on the
same combs. The stock was Cyprian. Not
only may one bee take upon herself these
duties, but there may be many of them;
and wherever the beekeeper has been so
careless as to leave his bees destitute of
either brood or queen for two or three weeks,
he is liable to find evidences of their pres-
ence, in the shape of eggs scattered about
promiscuously; sometimes one, but oftener
half a dozen in a single cell.

Sometimes the eggs will be found stuck
on the sides of the cell. In that case it is
evident the laying worker cannot reach the
bottom of the ceU. Very often there will
be found several eggs in a queen-cell.

If the matter has been going on for some
time, he will see now and then a drone
larva, and sometimes two or three crowding
each other in their single cell; sometimes
they start queen-cells over this drone larva ;
the poor motherless orphans, seeming to
feel that something is wrong, are disposed,
like a drowning man, to catch at any straw.

HOW TO GET RID OF LAYING WORKERS.

Prevention is better than cure. If a col-
ony, from any cause, become queenless, be
sure it has unsealed brood of the proper
age to raise a queen; and when one is
raised, be sure that she becomes fertile. It
can never do any harm to give a queenless
colony eggs and brood, and it may be the
saving of it. But suppose one has been so
careless as to allow a colony to become
queenless and get weak, what is he to do?
If he attempts to give them a queen, and
fertile workers are present, she will be
pretty sure to get stung; it is sometimes
difficult to get them to accept even a queen-
cell. The poor bees get into a habit of
accepting the egg-laying workers as a
queen, and they will have none other until
they are removed ; yet we cannot find them,
for they are just like any other bee; we
may get hold of them, possibly, by care-
fully noticing the way in which the other
bees deport themselves toward them, or we
may catch them in the act of egg-laying;
but even this often fails, for there may be
several such in the hive at once. We may

504

LAYING WORKERS

give the bees a strip of comb containing
eggs and brood, but tbey will seldom start
a good queen-cell, if they start any at all;
for, in the majority of cases, a colony hav-
ing laying workers seems perfectly demor-
alized, so far as getting into regular work
is concerned.

It is almost impossible to introduce a
laying queen to such colonies; for as soon
as she is released from the cage she will
be stung to death. No better results would
follow from introducing an ordinary vir-
gin; but the giving of a queen-cell, or a
just-hatched virgin, if the colony has not
been too long harboring laying workers,
will very often bring about a change for
the better. In such cases the cell will be
accepted, and in due course of time there
will be a laying queen in place of the laying
worker or workers; but often cells will be
destroyed as fast as they are given. The
only thing then to be done is to scatter
brood and bees among several other colo-
nies, perhaps one or two frames in each.
From each of these same colonies take a
frame or two of brood with adhering bees,
and put them into the laying-worker hive.
The bees of this hive, which have been
scattered into several hives, will for the
most part return ; but the laying worker or
workers will remain and in all probability
be destroyed in the other hives. Of course,
the colonies that have been robbed of good
brood will suffer somewhat; but if it is
after the honey season, no great harm will
have been done. They will proceed to clean
up the combs; and if they do not need the
drones as hatched they will destroy them.

See that every hive contains, at all times,
during the spring and summer months at
least, brood suitable for rearing a queen,
and you will never see laying workers.

HOW TO DETECT THE PRESENCE OF LAYING
WORKERS.

If no queen is found and eggs are scat-
tered around promiscuously, some in drone-
and some in worker-cells, some attached to
the side of the cell, instead of the center of
the bottom, where the queen lays them,
several in one cell and none in the next, it
may be assumed that laying workers are
present. Still later, if the worker-brood
is capped with the high convex cappings,
it indicates clearly that the brood will never

hatch out worker bees. Finding two or
more eggs in a cell is never conclusive, for
the queen often so deposits them in a
feeble colony where there are not bees
enough to cover the brood. The eggs de-
posited by a fertile queen are usually in
regular order, as one would plant a field of
corn; but those from laying workers, and
usually from drone-laying queens, are ir-
regularly scattered about.

LAUREL. — See Poisonous Honey.
LINDEN.— See Basswood.

LIVE-BEE DEMONSTRATION.— See

Honey Exhibits.

LOCALITY.— This has a great influence
in beekeeping. Many of the manipulations
recommended in one locality will not an-
swer for another. A hive well adapted to
one place might give indifferent results
elsewhere with different conditions. The
length of the honey flow, the time it comes
on, whether the nectar comes in a rush for
three or four weeks at a time as it does in
the East, or whether the flow extends over
a period of three or four months, coming
in very slowly, are all conditions the bee-
keeper must study and be able to meet. A
slow honey flow, continuing over a period
of four or five months, may require an
altogether different hive or management.
It may render the production of comb
honey impracticable, for the reason the
combs will be travel-stained, and therefore
not fit to compete with honey from other
localities. On the other hand, a short rapid
honey flow, as in the basswood regions, and
where the honey is mainly white, and of
good flavor, makes the production of comb
honey more profitable than extracted as a
rule.

Locality has a bearing on the kind of
treatment the bees should receive. If there
is no honey after the first or middle of
July, and the beekeeper is located in a
region where snow falls in winter, and
where cold winter prevails for five or six
months, he will have to make some plans to
keep down brood-rearing after the honey
flow, and arrange to get the bees in the best
possible condition for cold weather. He
will probably have to feed, and then in the
spring he will be compelled to stimulate

LOCALITY

505

brood-rearing to a high pitch as soon as the
bees can fly, thus getting the colonies strong
at the beginning of the honey flow. If,
however, one is located in the South he
must see that his bees have a large amount
of stores; for in a warm climate they will
consume more than in the North, where it
is cold. While the beekeeper of the colder
regions tries to prevent his bees from dying
during the winter, he who is located in the
South endeavors to prevent his bees from
starving until the next honey flow.

THE BEST STATES FOR KEEPING BEES.

We are very often asked the question as
to the best location in the United States for
keeping bees as a business. We usually
advise the inquirer to stay right where he
is.

Undoubtedly California, of all the States
in the Union, leads off in the aggregate
amount of honey produced. The best por-
tions of the State are within 200 miles of
Los Angeles. The chief sources of honey
are cotton in Imperial County, alfalfa in
several of the counties, mountain sage, bean
and orange in the southern half of the
State. Mountain sage depends almost whol-
ly on the amount of rainfall. Alfalfa and
orange are more regular, because when
there is a failure of the rains irrigation
comes in to help out; but fog and cool
weather sometimes even then prevent the
bees from getting the honey. The winters
in California are hard on the bees, not be-
cause the climate is cold, but because the
temperature drops from 60 to 70 in the
middle of the day down to 50 and below
freezing at night. This causes breeding,
and many bees to fly out in the day time
and get lost. These conditions make it
necessary for the beekeepers in California
to study local conditions very carefully be-
fore they can make a success of the busi-
ness.

There is not much open territory left,
but more wiU be available as soon as the
roads can be run up into the mountain
country where sage is abundant. The citrus
groves are expanding very rapidly and
these in time will open up more bee-range.

On account of the severe changes during
the winter from warm to cold in 24 hours,
many of the colonies are weak, with the
result that they become easy prey to the

ravages of European foul brood. Bee dis-
ease and the lack of rains have held back
the industry in the State.

In the central and northern parts of
California, the seasons are more depend-
able, but the good locations are by no
means as numerous. In Imperial County,
the crops are sure and the yields large, but
the territory is all taken up.

Colorado, Montana, Wyoming, Arizona,
New Mexico, Utah, Idaho, in the irrigated
portions^ sometimes show wonderful results
in honey; but in several of the States
named, where the bee-range is at all good,
the country is overstocked with bees and
beekeepers, and one can scarcely get into
one of the places without buying out some-
body already in the field.

Texas as an all-around bee proposition
is one of the best bee States in the Union.
It is not over-populated yet, and there are
very many desirable bee-ranges within its
borders, but some seasons it has severe
drouths resulting in a failure of the honey
crop and the death of many colonies from
starvation.

Kansas and Nebraska are good bee States,
having usually good fall flows; but some-
times either or both have fearful drouths
that kiU nearly all vegetation, rendering
farming as well as beekeeping, for that
season, almost a failure.

Oklahoma as a bee State is coming for-
ward very rapidly. The climate is mild,
and soil conditions good.

Among the Eastern States, New York is
one of the best because it has, in addition
to clover and basswood, immense acreages
of buckwheat, which on those hills yields
immense quantities of honey. Wisconsin
and Minnesota were formerly good local-
ities for basswood; but that desirable tree
for timber as well as honey is now being
rapidly cut off, and the main stay will be,
as with the other States, white clover, with
a large sprinkling of sweet clover along the
roadsides and railways.

Most of the North-central States have
conditions that are practically the same,
reaching from Minnesota to Maine, and
continuing down the Ohio River and Ches-
apeake Bay. While the amount of honey
secured in these localities is less per col-
ony, the price it brings is higher, because
in this portion of the United States the
centers of population are located. Thru-

506

LOCUST

out the South, east of the Mississippi, the
honey secured is very good, mostly ex-
tracted, and the flow covers a long period;
but the quality is not quite equal to the
honey of the North.

There is some desirable bee territory in
Florida, but as in California the seasons

grove is a good yielder. Migratory bee-
keeping is found to be fairly profitable on
the Florida Keys. (See Migeatory Bee-
keeping.) In general, beekeeping in Flor-
ida is no more profitable than in some of
the Northern States. The great advantage
of Florida is from the standpoint of health.

are not always dependable. In a good year
large quantities of tupelo honey are pro-
duced in northern Florida, particularly
along the Apalachicola River. Palmetto
and orange blossom yield a light crop in
central and southern Florida; and in a
good year along the Florida Keys man-

Common locust.

and on this account much of the available
bee territory is overstocked.

LOCUST {Robinia Pseudo-Acacia L.). —
Variously called common locust, yellow
locust, white locust, and false locust. This
is one of the finest honey trees of the East-

LOGWOOD

507

ern and Southern States. It belongs to the
great family of the Leguminosae, which in-
cludes many of the best honey plants, as
the clovers, acacias, vetches, peas, and
beans. It is a native of the mountains
from Pennsylvania to Georgia, and west-
ward to Missouri and Arkansas ; but it has
become extensively naturalized in Canada,
New England, and the Eastern States.
Large plantations of it have been made for
timber. The wood is hard and very dur-
able, and is much used for posts. There is a
saying that stone will crumble before locust
Avill rot. The tree grows to great size, and
is long-lived except when attacked by bor-
ers. It spreads rapidly by sprouts rising
from the roots, which run for long dis-
tances near the surface. When the trees
are cut or killed by borers the roots send
up a great many sprouts, which grow very
rapidly and flower within two or three
years.

The white fragrant flowers resemble pea
blossoms, but are in pendant clusters like
those of wisteria. It blossoms in May and
June, remains in bloom for about 10 days,
and yields an immense amount of milk-
white honey, of heavy body and mild flavor.
Two other species of locust occur in eastern
America. The clammy locust, or E. viscosa,
is similar to the above ; but its flowers are
tinged with pink and are inodorous. It is
a native of the mountains from Virginia to
Georgia, but it has been introduced in the
North, where it seems perfectly hardy.
The other species, bristly locust or rose
acacia {U. hispida), is a shrub growing
from three to ten feet high. The stems are
covered with bristles, hence the name. The
flowers are large, rose-colored, and not fra-
grant, and are few in a cluster. It is a
native of the mountains from Virginia to
Georgia, but has also been introduced and
become established in the North. While of
no particular value as a honey plant, it is
very beautiful as a cultivated shrub.

LOGrWOOD {Haematoxylon campechia-
num). — A tree found in the West Indies
and Central America. It is primarily a
dyewood. The dye is extracted from the
heart of the tree. In its early stages, this
heart is only a small colored core; but as
development continues, it enlarges, until in
full maturity there is but little sap between
heart and skin. The dyewood is prepared

for shipment by digging up the tree, roots
and all, chipping away the outer sap wood,
thus leaving the colored core ready to be
rendered into dye.

There are large areas in the tropics
where this tree is the predominating
growth. When the full bloom is on, many
square miles of country become suffused
with the mellow beauty of its golden blos-
soms, the delicate and pleasing perfume of
which is everywhere paramount. We know
no finer honey than that of the logwood
blossom. It is almost water-white, very
dense, and possesses a peculiarly pleasing
flavor — in fact, it seems to embody the
primal fragrance of the bloom.

In Jamaica logwood is the principal
source of honey. This is true both as re-
gards quality and quantity. One may usu-
ally count on two main flowerings — one
occurring in November, and the other about
Christmas time. The first is not so much to
be depended on, as it is usually light, and
besides there are about that time other
honey sources productive of inferior qual-
ity— " bitter bush," for instance — so that
the finished combs held up to the light re-
veal a patchwork of various colors. Even
in extracted honey, it is almost impossible
to effect a separation. This mixed flow,
however, is peculiarly valuable as it enableb
the beekeeper to fill his brood-nest and
catch the main logwood flow in the supers.

The second or main flow occurs about
Christmas, and may last all thru January.
Here lies the hope of the apiarist. Two
factors then contribute to his crop. The
first is the condition of his colonies. They
must be ready, or the finest honey of the
year goes to brood and brood-combs. Even
if barrels of sugar have to be fed, a super
should be on every hive, and bees in the
supers by the middle of December. This
done, the beeman's end has been accom-
plished. But there is another factor: Rain.
We have watched the great strings of buds
drooping heavily downward, and while for-
ests beaded with folded blossoms all ready
to burst — one factor was missing — rain.
We have seen, while full apiaries waited,
the untempered torrid sun burn the blos-
soms into crumbled dust. But, let the rains
fall at the proper juncture, and thousands
of acres burst into fairyland. We have
seen evenings when everything looked
hopeless. That night a shower fell. At

508

MANGROVE, BLACK

daybreak the apiary was a-roar, and the
clear atmosphere was black with bees. Of
course, the duration of the principal bloom
is also dependent upon light intermittent
showers. There have been seasons when
the main bloom lasted for six weeks, and
individual colonies made as high as 500
pounds.

Is there no danger of the logwood forests
being depleted? Hardly, unless by inten-
tional transfer of industry. The tree grows
of its own accord, and the growth is so
abundant that the planter, so far from
planting trees, has to thin out the yearly
natural propagation. Otherwise the log-

wood estate needs little attention. The
main expense is to prepare the mature
stock for market, and this consists in pay-
ing laborers so much per ton for " chip-
ping." Owing, however, to the rapid in-
troduction of aniline dyes, the logwood in-
dustry is being supplanted by others that
are more profitable — such as cultivation of
sugar cane, bananas, etc. But where a
genuine logwood estate can be found, the
beekeeper can afford to establish an apiary
of some 500 colonies.

LUCERNE.— See Alfalfa.

M

MAGNOLIA. {Magnolia foetida (L.)
Sarg.). — English names are laurel bay and
bull bay. The noblest tree of all the mag-
nolia family grows to a height of 40 feet
in its native habitat, the deep hammocks,
straight and heavily branching. The leaves
are dark, rich green, smooth and glossy on
the upper side, of a rusty-velvety nature
below. The blossoms are the crowning
glory. They are large and showy, like huge
creamy-white saucers, gradually turning
brown as they mature and fade. They are
rich in pollen, and the bees become fairly
steeped in the dust as they gather the nec-
tar from the stiff yellow stamens at the
center of the white saucer-like flower. An
analysis of samples of honey sent to the
government experts at "Washington, from
the vicinity of DeLand, Florida, always re-
veals the presence of pollen grains from
the magnolia, showing that it is a good
yielder of honey. It comes along with
holly, and often with scrub palmetto, so
that it is never secured alone. Even back
from the hammocks it is extensively planted
for shade and avenue trees, and the number
of these trees used for ornament is so large
that they make considerable showing in the
activity of the bees in localities that would
not otherwise feel their influence.

MANaROVE, BLACK {Avicenma niti-
da Jacq.). — Never in the history of honey-
producing plants has any single source
yielded the results or attracted the atten-
tion of the public as has the black man-
grove of southern Florida. Of the vervain
family, the black mangrove is an evergreen
maritime shrub or tree— shrub in northern
limits, tree further south. It flourishes
best on the small islands and keys that
fringe the shore on both eastern and west-
ern coasts, where the salt water keeps its
feet seasoned with brine, tho not necessari-
ly under water. It does not grow much
north of the 29th parallel — that is, about
the range of Ormond, on the east coast. It
needs to be kept distinct in mind from the
red mangrove {Uhizophora Mangle, L.),
and the white mangrove (Laguneularia
recemosa, Gaertn) whose habitat is similar
to that of the black mangrove, only it does
not need salt water to flourish. The white
mangrove belongs to the pomegranate fam-
ily, and is also called buttonwood. (See
BUTTONWOOD.) The black mangrove, when
a tree, resembles a scraggy old oak, the bark
being a gray hue and the surface rough
and uneven. It attains a trunk diameter of
four feet at its base, and even greater in the
extreme southern portion of the state and

Mangrove, black

509

on the Keys. It usually grows back of the
red mangrove, if both grow together, the
red being a soil gatherer, on the fringes
and shell reefs, and the black forming soil
back of that. Both are valuable in this
particular of catching drift and lodging
humus and gradually transforming the
shallows into reefs and islands, and ulti-
mately into solid earth. It does not, like
the red, require a sea-bath every day, but

Black mangrove on the riglit ; red mangrove on
left.

must have salt water in the subsoil. The
leaves are short-stemmed, fuzzy in ap-
pearance when young, soon becoming
smooth and tough. The shape is oblong, a
little larger just above and below the mid-
dle. The leaves are bright green above,
pale beneath, speckled with fine specks that
gleam with a peculiar metallic glint. The
flowers are inconspicuous, of a yellowish-
green hue, blossoming in a spike or head,
the same flower stalk carrying both old and
new blossoms at the same time. This pe-
culiarity lengthens out the bloom-period
very considerably, which lasts from six to
eight weeks in most favorable seasons. The
wood closely resembles ebony in color and
weight, and when used as fuel, makes an
intense heat and burns with a peculiar
crackling sputter. The stove door must

not be tightly closed in burning the wood
or it will not burn steadily. On the small
islands thick set on the Indian River, and
even further north, along the east shore of
Florida from Ormond, south, are thousands
of acres of the black mangrove, now from
six to ten feet high, shrubs of considerable
size. This is the paradise of beemen, or
was before " the freeze " of 1894. But if
the name is "black," the honey is white.
It is the whitest honey in Florida, with per-
haps the single exception of cabbage pal-
metto. The body is rather thin, tho better
in that on the Keys than on the mainland.
In flavor it is very sweet and mild, and has
just the barest suggestion of brackishness
about it, due either to the soil or the vicin-
ity of the salt marshes. The brackishness
is not at all objectionable. The honey is
usually pronounced first class, and ranks
with the four best honeys of Florida —
namely, the white tupelo, the orange, the
scrub palmetto, and the mangrove. Up to
the year of the " big freeze " in 1894 it
was without exception the greatest yielder
of honey of any plant or tree in the world.
As much as 400 lbs. from one hive in one
season from black mangrove has been re-
corded. The severe cold of the year named
froze down the mangrove on the coasts,
and it took 18 years to recover. It began
to yield honey again in small quantities
first in 1909. Since that time the bushes
have been increasing in size, and the yields
have grown also, tho it has not yet shown
anything like its former secretion. Like
most sea-coast yielders it seems very sensi-
tive to temperature and humidity changes
and conditions. In 1911, for example, in
the vicinity of the 29th parallel it started
in to yield well, and all seemed prosperous.
The bees began to show their old-time zeal,
leaving their hives for the marshes almost
before dawn, and lingering there till after
dusk, roaring across the intervening coves
incessantly; but after about two weeks of
such work, weather conditions suddenly al-
tered, and hardly a bee was seen again on
the blossoms, altho they continued to grow
and fade as before. When conditions are
just right the honey can be seen in large
drops, shining in the tiny cups, and a bee
can load up from a single blossom. Over-
stocking could never be a bugbear in a
mangrove section if conditions were just
right. The cabbage palmetto usually

,510

MANIPULATION OF COLONIES

blooms at the same time as the black man-
grove, so that the two honeys usually
blend. (See Palmetto^ Cabbage.) In
earlier days " migratory beekeeping " to
the vicinity of Hawks Park was practiced
from many points up and down the coast,
and from inland localities, from 50 or more
miles distant. The severe cold weather of
one or two years put an end to that prac-
tice. Whether or not former conditions
will return remains to be seen.

MANIPULATION OF COLONIES.—

Success or failure in the bee business de-
pends ver^^ largely on manipulation. Colo-
nies can be so handled as to make the busi-
ness an entire failure. Sometimes im-
proper handling so disgusts the would-be
beekeeper that he never becomes one. Tem-
peramentally he may not be fitted for the
business, or else mentally he may be inca-
pable of acquiring the art of handling
them. A great majority of persons, how-
ever, who love honey and who enjoy out-
door work, have no difficulty in learning to
handle what perhaps a few erroneously
regard as a " mighty dangerous proposi-
tion." Over and over the statement has
been made, " Bees would sting me, even if
I were half a mile away from them. The
further I am away from them, the better I
like it." There is a sort of silly fear, on
the part of a few at least, that bees are
" mighty dangerous animals," and that
their disposition is to rule or ruin, and to
take possession of the field because they
are possessed of that small but mighty
weapon, the sting. Nothing could be fur-
ther from the truth.

There is probably not one person in a
hundred who is not perfectly capable of
handling bees. Whether he can make money
or honey out of them is not a question so
easy to answer, but that he can learn to
handle them — that he can overcome all nat-
ural fear and prejudice — has been demon-
strated by thousands who have commenced
beekeeping, and know no fear of them.

Under the head of Anger uf Bees and
under Stings it is shown that bees are not
the irascible little creatures that many
peopxvi suppose; that they are, on the con-
trary, when their nature is carefully stud-
ied, as gentle as kittens; and when one
goes about it in the right way, they can be
handled almost as safely. (See A B C of

Beekeeping at the beginning of this
work.) But one cannot thoroly know this
until he has actually opened a hive or seen
it opened, and actually handled the combs
for himself. This is not saying bees will
not sting when handled improperly or at
the wrong time.

The beginner should understand that bees
can be worked very much better when
weather conditions are right. The day
should be warm, the sun shining, and the
time selected for the manipulation between
ten in the morning and three in the after-
noon. Experienced beekeepers can handle
them at any time under practically all con-
ditions; but even the veterans endeavor to
do it when they can work to the best advan-
tage. In early spring or late in the fall,

or when the atmosphere is chilly, or at any
time immediately following a rain, or after
a sudden stoppage of the honey flow, bees
are inclined to be cross. When it is cold,
the bee glue in the hives is brittle. In order
to open a colony at such times it is neces-
sary to break this bee glue with a snap or
jar. This always has a tendency to irritate
the bees, even when weather conditions are
favorable. The beginner at least should
select his time, and of course will endeavor
to make his movements very deliberate,
avoiding very quick jerky actions, all snaps
or jars. There are times when one will be
compelled to open hives when the bee glue
snaps and when the bees sting ; but he will

MANIPULATION OF COLONIES

then have the experience and proper appli-
ances for doing the work.

Before we attempt to go into details of
manipulation it will be necessary to con-
sider tools and conveniences, without which
the handling of colonies would be difficult
or even impossible at times. There are
several essentials which may be mentioned
in the order of their importance : A bee-
smoker (see Smokers) for quieting the
bees; a bee-veil (see Veils), and suitable
clothing for protection against stings, and
some form of knife, screwdriver, or hive-
tool to separate the frames and parts of
the hive from each other that are usually
stuck together with bee glue. Without the
smoker and its intelligent use one would
feel ahuost inclined to go back to the days
of our forefathers when they brimstoned
their bees (see Box Hives). But with
smoke properly applied, one can render
perfectly tractable bees that would be oth-
erwise nervous and hard to handle. Even
when conditions are bad, weather chilly and
propolis hard, they can generally be
brought under perfect control. The intel-
ligent use of the smoker will often render
the use of the veil unnecessary; and not a
few experienced beekeepers do not use a
veil constantly, but have it conveniently
hanging from the hat, whence it can be
pulled down whenever necessary. A bee-
veil, however, is generally worn by veter-
ans and beginners alike all the time while
at work among bees. It is annoying and
disconcerting to have cross bees buzzing
around the face with the possibility of a
sting in the eye, nose, or mouth. The be-
ginner will always have a greater sense of
security when his face is protected, and the
old hand works with less interruption.

Gloves (see Gloves) are recommended
to the novice when he opens a hive for the
first time. After he has learned the habits
of bees he may dispense with them, because
he will at most receive only an occasional
sting on the hand. Very often experienced
beekeepers wear a long gauntlet that reaches
from the elbow to the wrist. This should
be made so that no bees can get up the
sleeve. It should fit tightly around the
wrist, or, better yet, reach far enough to
cover the hand, leaving the ends of the
fingers exposed.

If one is very timid, or is unusually sus-
ceptible to stings, he can wear gloves that

protect the fingers as well as the wh
hand, wrists, and forearm. See Gloves
In the line of tools a common jackkd
or a common screwdriver may often
used in lieu of something better. Bui
hive-tool made for the purpose is far
perior.

The subjoined illustrations show a fo
of tool that has given general satisfact:
among beekeepers.

It is something that any blacksmith c
make out of an old buggy-spring or a
good piece of spring steel. It must not

Fia. 1.

tempered too hard or it will break. E
end should be flattened out while hot, j
brought to an edge. One end is bent t
right angle, and the other is left strain
The tool is then finished on an emery wl
or grindstone, care being taken to h
the edges straight and square.

The hooked end is ordinaril^^ used
scraping propolis or wax off the frames
bottom-boards, while the other end {i
useful for scraping) is pushed between
two parts of the hive. The drawing (]
1) shows the tool held improperly. '
bent or curved end should be placed dir
ly against the palm in order that suffic:
pressure may be exerted to shove the o1
or straight end between the two hive pa

Either end of the tool may be used
separating Hoffman frames, or, in f
any style of frame that one hap^^-enf
use; but our men prefer the hoo^-
This is inserted between the frames t(
separated, as shown in Fig. 2, when a
twist of the wrist will exert consider

512

Fig. 2. — A side twist of the tool affords a strong
leverage by which the frames are separated
easily and without jar.

Fig. 3. — Another method of using a hive-tool when
prying the frames apart.

Fig.

4.- — The proper way to pry all the frames over
at one operation.

Fig. 5.

-How the hook end is useful in fishing out
frames and division-boards.

leverage, forcing apart the frames very
gently. However, there are some who pre-
fer to use the straight end of the tool in
the manner shown in Fig. 3; but the
method given in Fig. 2 exerts more of a
leverage, and, at the same time, is less
liable to crush bees.

Fig. 4 shows how the tool may be used
for crowding all the frames over to one
side in one block; or one can, if he pre-
fers, use the plan shown in Fig. 2; but it
will generally be found that the one shown
in Fig. 4 is more convenient. In Fig. 5
the curved end is used to good advantage
in lifting the division-board out of the
hive. See also, in this connection. Fig. 9.

Some prefer a hive-tool having a nar-
rowed end like a screwdriver; but the con-
tinuous use of a tool like this abrases the
edges of the hives so that, after a time, it
leaves bruise marks and cracks, inviting
winds and storms, and robbers when they
are prowling about. For separating two
hives heavy with honey there is nothing
better than a wide thin blade made of good

spring steel, tempered just enough to have
the resilient qualities of a buggy-spring.

HOW TO WORK OVER HIVES.

Many yard men prefer to work with a
sort of stool and hive box combined; yet
others wish to have nothing to lug around
except the bee-smoker and the hive-tool.
As most hives are placed on or near the
ground, one must either sit down on some
object or kneel in front of the hive, to
bring himself to the proper working dis-
tance. We usually use a hive-cover as
shown in Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9. It is always
handy and has the further advantage of a
milk-stool in that one can shift his body
back and forth on the hive-cover in order
to reach frames toward the near or far
side of the hive, as the case may be. A
seat that does not allow one to shift his
body back and forth, necessarily requires
more stooping or bending of the back.

Occasionally it will be found desirable
to turn the cover up lengthwise, and the

MANIPULATION OF COLONIES

513

times when only one hand can
do good work. If one can as-
sume a comfortable attitude,
even tho it be only momen-
tary, he ought to do so.

Some of our apiarists will
say they have no time to sit
down, much less " loaf on
the job," as might appear
in Fig. 6. The more one

Fig. 7.

Fig. a. — Making a gup Uti^LLi
frames so that one can be
easily removed.

author always uses it in that
manner when he desires to
place the weight of the body
against the frame that is
crowding over against its fel-
lows. See Fig. 8. In pull-
ing out a division-board, one
has a little more leverage if
he sits high rather than low.
(See Fig. 9.) But if he
merely wishes to separate
the frames, then spend several minutes
hunting for the queen or looking over
the brood, as shown in Fig. 7, one should
sit on the nan^ow side rather than on
the end. In this the operator assumes a
very natural, easy, and comfortable posi-
tion. The left arm rests upon the knee,
supporting the weight of the frame, while
the right arm holds it in a position for
examination.

A change of position is often restful.
After one has been working over a number
of hives, sitting down on the hive-cover, he
finds it convenient to vary the position by
resting on the knees close to the hive; and
still again he may find it comfortable to
vary the monotony by standing upright,
bending over only when it is necessary to
remove a frame.

Perhaps it may seem that the operator
in Fig. 9 is taking things easy. There are
17

comfortable position for all-day work. Note that the left
arm that supports the weight of the frames
rests comfortably on the knee.

can save his legs and arms the more he
can actually accomplish in a day. In
hunting for a queen one cannot afford
to stand up on the job, but should get
right down where the eyes can do their best
work, as seen in Fig. 7, always holding the
frame in such a way that the sunlight will
strike it squarely. In looking for eggs this
is very important, especially if the operator
is getting old when eyesight is not at its
best.

Where one is working over bees day
after day, a special hive-seat is a great
convenience. The illustration next page
shows one used in our bee-yard. It was
shown in one of the early editions of this
work, but was dropped out because it was
thought hardly of sufficient importance to
occupy space. During all the years that
have intervened, our apiarists have seemed
to find it very handy. In fact, they con-

514

MANIPULATION OF COLONIES

sider it almost indispensable.
If one were to come to any
one of our yards he will find
the men carrying one around
as they go among the hives.

The top is made of % lum-
ber, having two oblong holes
in the center to provide a
handle by which to carry the
box. The legs are also of

Fig.

-Pulling out

7t^^ - ^ Si:
refractorj' division-beard that resists removal

%, while the sides, ends, and bottom
are of %. The compartment in the side,
reached by the oval hole, is very handy
for holding broken section pieces for

Handy seat and tool-box for yard work.

record work, and other small articles,
while the two compartments on the ends
usually hold the smoker fuel, hive-tools,
hammer, bee-brush, queen-cages, and other
articles of like nature. The smoker has a

l-'iG. S. — A Liglier ;eat is better when
one wishes to place his weight
against the frame to be
shoved over.

hook on the bellows so that
it can be carried in the man-
ner shown. With this whole
outfit one has practically all
the tools he needs, including
smoker fuel, for a day's
work.

The exact dimensions of
the seat are not important.
The one we use is 13 inches
high by 22 long, outside measurement.

HOW TO OPEN A HIVE.

The prospective beekeeper should ap-
proach the hive and blow smoke into the
entrance. This is not always necessary,
but it will be found to be a wise precaution
for the beginner and for an experienced
man on a bad day. After the beginner
learns the individual temperament of his
different colonies, and also discovers that
on certain days, and certain times of days,
the bees can be handled much better than
on others, he vi^ill of course use his judgment
in the matter. If he has reason to believe
that a colony would be irritable he should
send two or three puffs of smoke into the
entrance. He will now push the screw-
driver, or special hive-tool already shown.

MANIPULATION OF COLONIES

515

under the cover. He should do this gently,
working the thin edge of the blade between
the two hive parts until the cover is raised
about the thickness of the blade, but not
wide enough to allow any bees to escape.
Thru the gap thus made he will blow three
or four puH's of smoke. He then shoves
the tool a little further, increasing the gap,
following it up with some more smoke. He
now lifts or lowers the hand holding the
tool so that the cover is raised an inch
above the hive. The smoker is next set
down upon the ground, when the cover is
gently lifted off — gently, because this is im-
portant.

Fig. 9. — Method of inserting the hive-tool under the
cover ; blowing smoke in the gap thus made.

Sometimes much more smoke will be re-
quired than others. If the atmosphere is a
little chilly, or if it be immediately after a
rain during a honey flow, much more smoke
will be needed than on a warm balmy day
when bees are at work in the fields. If
they are at all nervous the smoker should
be brought into play again; indeed, at such

times we would advise putting it between
the knees. See Smoke and Smokers.

This nervousness may not immediately be
recognized by a novice; but for his special
benefit it should be said that, when bees are
subdued and require no more smoke, they
will be down between the frames almost out
of sight ; but if they are inclined to " re-
sent the intrusion," dozens and dozens of
them may have their heads sticking up;
and as the apiarist proceeds to lift out a
frame he may meet with a " warm recep-
tion." But before this takes place he will
usually see on the part of the bees a nervous,
quick movement, their bodies twitching
either to the right or to the left, apparently
readj'- to take wing. When they do so, it
will be a quick sharp dart, without warn-
ing, for any exposed part of the beekeeper's
anatomy. But even if the bees do make a
general onslaught, and grab as if about to
strike, stings may be averted if the opera-
tor is quick enough to brush the bee or bees
off. There is an interval of a fraction of a
second, not very long, it is true, in which,
after the bee shoves its claws into the flesh,
it can be brushed off, just before the sting
gets into action, for a bee, when it stings,
must have a good strong hold, and it is
while it is taking this hold that the apiarist
can often save himself many a wicked jab.

If, then, the bees seem inclined to fly up,
they should be smoked just enough to keep
them down. If an attendant is present, let
him use the smoker. See Stings^ subhead
" How to Avoid being Stung."

HOW TO HAXDLE UNSPACED FRAMES.

To get at the center frame, crowd the
frames, adjacent to it, one at a time, toward
the sides of the hive. This will give room
to lift out the desired frame. Beginners
are very apt to pull the frame out without
spacing the frames apart. This rolls the
bees over and over, enrages and maims
them, and moreover runs a pretty good
chance of killing the queen. Lift the frame
out carefully, and be careful not to knock
the end-bars against the sides of the hive.
If it is one's first experience he may be
nervous, and do things a little hurriedly.
As a reward, the bees will quite likely sting
him and make him still more nervous. To
avoid this, proceed very cautiously and
make the movements deliberate. Having

516

MANIPULATION OF COLONIES

E. D. Townsend illustrating for beginners the proper use of smoke in opening a hive.

i

MANIPULATION OF COLONIES

517

removed the frame, hold it up as sho^ in
Fig. 1, which we will call the fii'st position.

Perhaps the queen is not to be seen on
this side, so it may be necessary to tum it
over and see the other side. If the comb is
not heavy with honey, it can be turned
right over with the bottom-bar resting hori-
zontally. But a better way, and a good

Fig. 1. — First position of frame.

Fig. 2. — Second position. Fig. 3. — Third position.
Arrows show direction in Arrows show direction
which the frame is from which the frame

now to be turned. has just been

turned.

Fig. 4. — Fourth position of frame.

habit to fall into, and one that beekeepers
usually adopt, is to raise the right hand until
the top-bar is perpendicular, as in Fig. 2.

Now revolve the frame like a swinging
door, or the leaf of a book, so that the
opposite side is exposed to view (see Fig,

2). Lower the right hand as in Fig. 3 until
it reaches the position as shown in Fig. 4.
To examine the other side follow the exact
revei-se order.

Having examined this frame, lean it up
against the side of the hive, and remove
another frame next to the one already taken.
Examine this in like manner. Lean this
also against one corner of the hive, or
return it to its place ; lift out another, and
so on until all have been examined. Should
the queen not yet have been found, look the
frames all over again, being careful to ex-
amine the bottom edge of the combs. See

How TO MAXIPrLATE HOFFMAX FeAMES.'"

If the queen is not found on the second
examination it may be advisable to go over
the frames once more; but very often it is
better to close the hive and wait an hour or
two. after which one can go back and
search the frames as before. By this time
the colony will have recovered itself, and
the queen, in all probability, have shifted
her position from the bottom or sides of
the hive to one of the combs. Nine times
out of ten she will be found at the second
going-over of the frames, without any
trouble. TVhen the queen cannot be found
the second time going over, as a rule hunt-
ing longer is not advisable because one is
liable to waste a good deal of valuable
time: and it is. therefore, better to wait
till the queen comes out of her hiding-place
back to the brood-frames themselves.*

In the case of black colonies, especially
where very populous, it is sometimes nec-
essary to lift the hive off the stand and put
it down to one side. On the old stand place
an empty hive, affixing an entrance-guard.
(See Droxes.) Take the frames one by
one out of the old hive, and shake them in
front at the entrance of the empty hive on
the old stand. Black bees fall off very
readily; and as they crawl toward the hive
the queen can be easily seen; but if she
eludes scrutiny she will be barred by the
]i erf orated zinc where she may be readily
discovered trying to make her way thru.
After aU the frames are shaken, if she
cannot be found, take the old hive, now
empty, and dump it, causing the bees to be
thrown before the zinc. She will soon be
seen trying to pass the guard.

* If the bees are inclined to rob. use an empty body
to hang half of the frames in, placing them in pairs,
and pair-off the rest in the hive being worl:ed on. —
A. C. Miller.

518

MANIPULATION OF COLONIES

We have told how to find the queen; but
the reader must not imagine that it is going
to be as difficult as this every time. She is
usually to be found on the center frames;
andj especially with Italians, is likely to be
found on the fii^st or second frame handled.

When loose frames or frames without
spacing shoulders are put back in the hives
they must be spaced carefully 1% inches
from center to center as near as it is possi-
ble. It is not practicable by the rule of
thumb or finger to get them all exactly this
distance so that there will be some combs a
little thicker than others, even when the
greatest of care is used. If one is a little
careless (as most people are) there will be
considerable variation in the thickness of
the combs, and the thicker ones will have to
be shaved down with an uncapping-knife
at the first extracting. If the combs are
left thick and thin there will be danger of
killing a good many bees in inserting and
removing the frames, especially when the
position of the frame is changed. All of
this nuisance of irregularity in thickness of
combs can be avoided by the use of self-
spacing or Hoflfman frames.

There is no cut-and-try spacing as with
unspaced frames, no big and little fingers
to get the distances wide and narrow, and
the beginner has no difficulty in determin-
ing just how far to place the combs ; for if
he places the shoulders in contact they will
always be the right distance apart.

There is not much danger of killing bees
provided one proceeds carefully, using a
little smoke in blowing the bees away from
the contact edges of the frames. When the
hive is ready to close up, all that is neces-
sary is to shove together the frames that
are separated two and three inches apart,
or put in the groups of two, three, or four
frames at a time, as the case may be, and
crowd the whole together, finally putting on
the cover. On the other hand, when un-
spaced frames are handled, each frame must
be put back into position separately. This
takes a large amount of time whatever we
may say of the time consumed in separat-
ing spaced frames apart. See Frames,,
Self-spacing; also Frames.

It is important to observe in the handling
of Hoffman frames that smoke can be used
to very good advantage. Just a little blown
down between the contact edges or where
the edges are to come together will drive

the bees away so they can be shoved to-
gether. Mr. Hoffman, the inventor of the
frames, stated that the judicious use of a
smoker would save time, avoid bee-killing,
and, taking it all in all, he could handle
twice as many colonies on his spaced frames
as he could on the ordinary old-style frames
without spacing attachments.

There are some localities where propolis,
or bee glue, is much worse than others. In
such places the Hoffman metal-spaced frame
has the advantage. The illustrations will
show their special features. They are some-
what more expensive, but they are stronger;
and as they have only points of contact
there is less danger of killing bees.

HOW TO MANIPULATE HOFFMAN FRAMES.

The manner of opening hives containing
Hoffman or any other self-spacing frames,
is just the same as that for hives contain-

Metal-spaced Hoflfman frame.

ing lose or unspaced frames already de-
scribed, but the manner of handling the
combs is somewhat different.

If there is a division-board in the hive
this is first removed in order to give room
for the handling of the frames themselves.
If there is none the outside frame is pried
over to the side of the hive and lifted out
very carefuUy. This will then make room
for the removal of any two, three, four, or
five frames all in blocks. As an ordinary
Hoffman or self -spacing frame wiU be some-
what glued together by propolis, it will be
necessary to use the hive-tool to separate
the frames in the group. They should be
left together because they can be put back
in one block.

In removing self-spacing or Hoffman
frames from a brood-nest, it is not neces-
sary to scatter them all around the outside
of the hive, leaning them up against each
other in such a way that it kills bees, but

MANIPULATION OF COLONIES

519

Handling closed-end frames in groups of three at a time.

each group of frames, two, three, or four,
as the case raay be, can be left sticking
together stationed on the outside of the
hive. There is no danger then of killing
the bees between the frames, and the neces-
sary information can be secured from the
one or two surfaces of combs examined.
When the ordinary unspaced frames are
used, it is necessary to handle each frame
individually, because they cannot be picked
up very well in groups of three or four like
the Hoffman or any other good self -spacing
frame. See Frames^ Self-spacing.

In ordinary practice it is not necessary
to hunt up the queen. The examination of
the surface of one or two combs will show
whether eggs are being laid. If eggs and
brood in various stages are found in regu-
lar order it may be assumed that the queen
was in the hive within three days at least.

The location of the queen can be deter-
mined somewhat by the manner in which
the eggs are laid. If the examination of
one comb shows no eggs and an examina-
tion of another shows that there is young
brood, the position of the queen can be
traced by the age of the brood until eggs
are found, and the queen may at the time
of the examination be at one side of the

brood-nest rather than the other. After she
goes clear across she is quite liable to jump
from one side clear to the other.

Sometimes the behavior of the bees is
such as to indicate where the queen is. Her
location can generally be determined imme-
diately after releasing the queen when in-
troducing, because the bees will have their
heads pointing in one direction ; and some-
times by a hum of rejoicing the queen can
be traced, especially if she has been well
received.

DISLODGING BEES FROM COMBS.

For many manipulations like giving brood
to another hive, or for the purpose of ex-
tracting, it becomes necessary to dislodge
the bees from the frames. This can be
done by brushing them off as shown under
Extracting, or they can be pounded off
with a blow of the fist on the back of the
hand, grasping the end-bar. Or one may
grasp the end-bars solidly, and with a quick
downward jerk remove all or nearly all of
the bees. When more convenient one can
swing the frame, pendulum fashion, with
one arm, letting the corner drop violently
against the ground while the other end is
held in the hand.

520

MANIPULATION OF COLONIES

Dr. Miller's method of jarring bees off the combs.

leaving all the supers on the hives until the
season is over. By that time it is important
that robbers be given no opportunity' to
help themselves to sweets, when the honey
is taken off ; but before doing so the condi-
tion of the supers should be determined in
advance. In order to keep ahead of the
bees it is necessary to make an examination
from time to time. Toward the early part
of the season it is customary to place the
empty supers under those partly filled. As
the season begins to draw toward its close,
the process is reversed — that is to say, the
empties are put on top of those partly .
filled.

In order to determine the amount of
hone}^ in any supei^, it is not necessary to
take off the cover and pull the hive apart.
If it is tiered up four and five stories high,
it involves a large amount of labor and
considerable lifting to pull the supers off
one by one, inviting the attention of rob-
bers in the operation. If one is supplied
with a good strong steel hive-tool and a
smoker, he can get a fair idea of the filling
of any super, without even removing the
cover from the hive. In the series of snap-

HOW TO ASCERTAIN THE CONDITION OF THE
HIVE WITHOUT HANDLING FRAMES.

A good many, in working for extracted
honey, operate on the tier-up principle,

How to bump the bees oil a comb.

522

MANIPULATION OF COLONIES

shots on previous page, the reader will be
able to gather, almost at a glance, the ex-
act method to be used in determining what
the bees are doing.

Let us take an example. We will start
with the hive shown in Fig. 5, previous
page. It has three supers. The middle one
is the one on which the bees began work
first, and at the time of this examination it
should be completely filled. The bottom
super was placed under after the middle
one was about half filled. The colony was
again crowded for room, but since there
was only a week or so more of honey flow,
the third super was put on top, so that the
first two will be certain to be completely
filled before the bees begin work on the
third.

Fig. 13. — How a smoker and a hive-tool will enable
one to learn the condition of the
supers at one glance.

At this time we desire to know what the
bees have actually done; so, without re-
moving the telescope cover on top nor the
super cover directly beneath, we extend the
thin blade of the hive-tool, broad end, be-
tween the two lower supers, at the hack end
of the hive; for one should always en-
deavor to keep out of the flight of the bees.
This is gradually shoved in until the blade
has been pushed in anywhere from 1/2 to a
fuU inch. A gap is now formed, of ap-
proximately 1-16 inch, just wide enough so
that a little smoke will drive back the bees.
A slight pressure downward separates the

two upper supers about an inch at the back
end, when more smoke is blown in. The
tool is pushed down a little further, mak-
ing the gap a little wider. See Fig. 6. But
we are not quite satisfied as to the condi-
tion of the supers, so we push the tool and
supers upward, as shown in Fig. 7, until
we have the hive-tool in position as shown
in Fig. 8. Here it acts as a prop, when,
with the intelligent use of the smoker, we
can drive back the bees enough so that we
can see the condition of the two supers, or
enough to determine whether the bees need
more room.

But suppose we are not quite satisfied.
We turn to the position shown in Fig. 9,
disregard the hive-tool, and lift the two
supers higher, the hive-tool falling on the
ground. When doing this we slide the two
supers about an inch backward so that the
other end will fulcrum on a safe bearing.
If the super is slipped forward, as shown
in Fig. 7, it can be readily seen that it
cannot be tilted up very high without slid-
ing off in front. See Figs. 9, 10, 11.

Usually an examination of this sort is
quite sufficient. If the supers are not filled
they are quietly let back into place, using
sufficient smoke to drive the bees away so
they will not be crushed as the hive parts
come together again. The operation shown
in Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, is then repeated
with other hives, taking from 30 to 60 sec-
onds per hive. At no time have we lifted
but a part of the dead weight. When the
supers are held at an angle the load is on
the fulcrum point of contact, while the
hand sustains only a small part of the
weight.

Fig. 12 shows the method employed when
supers are apparently well ffiled and ready
to come off. The top super is removed and
leaned up against the leg of the operator.
The middle super that has been filled can
now be taken oft'; but before doing so a
second examination is made as shown. It
is set oK, when the bottom super may also
be removed if ready. If so, the top super
is put back, the idea being to confine the
bees to as small a super capacity as possi-
ble as the season draws to a close, in order
to make the bees finish their work.

Fig. 13 shows a slightly different pose
from that indicated in Fig. 8. While the
position of the operator is somewhat
cramped, it is true, yet it is much easier

MARIGOLD

523

Fig. 14. — Shaking bees out of a super.

than tearing down the hive, super by super,
and replacing.

In Fig. 14 is a case where the season is
closing abruptly. The bees have only par-
tially begun work in the top super. To
leave it on would mean that all the supers
would have honey in, and none of them
quite completed. Accordingly we shake the
bees out of the top super, and remove it
until we can determine a little more about
the season. If there should be some good
rains and warm weather, the season may
take another start. In that case a super
cover temporarily placed between the top
super and the two below is removed, when
work will be resumed in the third super.
If we were sure that the season was draw-
ing to a close, the top super should be re-
moved in the fii'st place.

HOW TO PUT ox ESCAPE-BOAEDS.

In going thru bee-yards we have noted
the fact over and over that some beekeep-
ers have an awkward way of putting on
escapes. They will pull the hive apart.

super by super, place the escape on the
brood-nest or on a super partly filled, then
one by one put back the supers. If no
honey is coming in, this will probably mean
that robbers will get started.

There is no need of removing any super,
nor a cover, for that matter. All that is
necessary is to apply the principles illus-
trated in Figs. 5, 6,"^ 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. See
also illustration imder Comb Hoxet^ to
Produce^ showing how to put on an escape-
board.

MARIGOLD {Gaillardia pidch ellaF oiig. ) .
— This is found aU over the United States,
but, so far as is known, it does not yield
any great amount of honey except in Texas,
where it is considered one of the main
honey-producing plants. It begins to yield
in May or June, giving a rich golden honey.
While it is praised greatly by many con-
noisseurs in the South, it would not rank
well with the clover and basswood of the
North. The comb honey is golden yellow,
not white.

524

MARKETING HONEY

Marigold, great honey plant of Texas, but found all over the United States.

MARKETING HONEY. — Everything,
nowadays, depends on having goods neat,
clean, and in attractive shape, to have them
" go off " readily ; even our hoes have to be
gilt-edged, for we noticed some once at a
certain hardware store, and it seemed that
those that were gilt, or bronzed, perhaps,
were selling in advance of the plain ones.
We've been told of gilt-edged butter that
sold for fabulous prices, but we hardly
think it will be advisable to put our honey
up in that way, altho we do wish it to look
as well as any of the other farm products.

In order to get a fair price for his honey,
one should watch the markets. To obtain
this information, he should take one or
more bee journals. Thru the medium of
these he will learn whether the honey crop

is going to be small or large. This he can
not determine from his own locality. If
one has secured a good crop of honey, and
learned that the crop thruout the country
is small, he must not be in haste to dispose
of it to the first buyer. In any case he
must exercise judgment.

HOW TO MAKE HONEY SELL IN THE LOCAL
MARKETS.

The grocer should be supplied with a lot
of the choicest extracted, in tumblers and
bottles and best comb honey in shipping
cases. Some of it should be set off in
paper cartons, and some of it should be
plain. There should be strips of paper
about 1% by 2 or 3 inches, which when a

MARKETINa HONEY

525

customer enters, should be curled in the
shape of a trough, dipped into the ex-
tracted honey, twirled around till all the
drip is off, and passed quickly to the cus-
tomer to sample. If he would like another
taste, hand him another slip of paper,
which he is to fold as nearly as possible in
the form of a spoon. If the honey is ripe
— that is, good and thick — the taster will
want some. There is one thing that is
very important. Something should be done
to draw a crowd. Prepare a nucleus in a
glass hive, and put it up near the window
where the crowd can see the bees. Some-
times the crowd to see the queen or " king
bee," will be so great as to block the street ;
but the producer will be the gainer, because
his honey is inside.

This nucleus or glass hive should be IV2
stories high, with glass panels on the sides.

We Produce It.
. . WE SELL IT.

The silent salesman.

It should contain a single comb of bees,
brood in all stages, a queen, and just over
the frame four sections of honey, filled or
partly filled. The purpose of the sections
is to show the relationship of the comb-
honey production to the brood-nest. In
fact, the nucleus will be a vertical section
of a lV2-story hive run for comb honey.
See Observatory Hives.

There should be on hand for a day or
two an expert to explain about the honey,
how it is produced, how good it is, etc.,
and to show that it is the most wholesome
sweet in the world for children. He should
then reinforce his arguments by handing
out honey-leaflets that contain cooking reci-
pes, and that tell why the doctors recom-
mend honey in preference to cane sugars,

or why some invalids can eat honey when
they can not eat other forms of sweet.
Perhaps the producer himself will be the
best man to do the " talking" ; and, there-
fore, he had better stay with his grocer a
day or two, or at least be on hand when he
is likely to have a run of customers. He
should charge the grocer nothing for his
services, telling him that he will take his
pay out of the increased sales.

If one succeeds well in one market, and
the novelty of the thing wears off., let him
try another in a neighboring town, and so
on complete the circuit of towns around
about. After one has done aU this he will
not need to ship much if any to the city
markets, save commission, save freight, and
have his honey within a few miles of where
he can look after it, without being at the
mercy of a city commission house. See
Shipping Cases; Honey-peddling; also
Honey Exhibits^ subhead " Live - Bee
Demonstration Work."

sending honey to commission houses.

Commission houses thruout our cities are
great aids to beekeepers in disposing of
their honey; notwithstanding, a word of
caution should be entered against being in
too great haste to lump off one's honey to
these places. One may argue that he would
not have time to dispose of his product in
small amounts; but many a beekeeper has
found to his sorrow the mistake he made in
contributing to the flood of honey at a cer-
tain commission house. The consequence
is, that at that place honey is a " glut on
the market."

But it very often happens that one can
get a higher price by sending to these com-
mission men. The general trade looks to
them for supply, and they make it their
business to find a market.

One should never send honey on commis-
sion or outright sale to a new firm, no mat-
ter what it advertises, how big it talks of
its financial standing, nor what promises it
makes. He should go to the bank and find
out its responsibility, and ask the commis-
sion house to send the names of beekeepers
who have dealt with it. But even comply-
ing with this request should not in itself
be considered an evidence of good faith.
Take time to write to the parties and ask
if their dealings were entirely satisfactory,

526

MARKETING HONEY

and whether they would advise shipping to
the commission house in question. The
temptations in the commission business are
very great ; and if the broker is not honest
he may take advantage of the producer.
Commission men charge all the way from
5 to 10 per cent commission; and in addi-
tion to this the shipper is required to stand
freight, dray age, and all breakage.

Most commission houses will make ad-
vances in cash on receiving the honey ; and
a few of them will make payments as fast
as it is sold; but a majority make no re-
mittance until all the honey is sold, and
sometimes not even then until the beekeeper
writes complaining, and inquiring regard-
ing his honey or his money.

Commission men should be strictly hon-
est ; but some of them yield to the tempta-

Sturwold's show case for honey.

tion of quoting a higher price than they are
actually realizing in every-day sales. The
beekeeper complains when he receives his
returns, and he is met with the statement
that his honey was of poor quality, and had
to be sold for less money; or that the
honey came badly broken, and had to be
lumped off as chunk honey; or he may be
told that the "market suddenly fell" (which
may be true), and it was not therefore pos-
sible for the house to realize quotations
previously given. It is a common trick on
the part of dishonest commission men to
quote high prices, then sell for lower prices
in order to " move off stock." From com-
plaints that have come in, it is certain that
honey has actually sold at several cents
higher per pound than was shown by the

account of sales rendered the beekeeper, on
which commission was based. In this way
commission men practically take two com-
missions. Suppose the honey sold for 12
cents. The broker makes returns to the
beekeeper of 10 cents, and then charges 10
per cent commission on this 10 cents. He
thus makes the 2 cents which he actually
steals, and then the 10 per cent which is
rightfully his.

In the foregoing some of the tricks that
are practiced by some of the unscrupulous
commission houses are set forth. But the
real facts are that all, or nearly all, of the
men who quote prices in the bee journals
are responsible and honest men, especially
those who have been doing business for
years ; for no commission man can hold his
name in the advertising columns of the
average bee journal today if there are com-
plaints entered by beekeepers against him.
And in this connection it should be said
that the mere fact that one's bank says a
certain commission house has good finan-
cial rating should not be considered as evi-
dence that the house is also honest. It
would, be safer to trust the man who is
honest and not responsible than the one
who is financially good and yet " up to the
tricks of the trade."

At the time of making shipment, send
bill of lading to the commission house, and
name price below which the honey must not
be sold. A commission house has no right
to sell at a lower figui*e until it is given
instructions. Before the honey is packed
it should be carefully weighed so that one
will know exactly how much honey he has
sent. Large shipments should not be sent
at first. If in any case honey is sent, and
the commission house fails to make returns,
or refuses to do so, it is a criminal act.
Such house has no right to appropriate
one's honey without rendering some sort of
returns. Never take a note in payment
from an irresponsible firm or individual,
for legally a note is a settlement.

SELLING FOR CASH.

If the producer can sell for cash and the
party is responsible, he should do so, pro-
vided he can get market prices. He should
be cautious in dealing with firms wanting
to buy for cash, with no rating in Dun's or
Bradstreet's commercial agencies. To make

MESQUITE

527

himself secure he should ship to his name
at the point of destination, and then send
bill of lading to some bank in the city with
instructions to turn over bill of lading to
purchaser on receipt of cash. Banks will
charge a small fee for doing the business,
but the shipper will be safe. The law gives
the producer greater protection when his
honey is sold on commission than when
sold for cash, provided money is not re-
ceived before honey is turned over. To
recapitulate : Never deliver honey to a con-
cern on an outright sale or deal till the
banks say the broker is entirely responsi-
ble; then if everything is in writing pro-
ducers are able to collect by due process of
law; but if the buyer is iiresponsible, pro-
ducers wiU be throwing away money in
trying to do anything with him in a legal
way. For further consideration see Hon-
ey PEDDLING; Honey Exhibits^ and Ship-
ping Cases.

MATING OF QUEEN AND DRONE.—

See Drones.

MESQUITE [Prosopis juliflora, variety
glandulosa) . — A leguminous tree common
in southern Texas, New Mexico, and Ari-
zona, and important in old Mexico, more
particularly in Sonora, where it grows to
the dignity of a fine timber tree in the val-
ley of the Yaqui River. Growing in a
semiarid country it is always possible to
get a yield of honey from the mesquite
except where it grows so far north that the
cold injures it. In Uvalde Co., Texas, it is
regarded by the beekeepers as a great tree
for honey. There it is little more than a
shrub ; but further south in Mexico, around
Monterey, it becomes of far more economic
importance. The Texans class the mesquite
honey high; but we should be inclined to
rate it among the ambers. There are sev-
eral species of mesquite, but the foregoing
is the one usually referred to by beekeep-
ers. The others are probably equally good
for honey.

" One of the main sources of nectar,"
says L. H. SchoU, " for the Texas bee-
keeper is the mesquite brush and trees that
cover a very large area of the Lone Star
State. As unimportant in appearance as
this bushy tree is, it is of greater importance
to the beekeeper than most people suppose."

The mesquite (pronounced mes-keet) has
two separate and distinct blooming periods

during the year. The first comes during
April, and the other during the last of
June or the beginning of July. These
periods are sometimes a week or so earlier
or later, according to the conditions of the
season, the lateness or earliness of the
spring, cold weather, and the quantity of
rain during the preceding fall and winter.
In this last respect the mesquite is peculiar
in that, if rain has been plentiful in the fall
and winter, no matter how dry the follow-
ing spring or summer may be, there will be
a profusion of bloom and a heavy flow of
nectar. This is due to the ability of the
plant to store up water, from which it is
enabled to put forth its growth, and also to
the fact that its roots penetrate the soil to
a great depth, spreading out quite a dis-
tance in the soil. It is remarkable how
large the roots of a very small shrub of
mesquite are in proportion to its size. It
shows at once that it is well adapted to a
dry region.

The honey is light amber in color and of
a good quality. It has been said many
times that mesquite honey could be used
better for an every-day table honey than
any other of the Texan honeys, since one
never tires of it, as he is apt to do of
honey that has a particular flavor that may
be more pleasing at flrst.

The long spikes of feathery blossoms
measure from three to five inches in length.
When the second blooming time arrives, the
beans from the first blooming, which are
from six to eight inches long, will be in all
stages of ripening. These are greedily
eaten by all kinds of stock and cattle, and
are of considerable value in this way. Even
human beings find that these beans have a
good taste, and children particularly relish
them each season as they ripen. They vary
considerably, however, in taste, some being
so bitter that they cannot be eaten, while
others are very sweet and agreeable. The
wood of the mesquite is valuable for furni-
ture and cabinet work, as it takes a fine
polish, and mesquite posts are used very
extensively.

the mesquite in the HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.

In the Hawaiian Islands the mesquite is
not only the chief but almost the only
source of floral honey.. Here it is called
algarroba, or, in the native tongue, keawe.

528 MESQUITE

Mesquite leal.

The history of honey plants offers no more
interesting chapter than that describing the
introduction of this tree and its rapid in-
crease, until today it yields annually more
than 200 tons of algarroba honey, and has
rendered beekeeping profitable in sections
of the islands where previously little honey
was stored. In earlier times the apiaries
seldom exceeded 50 colonies in number, and
were located near forest trees growing in
the mountains, whicTi yielded comparatively
little nectar.

About 1828 the seed was brought from
the Royal Gardens of Paris by Father
Bachelot, founder of the Roman Catholic
missions; and a tree raised from this seed
still stands on Fort Street in Honolulu.
Once introduced, the mesquite increased
with remarkable rapidity. It thrives from
the level of the seacoast, where the spray of
the waves falls upon its foliage, up to an
altitude of 2,000 feet, but succeeds best at
a slight elevation in a semiarid climate. As
the Hawaiian Islands are of recent vol-

MIGRATORY BEEKEEPING

529

canic origin the kinds of soil here are lim-
ited. The algarroba forests are confined
chiefly to the lee or western side of the
islands. The reason for this is that the
windward or eastern side is exposed to the
trade winds, which blow, with few excep-
tions, during the entire year. As the result
of these winds the climate on one side of
the islands is entirely different from that
on the other side, even in the case of an
island that is only a few miles across. On
the windward side there is a heavy rainfall,
in some places in excess of 200 inches for
the year, and it may exceed 400. On the
lee side there is much less rain, or the cli-
mate may be so arid that the land in places
may be little better than a desert. Where
there is much rain the mesquite is entirely
absent or does not grow well.

On the western side of the islands there
are vast forests of algarroba trees covering
thousands of acres of land. In the island
of Oahu alone there are not far from
17,000 acres. Cattle are continually dis-
seminating the seed, and the number of
trees is also largely increased by system-
atic planting. Prior to October, 1916, there
were planted over 100,000 trees in Oahu.
It is estimated that a tree with a 30-foot
spread of branches will produce 2% pounds
of honey in a normal year. One strip of
algarroba forest in Molokai supports nearly
2,000 colonies. It will not average more
than half a mile in width, and about 30
miles of it are used for bees. Of the 600
or more tons of honey produced in the
Hawaiian Islands more than 200 tons come
from the flowers of algarroba. The trees
begin to bloom when they are from four to
six years old. There are two periods of
blooming. The first begins in March or
later, according to the locality of the island,
and lasts until August. In Hawaii the
second period ends about the first of Octo-
ber. The long period of blooming adds
greatly to the vahie of this tree to bee-
keepers.

The honey is water- white, about as thick
as that of white clover, and possesses an
agreeable altho peculiar flavor. It is suit-
able for a table honey. Granulation occurs
soon after it is gathered. Honey which ha?
granulated in the combs is placed in huge
solar extractors which will hold several
hundred combs at a time. The sun's heat
liquefies the honey without darkening it.

and also melts most of the wax, which is
extracted from the "slumgum" by the usual
methods.

The trees grow rapidly, and attain a
height of 45 to 50 feet, with a diameter of
two feet or more — much larger than they
grow in Texas. If necessary the roots will
go down to a great depth after water.
Owing to its irregular habit of branching,
the tree does not present an attractive ap-
pearance. The spikes of sweet-scented
denseh- crowded smaU flowers are five or
more inches long and produce an abun-
dance of pollen. The yellow pods are six
to nine inches long, and are eagerly eaten
by cattle. The annual crop of pods in
Oahu alone is estimated at 25,000 tons.

METAMORPHOSIS OF BEES. — See

De\"elopmext of Bees.

MIGRATORY BEEKEEPING.— Expe-
rience has shown that the secretion of nec-
tar in a given locality varies sometimes,
even within a distance of only a few miles.
It will happen sometimes that the home-
yard bees will be gathering no honey when
an outyard eight or ten miles away will be
securing a fairly good crop. This is due to
the fact that the character of and moisture
in the soil make possible the gTOwth of
some plants that will not take root in other
locations only a few miles away. For ex-
ample, a bee-yard may be situated in a val-
ley close to a stream, along which there will
be a heavy growth of honey-yielding plants.
Within a few miles from there, perhaps on
higher ground, and soil less productive,
there will be nothing.

Sometimes one finds conditions like this
— in one locality a large amount of buck-
wheat will be grown; ten miles away from
there, there will be none whatever. The
same is true of red clover, alsike, and a
number of other artificial-pasturage crops.

Again, it will happen that in one year
when there is an excess of rainfall the loca-
tion in the valley will be too wet for the
proper growth of plants yielding nectar,
while on the higher ground, a few miles
away, conditions will be just right for a
fine flow of honej^

The knowledge of these varying condi-
tions in localities only a few miles apart
has led some beekeepers to practice what is
kno^Ti as migratory beekeeping. For ex-
ample, in one yard it is evident that bees

530

MIGRATORY BEEKEEPING

are not getting any honey, and there is no
flora of any sort that gives any promise of
any. On the other hand, there is another
yard that is doing well, and there are still
other locations without bees where there
are immense quantities of alsike or red
clover, or of buckwheat. Evidently it is a
part of wisdom and business sense to move
the yard that is yielding no returns to the
location in which the honey can be secured.

In 1913, and again in 1914, for example,
we found that our bees at our Medina yard
were on the verge of starvation. We had
one small yard in a swamp in Summit Co.
where aster and general fall pasturage were
abundant, and where the bees were building
up well. We moved over there 200 to 300
colonies, and the same bees that required to
be fed near Medina when placed in their
new environment began to store honey, rear
brood and build up.

Migratory Beekeep-
ing is now being prac-
ticed on a large scale
in the extreme west-
em part of the United
States. Bees are be-
ing moved in carlots
from Texas, Idaho,
Montana and Nevada
into California and
back again. In many
cases the large pro-
ducers find that they
can move the bees
from Idaho, Montana,
or Wyoming in one
and two carlots in
the fall to the citrus
groves of California,
build them up on
eucalyptus during the
winter, catch a crop
of orange honey in
the spring, then of
mountain sage, after
which the bees are
loaded on the cars and
moved to the state
whence they came
where they catch a
crop of alfalfa. In
one case in particular,
one large producer
says he cleaned up in
this way $50,000 in

one season; but this was during war-time
prices when honey was up to 22^ a pound
in carlots. Some good beekeepers even
during normal prices are making migra-
tory beekeeping pay big returns.

Bees are also moved in package form
without combs in lots of a thousand pounds
at a time by express. (See Moving Bees.)
One large producer in Nevada had 1,200
two-pound packages of bees sent him by
express from California after the orange
and sage bloom.

MILKWEED {Asclepias syriaca L.).—
There belong to the milkweed family, or
Asclepiadaeeae, some 1900 species, widely
distributed in the temperate and tropical
regions of both hemispheres. About 22
species occur in eastern North America,
and 25 more in the Southern and Western

Common Milkweed,

MILKWEED

531

States. The common milkweed, or silkweed
{A. syriaca) is the most common species in
the Northern States. It is a stout plant,
four or five feet tall, with oblong leaves
and purple flowers, growing in fields and
waste land.

In California A. mexicana and A. speci-
osa are of great value to beekeepers. Milk-
weed has been listed as a honey plant in
many States, as Massachusetts, North Caro-
lina, Tennessee, Texas, Nebraska, Califor-
nia, and Michigan ; but it is comparatively
rare in the prairie region. In Michigan,
milkweed is very abundant in the northern
part of the Lower Peninsula in Cheboygan,
Emmet, Charlevoix, Antrim, and Grand
Traverse Counties, where an average of 50
pounds surplus per colony is sometimes ob-
tained. When the weather is favorable the
nectar is secreted very rapidly, and a large
eolonj^ may gather 13 to 17 pounds in a
single day. A colony has been known
to bring in an average of 11 pounds
per day for 10 successive days, and in
one apiary a yield of 95 pounds per col-
ony was obtained. The plants grow on
every kind of soil, from a shore sand to
heavy clay land, but it is chiefly from
plants growing on heavy soil that the nec-
tar is obtained. In special localities milk-
weed is so abundant as to exclude largely
all other vegetation. It is classed as a
noxious weed, and farmers are required by
law to mow it down and often try to eradi-
cate it; but except on a small scale this is
impossible. It appears to be spreading;
and as the raspberry disappears it is yearly
becoming more valuable as a honey plant.

The common milkweed {A. syriaca)
blooms from about July 15 to August 15.
The honey is excellent and compares well
with that obtained from raspberry. It is
white, or tinged with yellow, and has a
pleasant fruity flavor somewhat suggestive
of quince, with a slight tang. It is so
thick and heavy that it may be necessary
to warm the combs before extracting. The
capping of the comb honey is nearly al-
ways pearly white. It sells readily by rea-
son of its fine flavor, and is in every way
suitable for table use.

The small flowers are in flat-topped clus-
ters or umbels, and are green, white, yel-
low, red, or purple, but never in our species
blue. They are called pinch-trap flowers
since they possess a remarkable clip-mech-

anism found in no other family of plants
in the world.

Many species of milkweed are probably
harmless to honeybees — only A. syriaca and
A. mexicana^ indeed, have been reported as
causing much loss. In the case of these
species the bees probably seldom perish ex-
cept when several legs or other parts be-
come entangled at the same time. More
often the activity of the bee is crippled by
the many clips and pollinia attached to its
tongue, legs, or antennae. Butterfly-weed
{A. tuherosa) and purple milkweed {A.
purpurascens) are butterfly flowers.

In South America Araugia albens, an-
other member of the milkweed family, at-
tracts hosts of moths to its sweet-scented
flowers. The tongues of the moths are
caught in the slit-like notches, and as they
are unable to free thfemselves they die a
lingering death. Some years ago it was
seriously proposed by an economic entomol-
ogist to employ this plant in the extermina-
tion of the codling moth, so injurious to ap-
ples. But this well-laid scheme went agley,
as the moth would not visit the flowers.

The way in which the pollen masses are
clamped to the feet or legs of insects is
of much interest to beekeepers, and every
season there are many inquiries in regard
to this queer phenomenon. The five an-
thers stand close together, forming a
sheath around the stigma. Each anther is
provided with two lateral wings ; and where
the wings of two adjacent anthers touch,
there is a narrow slit, larger at the base
than at the top. The anther, it will be
recalled, usually consists of two sacs con-
taining the pollen. But in the milkweed
the grains of pollen are not separate, but
are bound together in waxy flattened masses
called pollinia. Two of these pollinia, or
club-shaped masses of pollen, belonging to
two different anthers, are attached by flex-
ible bands to a small dry membrane, or disc,
midway between them. In this flat triangu-
lar disc there is a wedge-shaped slit at one
end. The disc stands directly back and
above the slit between the tw'o anther wings.
This is the pinch-trap ready for action.

Let us now observe what happens when
a bee alights on the flower in search of
nectar. In its efforts to obtain a foothold
on these small smooth flowers it thrusts a
claw or leg into one of the slits between the
anther wings. Presently its leg is drawn

532

MOTH MILLER

upward into the wedge-shaped slit in the
little membranous disc, which soon becomes
firmly clamped to its leg, or in some cases
to one of its antennae. The harder the bee
pulls, the tighter does the little pinch-trap
hold. When it flies away to another flower
the pollen masses which, as described above,
are joined to the little disc by straps, are
forcibly torn from their pouches. Exposed
to the air the strap-like stalks dry and
draw the pollinia close together. Then as
the bee alights on another flower they are
easily thrust thru the slit between two of
the anther wings; but once inserted, and
the insect's leg drawn upward, they can
not again be withdrawn. The bee can ob-
tain its liberty only by breaking the con-
necting bands. If this happens, the pollen
masses are left in a chamber near the stig-
ma, and the bee bears away the membran-
ous disc with its empty stalks. Disc after

Pollen of the milkweed attached to a bee's foot.

disc may thus become attached to an insect
until it is crippled or helpless.

It is stated on the authority of Gibson
that one season an English beekeeper lost
thousands of bees from the effects of strings
of these clips. It was at first supposed that
they were being destroyed by a fungus.
Many different explanations have been
given of these curious structures by per-
sons not familiar with the flowers of the
milkweed. Some think them a parasite,
others a protuberance growing on the bee's
foot, and others a winged insect enemy of
the bee. We give here an engraving of this
curiosity, magnified at a, and also a mass
of them attached to the foot of a bee. If
the insect is not strong enough to pull out
the pollinia, or later to break the connect-
ing bands, then it perishes slowly of star-
vation, probably with little pain. These
dry membranous discs are often described,
even in botanical works, as glands, or as
being glutinous or sticky, but this is not
the case.

MOTH MILLER.— In the old box-hive
days and the early days of the movable
frame, the bee moth or wax worm was re-
garded as the most serious enemy with
which the bees had to deal. Many of the
beekeepers of those times were driven out
of the business because their bees were
cleaned out by the pest. So serious was it
regarded that numerous moth-traps and
moth-proof hives were invented. These
were worse than useless, as they had all
kinds of " retreats," cracks, and crevices
for the very purpose of trapping moths.
Instead of catching them they made the
finest kind of breeding places for the pest.

In this day and age the modern bee-
keeper regards the bee moth as more of a
joke than a pest. In fact, it is almost a
disgrace for one to allow it to get a start
among his colonies or among the combs. It
has been practically eliminated from all
modern apiculture, and it is only occasion-
ally that it gets in its work among good
combs; and when it does, the owner is or
should be ashamed of his own carelessness.

The bee moth does not exist as a real bee-
enemy anywhere in the United States ex-
cept in some of the Southern States where
black bees are kept in box hives exactly as
they were in the days of our forefathers
(see Enemies of Bees). They are just as
ignorant of modern principles; and so to-
day the bee moths, or, rather, the larvae of
the wax worm, eliminate all except the verv i
strong colonies (see Box Hives).

There are two species of wax moth — the i
larger one, Galleria mellonella, and the |
lesser wax moth, Achroia grisella. The for- i
mer is much the more general, and, because \
of that, more destructive. Either species |
thrives among the ignorant and supersti- j
tious beekeepers, and particularly in box '
hives of black bees. In some of the South- '
ern States the bee moth is a serious enemy
in that it destroys all second, third, and i
fourth swarms, leaving only the first swarm. '
Even the parent colony goes down with the :
rest. If it were not for the bee moth these i
old-time beekeepers would probably be |
keeping three times as many bees, and, of J
course, getting a proportionately larger \
amount of honey. Unfortunately, some of i
this class will not be the ones who read a :
work of this kind; and it is to be hoped j
that the extension workers sent out by the
United States Government will soon be able

MOTH MILLER

533

to teach them modern methods — methods
that will eliminate the bee moth and render
possible a very fair living (see Box Hives).
The statement was made at the outset
that the bee moth is regarded as a joke by
the modern beekeeper, and so it is. Since
the introduction of the Italian bee and the
movable frame there is no excuse for hav-
ing the pest among colonies or combs. In
the first place, the Italian bees themselves
will eliminate it, whether it be in a nucleus
or a strong colony. Even an admixture of
Italian blood will keep it under control.
Black bees, on the contrary, are an easy
prey to the bee moth.

colony will take place about the time the
old bees begin to die off. Usually a colony
of black bees will prevent the wax worm
from making very much progress in the
hive, but not always ; and here comes in the
advantage of movable combs, which the
owner can inspect. When he finds unmis-
takable traces of the wax worm he can help
out the bees by cutting out the webs and
worms with a knife or a stick; but it will
be very difficult for him to eliminate all the
eggs of the moth which may be scattered
all thru the hive in cracks and crevices be-
yond the reach of the bees. The old patent
moth-proof (?) hives of early days were

A sample of how the eggs and cocoons of the bee moth are deposited on wood,
grooved or eaten out. The illustration fails to convey the real filthiness of the mass.

HOW TO DETERMINE THE PRESENCE OF THE
WAX WORMS.

Sometimes the wood is

The eggs hatch, and soon the larvse begin
their chank, . chank, chanking. If one will
listen he will be able to hear these loath-
some worms eating their way thru the
combs. Their presence can be easily deter-
mined also by a sort of webwork spotted
with their excreta just beneath the surface
of the comb, where, evidently, they try to
keep out of sight, and away from the bees.
As they became more numerous they fill
the space between the combs with web. In
the earlier stages a few young Italians will
keep out the worms and carry them out of
the entrance; but black bees, unless the
colony is a strong one, will let them go on
until all the spaces between the combs are
filled with the web, and these ugly wrig-.
gling worms. Brood-rearing will be brought
to a standstill, and the elimination of the

full of these cracks and crevices, and of
course much worse for their propagation
than the regular simple hives without moth
" contraptions."

In modern apiculture the moth, or, more
properly speaking, wax worm, can do no
damage except among combs which are laid
aside for the time being. Combs from
colonies of Italian bees will usually be safe
when the J are put away in bee-tight ex-
tracting-supers for the season.

In this connection combs in unspaeed
frames — that is, frames without shoulders
— are much more subject to damage from
the wax worm than those in spaced or
Hoffman frames. The former when put
away for the season are generally put into
the super and placed together in close con-
tact. Combs that are spaced like the Hoff-
man, the ordinary distance apart — 1%
inches from center to center — are much
safer, because they cannot be placed in

534

MOTH MILLER

close contact. If they are set 2 inches
apart, the damage, if any, will usually be
confined to one comb.

It is generally regarded as perfectly safe
to take the combs out of the hive right
after the season is over, and confine them
in hive-supers stacked up. If these stacked
supers are covered so as to make them bee-
tight there will be practically no danger
from the bee moth. All combs should be
put into supers so that neither the moth
miller nor robber bees can gain access to
them. As a general thing, some combs will

How moths ruin combs that are not taken care of.

contain a little honey; and the first warm
day during a dearth of honey these combs,
unless put into bee-tight compartments, will
invite the worst kind of robbing. Not only
this, there will always be danger of the bee
moth. Combs confibied in bee-tight hives or
supers, if they have eggs of the moth in the
first place, may develop the wax worm later ;
but in an Italian apiary this will rarely
occur ; and even when the moth-eggs are in
the comb they will be killed by the first
winter freezing. Right here is one explana-

tion of why the bee moth is much more
destructive in the South than in the North.
All stray eggs or larvae are killed by ordi-
nary freezing weather. Combs stored away
in the fall in bee-tight supers will usually
be safe if freezing weather follows shortly
after. They can also be rendered safe from
the depredations of the moth worm by the
use of carbon bisulphide, mentioned fur-
ther on.

TWO OTHER SPECIES.

The work of the lesser wax moth is some-
what similar to that of the larger species;
but the galleries are smaller, and the webs
are finer and more on the surface of the |
comb. The photo, by J. W. Teft, shows the t
characteristic nest of the lesser wax moth.

There is still a smaller species that in-
fests combs, known as the Mediterranean '
flour moth. This is not really a wax worm,
and its presence is due to the fact that it I
eats the pollen in the comb; but it leaves
in its wake a lot of webs as shown in the
illustration on next page. i

BEE MOTH IN HIGH ALTITUDES. i

I

In Colorado, at least in the region of |
Denver, where the elevation is fully a mile [
above the level of the sea, the ordinary wax j
moths are unknown. The great elevation
seems to be more than they can stand.
There is, however, a very small wax worm,
but it is not the same that ordinarily trou-
bles beekeepers.

THE MOTH MILLER SOMETIMES A BLESSING '
IN DISGUISE.

The moth miller is not altogether an un-
mitigated nuisance. This pest, as already
explained, seldom troubles the professional 1
or up-to-date beekeeper. It is only the !
slipshod, careless, don't-read-the-papers-
class that it annoys. Their bees become |
weaker and weaker, and finally die in the j
winter, leaving combs more or less filled j
with honey, and smeared over with the
dead matter from foul brood. Unfortu-
nately, these " old gums " containing dis- {
eased honey are a constant source of infec- j
.tion to all the bees in their vicinity. The j
healthy bees within range rob them out.
In the mean time the moth millers, if pres-

MOTH MILLER

535

Combs infested by the lesser wax moth. This photograph was sent us by George W. Tebbs, Hespeler, Ontario,
Canada, who wrote that the frame was taken from a hive which had originally contained an Italian colony, but
which had been empty during the winter.

colony dwindles, of course, dies in the win-
ter, and is again the source of infection to
the neighboring bees. They rob it out once
more; but if there are moth millers in the
locality they soon destroy these old combs
and leave in their place a mass of webs
that is so repellent that no swarm of bees
will make a home there. Said one of our
Ohio bee inspectors, " The moth miller,
after all, may be a friend to the progressive
beekeeper in that it destroys one great
source of infection — old diseased . combs
and ' gums * in his neighborhood that

ent, get in their work. Their larvae de-
stroy the combs so that no future swarm
will find these old hives a suitable abiding-
place. It is right here that the moth mil-
ler proves to be a blessing in disguise.
These old combs smeared with foul-brood
scales would, unless destroyed by some
agency, attract swarms; for experience
has shown that they are frequently occu-
pied by stray swarms. The bees get nicely
started in housekeeping, begin to fill the
combs with honey and brood, when, lo ! bee
disease begins to make its appearance. The

Work of the Mediterranean flour moth.

536

MOTH MILLER

might otherwise remain in bee-trees and
old hives for years and years, and for
years and years spread the disease."

One of the most thoro treatises on the
wax moth or wax worm is a bulletin issued

Cluster of bee-moth larvae photographed exact size.
— Texas Agricultural Bulletin No. 158.

by the Texas Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, No. 158, June, 1913. Among other
things it discusses the life-history of the
bee moth or wax worm. The author, F. B.
Paddock, made a very exhaustive study of
the larger species, Galleria mellonella. As

Web and cocoons in the center of a brood-frame.
— Texas Agricultural Bulletin No. 158.

this bulletin covers the development, life-
history, and the control of this pest, we
are glad to place extracts, including the
engravings, before our readers.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE BEE MOTH.
THE ADULT MOTH.

There is some dispute and no little uncer-
tainty about the origin of the bee moth. Dr.
A. J. Cook has this to say in regard to its
origin: ''These moths were known to writers
of antiquity, as even Aristotle tells of their
injury. They are wholly of Oriental origin,
and are often referred to by European writ-
ers as a terrible pest."*

The bee moth was introduced into America
about 1805, tho bees had been introduced
some time prior to this. The time of the
introduction of the bee moth into Texas is
not known. The insect is now found in Italy,
Germany, France, England, Ireland, India,
Australia, and in most of the bee-keeping sec-
tions of the United States. This insect is dis-
tributed practically all over Texas.

The larva (''web-worm"), upon reaching
maturity, constructs a cocoon by means of
silken threads which it is able to spin. After

* " Manual of the Apiary," A. J. Cook, page 485.

538

MOTH MILLER

the cocoon is completed the larva changes to
the pupal stage. This is the stage in which
the form of the larva is reconstructed to
make the moth which will emerge later from
the cocoon. The moths mate and the females
deposit the eggs which hatch into the larv^.
This is called the ''life cycle."

THE ADULT MOTH.

The adult bee moth (Plate II, a) is about
five-eighths of an inch (15 millimeters) in
length, with a wing expanse of about one
and one-quarter inches (30 to 32 mm). The
moth with its wings folded appears ashy-
gray in color, but the back third of each
front wing is bronze-colored, and this wing
is thickly covered with fine scales which rub
off easily when the moth is touched. On the
outer and rear margins of the fore wing is a
scanty row of short hairs. The hind wings
are uniform in color, usually gray, with traces
of a few black lines extending from the outer
margin inward toward the base; on the outer
and rear margins is a thick fringe of hairs on
which is a dark line running parallel with the
border of the wing. The body is brown, the
shade varying, with a covering of scales.
These scales rub off easily and are not always
present on the older moths. The male is
slightly smaller than the female. A differ-
ence between the sexes is noticed in the fore
wing, which, in the case of the male, is deeply
scalloped on its outer margin. This scallop
carries a heavy fringe of hairs, almost black
in color. Another difference is in the mouth
parts, the palpi of the male being rudimen-
tary.

HABITS.

The moths emerge entirely at night; and
in the cases observed, no moths emerged after
9 p. m. They at once seek some protected
place in which to expand their wings and dry,
and by the next morning they are able to fly.
During the day the moths seek a sheltered
place away from light and enemies, where
they apparently settle down and draw their
wings around them, remaining very still and
quiet. Usually they are well protected by
their color, which resembles weather-beaten
wood. If disturbed during the day, the moths
will make a dart or short flight, acting as tho
blinded by the light. When an object is met,
the moth quickly settles down, and seems very
anxious to avoid flight. That they are hard
to disturb in the daytime is shown by the
fact that in several of the cages used in the
experiments small ants attacked the moths
and killed them without any apparent strug-
gle on the part of the moths. Only by close
examination could it be detected that the
moths were dead and not resting in the usual
manner. It is only during the latter part of
the oviposition period that the females are
active during the daytime.

The male moths emerge a few days earlier
than the females and are much longer lived.
In several cages, closely observed, the males
lived an average of 26 days, which was 14

days longer than the average life of the fe-
males. The male moths are very active thru-
out their existence. Just how long the males
are functional has not yet been determined.
In some matings under artificial conditions
one male fertilized two females at an interval
of ten days. During the first part of the
emergence period the males are in excess of
the females, since the males emerge first as a
general thing. Later on, the number of males
and females reaching maturity at the same
time is about equal. During the latter part
of the emergence period the females predom-
inate. However, for the brood as a whole,
taking sometimes as long as a month for all
of the individuals to reach maturity, the
males and females are about equal in number.

The first and the last emerging individuals
of the brood are smaller in size than the
average, regardless of the sex. The quality
of the food has a great deal to do with the
size of the adults. The last larvae of the
brood are always undersized, but are almost
always able to pupate and reach maturity.
Several matings have been made with odd-
sized individuals, such as large males and
small females, and vice versa. The results
of these matings indicate that those larvae
which were forced into pupation prematurely
may transform to functional adults.

MATING AND OVIPOSITION.

During the mating period the males are
more active than the females; and at this
time can be noticed ''drumming" with their
wings, the vibrations of which are, at times,
sufficient to produce a low hum.

The moths probably mate very soon after
emergence, tho no direct observations have
been made upon this point. However, fe-
males only one and one-half hours old were
killed and their ovaries examined. It was
found that, at this time, fully two-thirds of
the eggs were of full size and weU down in
the oviducts, tho not packed closely, as was
found to be the case in the older moths. The
eggs had the appearance of being ready for
deposition.

Mating takes place at night, as would nat-
urally be expected from the nocturnal habits
of the species. In one cage a pair of moths
were observed in coitu early in the morning,
but this was no doubt an abnormal condition,
as the female died in a short time. Another
case was observed where the moths were in
coitu from 7 p. m. till 10:30 p. m. The next
morning no eggs had been deposited, but the
following night the female began ovipositing.
This was an exceptional case, as the female
had been confined for a week after emergence
before having the opportunity to mate.

It would seem that the female commences
to oviposit in a comparatively short time after
emergence. However, in the cages, an aver-
age of six days elapsed between the time of
emergence and the first egg-laying. This
period varies with the different broods of the
year. Oviposition usually takes place at night
and the moths generally start laying the eggs

540

MOTH MILLER

soon after dark. In the cages they have been
observed busily engaged in ovipositing as
early as 7 p. m. While depositing eggs the
female seems mindful only of the task she is
performing, and is not easily disturbed, tho
she is active, seemingly nervous, darting in
and around the comb. While thus engaged
the antennas vibrate continuously and perhaps
are used to locate suitable crevices in w^hich
to place the eggs. The ovipositor is long, equal
in length to the last two abdominal segments
and is very slender. It is constantly moving
over the comb to detect a roughened spot
wherein to deposit the egg. It thus has the
appearance of being dragged after the female
in her travels over the comb.

Having found a suitable place for the egg,
the ovipositor is spread at the tip, the female
braces herself as tho pushing backward to
force the ovipositor into the comb, and then,
after a quick jerk of the abdomen, an egg is
forced down the ovipositor to its destination.
In many instances females have been observed
depositing their eggs at the rate of one every
minute for a period of 30 minutes, and then,
after a short rest, have continued again at
the same rate. The eggs are always securely
fastened to whatever object they are laid
upon. The eggs are always laid in cavities.
In the cage experiments this was on the side
of the comb, often where the walls of a cell
had been turned in. An example of this is
shown at Plate II, b. Only one egg is de-
posited at a time, altho in working over the
comb a female often places the eggs close
together. On the smaller pieces of comb,
furnished to moths confined in cages, as many
as seven eggs were found in a single cavity.
The number of eggs actually deposited by one
female has not been determined, but females
which had not deposited eggs were killed and
the eggs in their ovaries were counted. The
largest number of eggs found in ovaries of a
single female was 1,128, and the average
number was 1,014.

In the cages, under artificial conditions, if
comb was not supplied for the female, she
would deposit her eggs in any rough place
detected by her ovipositor. In many instances
the females would refuse to oviposit on cap-
pings which were furnished in some of the
cages, but would go around the base of the
lamp globe in which they were confined and
fill every crevice with eggs. Sometimes these
eggs would be fastened on the outside of the
glass, and in such cases the globe would be
fastened to its resting place.

The average time consumed in depositing
the full quota of eggs varies with the brood.
In the first brood it is nine days, but in the
second only seven days. During the last part
of the egg-laying period the female appears
to be in a great hurry, and during the last
few days she oviposits during the day as well
as during the night, at times stopping to rest.
If disturbed during the resting periods, she
vigorously resumes her egg-laying. The fe-
males usually die while ovipositing, and the
last three or four eggs are barely extruded

from the ovipositor. If a female is being
killed or injured, she will attempt to oviposit
even after she is unable to walk.

The females will deposit their eggs even
when they have not had the opportunity to
mate. In all cases where the sexes were not
properly paired, the females would finally
oviposit, the period of oviposition being, how-
ever, much shorter than the natural one.
Altho many females which did not mate were
confined in cages, and altho they deposited
eggs, none of these unfertilized eggs ever
hatched. It seems a fairly safe conclusion
that parthenogenesis does not occur with this
species.

THE EGG.

The egg (Plate II, b), is elliptical, meas-
uring about one-fiftieth of an inch (.48 mm.)
in length and .43 in width. The shell is
pearly white in color and slightly roughened
by wavy lines running across it diagonally
at regular intervals. If the egg is not depos-
ited on dark comb it is very difficult to see,
and even then experience is necessary to de-
tect all of the eggs present.

The embryonic development of the egg has
not been studied, but a few observations have
been made upon the incubation period. Dur-
ing this period the egg gradually changes
from a white to a yellow color. About four
days before hatching, the developing larvae
becomes visible as a dark ring inside of thq
shell. The perfectly formed larva can be'
distinctly seen for at least 12 hours before
the shell bursts. During this time the larva
is engaged in cutting an opening in the shell
and its final emergence from the egg is made
thru a ragged hole in the top. After the
larva is out of the shell it appears white and
clear.

The egg stage of the first brood averages
twelve days and of the second only ten days.

THE LARV^.

The larvae (''worms") when first hatched
are white in color and very small, only one-
eighth of an inch (3 mm.) in length. After
emerging from the shell they are quiet for a
short time while they are apparently drying
and stretching in preparation for their work
of destruction. Soon they become very active,
but only upon close examination can they be
seen hurrying over the comb in their attempt
to gain an entrance before being detected by
the bees. During this short period of one or
two hours they are at the mercy of their ene-
mies. Within a short time after hatching,
the first meal is taken, and this consists of
scales of wax which they loosen from the
comb in their attempts to gain an entrance.
The entrance is made at the top of the cell-
wall between the cells.

The entrance is extended by the larva? into
tunnels directed toward the bottom of the
cells. Their presence is now noticeable, for
in their work the bits of chewed wax not
used for food are pushed back of them and

. Plate ITT. — Above, cages used in studying the development of the bee moth ; at center,
work of wax worm, or larva, on comb foundation ; below, mass of cocoons, one of which
shows larvae repairing damaged cocoon. — Texas Agricultural Bulletin No. 158.

MOTH MILLEI

PLATE IV. — Characteristic work of the wax worm on empty comb, — Texas Agricultural
Bullfitin No. 158.

MOTH MILLER

643

out of the tunnel, making the surface of the
comb appear rough and poorly kept. This
tunnel affords protection and food for the
larva3 and also leads to their desired feeding
place, the center of the comb. Usually four
days are consumed in reaching this point.

When the center of the comb is reached,
the larvge leave their tunnels and wander over
the bottom of the cells or, in the case of
comb containing honey, tunnel along the mid-
rib from cell to cell. If disturbed, they seek
their tunnels for protection. At first only
small holes are eaten thru the bottoms of the
cells, thus affording a passageway from cell
to cell thru the center of the comb, so that,
if disturbed, they can pass into passages of
silk spun by the larva in their attempt to
escape. In two or three days these openings
are enlarged and outlined by threads of silk
spun by the larv!£ in their travels from cell to
cell. These threads soon become numerous
enough to form a silken gallery, which gives
almost complete protection from the bees or
other enemies. From this central gallery the
feeding is extended out along the bottoms of
the cells or the middle of the comb. The silk
is spun Avherever the larva go, so that very
soon the bottoms of the cells are replaced by
a layer of silk thread covered with excrement
of the larva and particles of chewed wax.
This condition is shown in Plate IV.

After the midrib has been eaten, the larvae
start on the walls of the cells, the ones
furthest away from the light being the first
that are destroyed. As this feeding con-
tinues out along the cell-walls, the threads
of silk are extended to cover the new feed-
ing-ground, and not only serve to protect the
larvae, but also act as a scaffold to support
the damaged cells. Soon the center of the
comb appears as a mass of tangled refuse
and discarded wax. This condition is also
shown at Plate IV. The feeding continues
until the walls are entirely eaten, but the top
of the cells is never eaten, perhaps because
this would expose them to outside influences
and enemies. An example of this is shown at
Plate IV, lower photo. The area of feeding
is gradually extended from the point of in-
festation to include finally the entire comb.
If the comb does not furnish sufficient food
for the larva that are present, they wiU begin
to feed in the refuse under the comb in which
there is considerable wax in small pieces. In
this they construct such a large amount of
web that they are absolutely protected from
enemies.

The length of the larval period for the first
brood is 45 days, or about six and one-half
weeks. In the second brood this period is
shortened to 35 days, or five weeks.

The full-grown larva, shown at Plate II,
e, is about three-fourths of an inch (18 mm.)
in length. The body is large and the head
is small and pointed. The general color of
the body is a dirty gray, with the first seg-
ment brown on top and a broad line across it.
The head is brown in color, with a light
V-shaped line on top, this ''V'* opening to-
ward the front of the head.

Having completed its growth, the larva
seeks a place in which to pupate, tho some-
times the end of the feeding gallery may be
enlarged and closed to serve as a cocoon. The
cocoon may also be spun in the refuse under
the comb and this mass of webs affords an ex-
cellent protection to the pupa. The most com-
mon place is in some crack or corner about
the hive, as shown in Plate V, below, or be-
tween the frames and the hive or in the "bee
space" at the end of the top-bars, as is
shown in Plate VI, right. The larva prefers
to get into a place which it can chew in order
that a cavity may be constructed and the
cocoon thus be better protected.

Having prepared for the location of the
cocoon, the larva begins to spin the silk
thread about itself, starting just above the
head and working backwards more than the
length of the body, A thin layer of silk
is spun in the general shape of the cocoon;
and this framework is covered with fine silk
from the inside. The larva is able to reverse
itself within the cocoon, which it does many
times during its construction. The outer
layer, upon hardening, becomes very tough
and even like parchment, while the inner
layer remains soft and fluffy. Cocoons, both
whole and broken open, are shown at Plate
III, below, and in Plate VI, left. The aver-
age time consumed in the construction of the
cocoon was two and one-fourth days in the
case of the larva observed in our cages.

THE PUPA.

As the cocoon nears completion, the larva
becomes very sluggish and the body shortens.
The last act of the larva is to make an in-
cision in the cocoon near the head end which
provides for an easy emergence of the moth
at maturity. The average time elapsing from
the completion of the cocoon to the formation
of the pupa was three and three-fourths days
in the cages of the experiments.

The change to the pupa takes place during
the night. The newly formed pupa is white.
At the end of the first 24 hours it turns to a
straw color, very light at first, deepening slow-
ly. By the end of the fourth day the pupa is
light brown and this color gradually deepens,
so that by the end of the pupal period the
insect is a dark brown. (Plate II, d,) The
male pupa average 14 millimeters (about two-
thirds of an inch) in length and the female
pupa are fully 16 millimeters in length. A
row of spines arises just back of the head
and extends to the fifth abdominal segment;
the body line is somewhat curved downward.
The time from the formation of the pupa to
the emergence of the moth was seven and
three-fourths days in the cage experiments.

The total time from the starting of the
cocoon to the emergence of the moth aver-
ages two weeks.

LIFE HISTORY.

From the work which we have done in try-
ing to identify the different broods, or gener-
ations, of this insect, it appears that there are

544

MOTH MILLER

Plate V. — Above, comb and foundation destroyed by wax worm ; below, characteristic
appearance of cocoons inside of beehive. — Texas Agricultural Bulletin No. 158.

MOTH MILLER

545

three broods in the extreme southern part of
the United States. The third brood is not
nearly as large as the first two, due to the
fact that some of the second brood of larvae
do not pupate until late fall. There is a de-
cided overlapping of the generations, which
makes it difficult to determine the exact num-
ber of broods a year. At almost any time,
from early spring until December, examina-
tion of a colony of bees is likely to reveal
this insect in all stages. It is often assumed
that the life history is short and that there
are several generations each year.

In well-protected hives the development may
continue thruout the year without interruption.
Usually the winter is passed with about one-
third of the insects in the pupal stage and
the remainder in the larval stage. Warm
spells during the winter cause some of the
moths to emerge from their cocoons; in the
laboratory many moths emerged when the tem-
perature was maintained constantly at 60 de-
grees F. It is not unusual to see moths on
the windows of the honey-house, trying to es-
cape, during the warm spells in December and
January. Their presence may be accounted
for on the supposition that they have just
emerged from their cocoons or they may have
been in hibernation as adults and become ac-
tive with the rise in temperature. Such moths
do not reproduce in localities where freezing
temperatures are frequent. Even the most
vigorous moths cannot withstand a freezing
temj)erature for more than three days. Moths
in well-protected places can sur\ive an out-
side temperature as low as 26 degrees F. for
as long as five days. The moths are never
active during the day when the temperature
is below 50 degrees F., so at such times re-
production does not take place.

NATURAL ENEMIES.

Of the natural enemies of the bee moth,
the most important is the honeybee itself.
It is a well-established fact that if the colony
be kept strong, healthy, and with a vigorous
queen, it will defend, itself against the bee
moth. This is particularly true in the case
of '■'Italian'' bees. ''In the Ohio Cultivator
for 1849, page 185, Micajah T. Johnson says :
'One thing is certain: if the bees, from any
cause, should lose their queen, and not have
means in their power of raising another, the
miller and the worms soon take possession. I
believe no hive is destroyed by worms while
an efficient queen remains in it. ' This seems
to be the earliest published notice of this im-
portant fact by an American observer."*

This fact is of vital importance in the fight
against the bee moth, for if the pest can be
kept from its favorite food, control measures
are made much easier. The fact that the bees
under natural conditions are able to defend
themselves should leave the problem of con-
trol to such means as will destroy the
pest in places other than the hives. Ee-

* Langstroth on the Hive and Honeybee, by Chas.
Dadant, p. 469.

18

cently it has been found advantageous to in-
troduce Italian blood into the colony, as the
workers of this race seem to be more efficient
fighters of the bee moth. In most cases this
is sufficient for the control of the pest in the
colonies, but it must be remembered that the
colony cannot be kept under close observation
and maintained at full strength unless domi-
ciled in a frame hive.

A small red ant, Solenopsis sp.,f has been
found to be an enemy of the bee moth, as
many of our cage experiments were destroyed
by this ant killing the moths and larvae. The
attack is made on the moths during the day
or when they are at rest. Usually the ants
crawl under the wings of the moth and begin
the attack upon the abdomen. There is no
apparent struggle on the part of the moth,
for close examination is necessary to deter-
mine that the moth is dead and not resting.
The abdomen seems to be all that is desired,
and this is carried away in small pieces to the
nest of the ants. This same species of ant
also destroyed moths which had recently been
prepared for exhibits. At such times only the
abdomen was taken by the ants. In their at-
tacks on the larvae the ants entered the cages
and crawled over the comb and wax in search
of their prey; and if any larvas were exposed
they were attacked. The larger larvas are
more frequently attacked, as they are less ac-
tive and usually feed in more exposed places
than do the smaller ones. Unless the larvae
were well protected by webs in the refuse,
they were destroyed by the ants. Apparently
there are days and even parts of days when
the ants are most active in their destruction.
Never were the ants present in sufficient num-
bers to attempt tracing them to their nests.
No observations have been made upon this ant
in or about the apiary, and, while it proved
very destructive under artificial conditions,
the moths and larvae might be better able to
protect themselves under natural conditions.

Three hymenopterous parasites have been
recorded from the bee moth. One is a chalcid,
Eupelmus cereanus, found by Eoudani in
Italy; another is Bracon brevicornis, which
was found by Marshall in France, and a third
species, Apenteles lateralis, was recently
found by A. Conte in France.* This last
species was found near Lyons, where it spread
very rapidly. It is apparently of considerable
importance since it has also been reported to
attack the larvge of several other moths in
England and Germany. The adult parasite
is about one-sixth of an inch (4 mm.) in
length, very lively, and avoids light; the
body is black and the wings are transparent,
with black specks. The larvae of the bee moth
are attacked while quite young and never at-
tain a large size. A single parasite develops
in each larva. The bees are said to pay no
attention to the presence of the parasite, so
that it can easily enter the hive in search of

t Determined by Mr. Wilmon Newell.

* "A Hymenopterous Parasite of the Bee-moth,"
A Conte (Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 154 pp.
41, 42).

546

MOTH MILLER

MOTH MILLER

547

the bee moth larvae. It was artificially intro-
duced into hives by Conte with very satis-
factory results.

ARTIFICIAL CONTROL.

Unfortunately, the only natural enemy of
the bee moth that is present to any great
extent is the honey bee itself. In the ab-
sence of any other natural enemies of im-
portance, the measures of artificial control
must be made all the more effective if the
beekeeper is to free his apiary of the pest.
If the moths are driven from the hives by
strong colonies of Italianized bees, they will
surely seek scraps of comb and wax about
the ground and stored comb and honey in
the honey-house. It seems quite likely that
in such cases the eggs are deposited as near
to the comb as possible, as along the cracks
between the supers, and the larvse, after
hatching, find their way to the comb thru
crevices much smaller than the moth could
enter.

One of the best methods of artificial con-
trol, and one upon which many beekeepers
depend, is fumigation of combs and honey.
Gas is able to penetrate material that it is
not possible to treat in any other manner.
The fumigation process is not difficult, for,
when once started, no further attention is
necessary until the treatment is complete. It
is not necessary to watch the entire process.
Stored material, such as comb honey and
empty combs, should be examined from time
to time, and at the first evidence of the wax
worm they should be fumigated. Stored ma-
terial of this kind should be examined at least
once every week during the summer and once
every month during the winter season, so as
to detect the infestation at the start.

FUMIGATION.

In the present investigation two materials
have been used in the fumigating experiments.
These were selected because almost every bee-
keeper is acquainted with them and they can
be obtained in practically every locality at a
reasonable price. They are sulphur and car-
bon bisulphide, or "high life.''

SULPHUR.

Dry powdered sulphur, or ''flowers of sul-
phur," is a light -yellowish powder, with
which every one is familiar. When sulphur
is burned it unites with the oxygen of the
air and forms a poisonous gas known as
"sulphur dioxide." This gas is quite effec-
tive in killing some kinds of insects, includ-
ing the wax worm. A common method of
burning the sulphur is to place it on a pan of
red-hot coals and immediately tier up the in-
fested supers over the burning sulphur. The
bottom super should not contain any infested
material, and the pile should be covered as
quickly as possible. A number of experiments
were made with sulphur for fumigating combs
containing the wax worms. The results of

these experiments are given in the following
table :

Table I. — Eesults of Fumigating Infested
Combs with Sulphur Dioxide.

Larvffi 34 oz One hour Killed

Larvae ^2 oz One hour Killed*

Larvs % oz One hour Killed*

The larvae which were used for these ex-
periments were ten to twenty days old, and
in every case they were well protected by
the webs and refuse.

From the experiments with sulphur dioxide
it is evident that only extremely large doses
will affect the eggs of the bee moth — so
large, in fact, that such fumigation would not
be practical.

The larvs which were used in the experi-
ments were of different ages and some were
better protected than others. When the larvae
are not very weU protected they are quite sus-
ceptible to the gas, but the larger larvse,
which are often enclosed in a mass of webs,
are not killed except when extremely large
doses of sulphur are used.

These results seem to indicate that the sul-
phur fumes are not ordinarily penetrating
enough to affect the eggs, and only when the
larvge are young and not well protected will
the gas affect them. While the method is
simple, there are minor details upon which
the success of the operation depends. The
sulphur must be burned at a high tempera-
ture in order to generate the most effective
gas. While the method is generally effective
under proper conditions, it cannot be recom-
mended in preference to fumigation with car-
bon bisulphide.

CAEBON BISULPHIDE ("HIGH LIFE").

The commercial bisulphide is an oily liquid,
very volatile and exceedingly foul-smelling.
It is cold to the touch; and because of its
rapid evaporation it produces a freezing sen-
sation when dropped on the skin. When ex-
posed to the air at ordinary temperatures the
bisulphide changes to a gas quite rapidly, and
this gas, or vapor, is a little more than two
and one-half times as heavy as air. This is
a point to be remembered in its use, since it
goes first to the bottom of whatever it is con-
fined in. When mixed with air it becomes
highly inflammable and sometimes explosive.
Such a mixture of air and bisulphide gas may
be exploded by even a spark, such as might be
made by hitting a nail with a hammer. The
liquid, on evaporation, leaves a residue of im-
purities. Its rate of evaporation is in propor-
tion to the temperature and the area of the
exposed surface. Its eflSciency is greatest
with rapid evaporation, and this is secured in
relatively warm weather, but artificial heat
must never be used to hasten its change into
gas. Carbon bisulphide is obtainable from
practically every druggist.

* Eggs which were present on these combs were not
killed by the sulphur dioxide as larvae were found
hatching a few days after the fumigation.

Plate VTI. — Appearance of infested hive with cover removed, showing cocoons broken
open and the larvae inside of them.— Texas Agricultural Bulletin No. 158.

MOVING BEES

549

"Rack made in California, especially for hauling bees.

When carbon bisulphide is to be used for
fumigation of infested material, the greatest
precaution should be used to keep all fire, such
as lights, cigarets, etc., away from the liquid
and where it is being used. For this reason it
is well to take the material that is to be
fumigated to som-e place out of doors and at
least a hundred feet away from any building.
The infested material should be placed in
supers or hive-bodies if possible. These are
piled as high as is convenient and all cracks
between the supers made as nearly gas-proof
as possible. Especially should the bottom be
tight. A good plan is to place an inverted
hive cover on the ground, lay a piece of can-
vas over it, and then tier up the supers on
this. After the pile has been completed, an
empty super should be put on top. In this
should be placed a large shallow pan into
which the bisulphide is to be poured. When
all is in readiness, pour the bisulphide into
the pan and immediately put a hive cover on
the top of the tier to confine the gas. This
operation is best performed in the evening,
and the pile of supers should be left intact
until the following morning. When the su-
pers are taken down the confined gas will
escape from them immediately, even before they
can be carried, separately, into a building.

MOVING BEES. — Young bees, when
they first start out, or old ones on the first
flight of the season after a winter's con-
finement, hover in the air about the hive
entrance, take a careful survey of sur-
roundings, making' wider and wider circles,
each time taking in new objects by which

they may familiarize themselves with the
home. When the location is once carefully
marked they will go back and forth with-
out taking any note of distinguishing ob-
jects. But when the hive is moved only a
few feet there is apparent consternation
and confusion.

One cannot, therefore, move his bees a
few feet or a quarter of a mile without
having the great majority of them go back
to the old spot unless treated by the plans
here described. Some strains of black bees
when moved will find theii' hives. See
" Black Bees," under head of Races of
Bees. The bees lost perish, or possibly
get into some other hive near their old
location, with the result that there is a
fight, and many bees killed.

If one desires to move his bees, and
wishes to take them at least a mile and a
half or two miles away, the problem is
quite easy, for then they will stay wherever
they are placed. As soon as they are lib-
erated in their new position they will mark
the location as thoroly and carefully as
when taking their first flight. After that
they will go to and from the same spot as
if it had always been their home.

But to move bees from the front to the
back yard, or from a fourth to half a mile,
is not so easy. They are familiar with the

550

MOVING BEES

Wagonload of 91 nuclei en route to the Basswood yard. A low-wheel wide-tired wagon is just right for
loading and unloading, and for carrying bees from one yard to the other. The wide tires make it possible to
get over soft sod when the ground is wet.

whole range of flight within a mile of the
old stand; and when they go over their
old hunting-ground, so to speak, instead of
returning to the hive from which they have
just come they will return to the old loca-
tion. How, then, shall we make them stay
where placed? One way, and the very best
one, is to wait till fall or winter. After
they have quit flying for the season, move
them to the spot desired. If they are con-
fined a week or two weeks by cold weather,
or longer, they will mark their new loca-
tion and go back to it as their regular and
permanent home. It will be better still if
they can be confined for several months in
the cellar; then when put out in the spring,
they should be placed in the new
location; for it is well known that cellared
bees can be placed anywhere the following
spring without reference to their old
stands. Wherever they are placed they
will mark their location, and that must be
their fixed position for the season.

But suppose it is the midst of summer,
and for some reason the bees must be
moved a few rods from their old location.
Perhaps complaint is made that the bees in

the front yard are interfering with passers-
by, and to avoid trouble it seems desirable
to move them to the back yard. In an
emergency of this kind the following plan
may be used :

Tack wire cloth over the entrances, carry
the hives down cellar, and keep them there
for at least five days, and longer if they
appear to be quiet. While the bees are in
the cellar, change the surroundings in the
front yard or in the old location as much
as possible. After the bees have served
out their allotted time of confinement, put
them in the back yard in the same order as
before if it can be done conveniently. While
some of the bees may, perhaps, go back,
the great majority will stay in their new
location. Those that do return should be
given a frame of brood in a hive ; and when
they have clustered on it they should be
taken to the new location and dumped in
front of the entrance to the hive. If the
bees are confined during cool or rainy
weather, when they cannot fly, there will be
no loss of honey that might be gathered
from the field. While the bees are confined
in the cellar a sharp watch should be kept

MOVING BEES

551

The auto truck with

or supplies runs right into the apiary. No danger of stings causing runaways.

on them to see that they do not suffocate;
and, if practicable, the whole top of the
hive should be covered with wire screen.

There is still another method ; and wher-
ever it is practicable to carry it out it is
better than carrying them into the cellar;
that is, move the bees to a point a mile and
a half or two miles from the old location.
Let them stay there two or three weeks,
then move them back. But this involves
considerable labor, so that the average per-
son would not think it practicable.

Another plan that has been spoken of
very favorably, and possibly may be better
than any of the others mentioned hereto-
fore except the plan of moving to an out-
yard and then moving back again, is this:
In the cool of the morning, at a time of
year when no honey is or has heen coming
in, colonies may be moved a few feet or a
few rods with very little trouble. The
hives are put on a wheelbarrow early in
the morning, and after smoking at the
entrance are trundled as roughly as possible
clear over to the new location, for it is im-
portant that the bees get a general shaking-
up in moving. If the frames are self-
spacing there will be no damage done to
the combs nor to the bees. The hive is set
down on its new stand, when it is given a
little more smoke. Any number of colonies

can be moved in this way; but the moving
should be done at once, and the old location
should be changed in appearance as much
as possible. Very few bees will go back
when so treated. The author has tried it
in a limited way, and found that it works
admirably. The bees should not be moved
a short distance when a honey flow is on or
has been on for two or three days. When
they have been going regularly to the fields
for a number of days they get their loca-
tion well fixed, and it is almost impossible
to move them short distances at such times
without a general returning of field bees to
the old stands. A correspondent reported
that he attempted to move bees to a neigh-
boring lot when the honey flow was on,
and he says he never saw bees crosser in
his life. When, therefore, a neighbor com-
plains that the bees are interfering with
public traffic along the highway, and they
must be moved at once, one must take into
consideration whether there is a honey flow
on. If so, an explanation should be made
that moving bees at such times will only
make the trouble complained of much
worse. See Bees as Nuisance ; also Apiary.

We have tried another plan that has
given good results ; but this, like the other,
must not be attempted when a honey flow
is on. Move the hive a few inches a day.

552

MOVING BEES

Moving bees by boat.

and each time make a bigger jump than
the one preceding. After the bees have
been moved in this way from two to five
times they learn to expect a change in loca-
tion, and therefore will hunt out their
hive wherever it may be. Sometimes in
such moving it is advisable to put up a
board against the entrance just after mov-
ing, in order to arrest the attention of the
bees when they come out. This forces
them to mark their location anew.

Ordinarily, as a matter of convenience,
the bees should be moved in the cool of
the morning, when no honey flow is on,
giving the bees as much of a shake-up as
possible, but of course not violent enough
to break the combs.

HOW TO MOVE BEES A DISTANCE
OF SEVERAL MILES.

The remarks that have been made here-
tofore apply to moving bees only a short
distance; but when they are to be carried
a considerable distance, and jolted over
rough roads, they require more ventilation
than can usually be afforded by an ordi-
nary entrance. If they are shut up during
the middle of the day, those in the field are
liable to be lost. Ordinarily they should be
confined at night or in the early morning
— ^better at night unless the weather is hot.

If the colony is very strong, a hive
with a comb of brood should be left on the
old stand, when the owner can start a

nucleus very conveniently with the return-
ing bees.

Many beekeepers fasten the bottoms to
their hives permanently, so all that is nec-
essary in such cases is to secure the cover
and put a wire-cloth screen over the en-
trance. If very warm a screen should also
be used over the top. A very good plan
during cool weather is shown in the next
engraving, consisting of two cords or ropes.

One rope is drawn around as tight as

Fastening bottom-board and cover.

possible at one end, and the other is put on
the other end. The cords are then drawn
togetl^ at the top in such a way as to
produce a strong tension.

Another plan, somewhat similar, is to
use one cord or rope. It is drawn around
the hive, and tied loosely. A stick is then
slipped into the cord and given a half-
twist in such a way as to draw the loop up
very tight.

But by far the most satisfactory plan,
certainly the safest, and the authors adopt

MOVING BEES

553

Removing the staples.

it in their moving, is that of using a spe-
cial staple (obtained at the hive factories)
shown in the accompanying illustrations.
One leg of the staple is driven into the
bottom-board, and the other into the hive
body. Two staples on each side will be
sufficient to hold the bottom-board. The

Under way.

cover is fastened in the same way. The
staples are very easily removed with a
screwdriver at least a foot long, if they are
not driven down too tight. The tool is
shoved under one side, close to a leg of the
staple, and given a quarter twist; then
it is moved over to the other side, and
twisted again. When the staple is raised
high enough so the screwdriver can get
under and give it a good pry it can be
easily removed.

PREVENTING BEES FROM SMOTHERING.

In the early part of the season, in the
spring or fall, or any time when the weather
is cool, it is not necessary to have any more
ventilation than will be secured with an or-

dinary entrance covered with wire cloth.
As the weather warms up, additional air
will have to be provided. Sometimes this
can be accomplished by taking pieces of
section stuff % in. thick, and placing one
at each of the four corners between the
hive and cover. The latter should be se-
cured by ropes or staples, as previously
shown. This makes a crack all around Yg
inch wide, but not quite wide enough to let
bees thru.

A far safer and better arrangement is to
use wire screen in place of the covers. A
wooden frame 1^/2 or 2 inches deep should
be made of % lumber, the same length and
width as the hive. A piece of wire cloth
large enough to cover it is tacked on, and
over the marginal edges are nailed strips
of wood % inch wide and % of an inch
thick. The purpose of the ^-inch strip is
twofold — to help hold the wire cloth in
place and raise the next hive that may
be piled on top crosswise at least one-half
inch above wire cloth.

554

MOVING BEES

Fig. 7. — Tacking on the entrance screen. These screens hold their posi-
tions by friction, and do not need to be tacked until just before hives are
loaded. A wide piece of galvanized wire cloth is bent in the shape of a long V
or wedge, with a right-angle bend half an inch from one of the edges. The
point of the V or wedge is pushed in until the right-angle bend comes flush
with the front of .the hive, the other edge lying flat on the alighting-board,
thus affording plenty of surface for tacking. This plan gives much more sur-
face than a plain vertical screen, and the bees cannot crowd down, shutting off
the air at the bottom.

The screen frame is held on by the use
of crate staples as shown on the previous
page. They are quickly applied, and easily
removed with a screwdriver. It is always
advisable to use wire screens in moving
bees during hot weather. It is hardly safe
to depend on the ventilation at the en-
trance or thru narrow %-inch slots be-
tween the covers and hives.

When hives of bees are loaded on to a
wagon or truck they should be placed in
such a way that ventilation thru the top
screen will not be shut off.- In the case of
an ordinary hayrack the hives may be
spread out over a large surface in the
bottom of the wagon and over the rack.
In this way it will not be necessary to pile
one hive on top of another.

LOADING ON AUTO TRUCK.

When using an automobile truck, where
hives have to be piled on top of each other,
an open framework of 2 x 4's should be
placed between the several tiers of hives.
Without some scheme of keeping the

hives apart, the bees in
all except the top tier
of hives would smother.

The most satisfactory
entrance-closer is a
piece of wire cloth, the
length of which is the
inside width of the hive,
and bent in the form
shown in the illustra-
tion on previous page.

This is easily placed
in the entrance of the
hive by tacking the up-
per right-angled piece
against the upper part
of the entrance.

The main feature of
this is that it holds its
place without any tacks,
altho one or two are
needed to prevent its
jolting loose when on
the automobile truck or
wagon. Moreover, the
angle that projects into
the entrance increases
the amount of ventila-
tion just in proportion
as more wire cloth is
used.

Where hives are old and rickety, with
many cracks, it is advisable to put them in
burlap sacks of suitable size. Smoke should
be blown into the entrance, then the hive
should be tilted up in front and the sack
slipped over the hive, cover and all, and tied
at the top. This saves the use of entrance-
closers or hive screens. The plan can some-
times be employed to advantage in the
case of good hives, but it is advisable al-
ways to move at night, as the sacks do not
give quite the ventilation of the open hive
screens on top.

MOVING BEES BY TRUCK OR WAGON WITHOUT
SHUTTING THEM IN THE HIVE.

This can be done very often without the
necessity of using wire screens at the top,
nor even entrance screens. Before the
hives are loaded, smoke is blown into the
entrances to prevent rushing out and
stinging when the hive is disturbed. Just
before the start is made, the entrances are
smoked again. The subsequent jolting over
the roads, so far from making the bees

MOVING BEES

555

Ford runabout converted into a light truck.

Ugly, quiets them. If the weather is ex-
ceedingly warm the bees will crowd out
and cluster round the front of the hive
rather than smother to death.

The objection to this plan is that some
bees get out all over the hives. For this
reason it should not be used with an ordi-
nary horse-drawn wagon. It has the fur-
ther disadvantage that there will be a lot
of flying bees around the hives, some of
which will be lost as the truck moves for-
ward. But when one is not provided with
screens of any sort he can very often pick
the bees up, put them on the auto truck,
and land them at the outyard without any
further trouble.

V7HEN TO LOAD BEES.

No bees should be loaded on a wagon or
truck during the middle hours of the day,
since many field bees would be lost. They
should be loaded very late in the day or
early in the morning while all the field
bees are in. The hives may be made ready
at night, and the bees may be moved
any time the following day, altho on ac-
count of rising temperature they should be
started as soon as possible. In warm
weather it is better to move at night after
all the bees are in.

AUTOMOBILE TRUCKS OR HORSE-DRAWN
WAGONS.

In this day and age, on account of the
danger from stings the self-propelled wag-
ons are to be preferred. They will make a
trip to an outyard and back in about a
fifth of the time; and when bees are re-
moved to an outyard on a warm day quick
moving is far better than slow moving with
a team. Moreover, speed develops air cur-
rents that are highly important in moving.
Ordinarily it takes a team of horses nearly
half a day to get to a yard four or five
miles and back, and that spoils the whole
forenoon or afternoon. A motor truck, on
the other hand, in the same time can make
three or four such trips.

For the author's apiaries a light Ford is
used with a small wagon-box on the
rear to make trips to the yards. This will
easily carry two men and 12 hive bodies
with empty combs, or half that number
when the combs are filled with honey. This
wagon-box is just right to carry tools and
appliances, including hives, so that for
ordinary outyard work one can make quick
trips and carry back and forth all he prac-
tically needs. A light Ford truck will do
general out-apiary work at about one-
fourth the cost of a larger machine capable

556

MOVING BEES

of carrying a ton and moving correspond-
ingly slower. Our experience shows that
the small machine will make a run to out-
yards for from five to seven cents a mile,
while the larger ones cannot do it for less
than ten cents. This includes wear and
tear, depreciation and interest. Where one
is engaged extensively in the business he
can afford a light motor truck and a large
one beside. But as a general thing a small
machine will do 95 per cent of the moving,
and the other 5 per cent can be moved on
hired machines of large capacity.

The illustration shows a light two-pas-
senger Ford with a light wagon-box, which
can be secured at one-third or one-half
p]ice of a larger truck costing two or
three times as much to operate per mile.
Moreover, the Ford can be operated by
any one on account of its simple gear shift,
while the large two-ton trucks requiring
the use of sliding gears are complicated.

SHIPPING BEES LONG DISTANCES BY EXPRESS.

During warm weather it is advisable to
have the shipping boxes or hives with wire
screen at bottom as well as top. The ex-
press agents are usually careless, and, in
spite of instructions to the contrary, will
leave bees out in the hot sun or in a small
express room with all kinds of packages
piled on top. For that reason additional
ventilation should be provided. Provision

The Dovetailed hive prepared for shipping bees.

should be made to protect the bottom
screen and -insure ventilation at all times.

The illustrations herewith show packages
of bees in colonies and nuclei put up as
they should be for shipment. If unspaced
frames are used they should be secured by
notched cleats as shown.

On top of every shipment of bees there
should be a label cautioning agents against
leaving the bees out in the hot sun or piling
anything on top of them, thus shutting off
the ventilation; that bees are perishable
property, and should be moved without de-
lay, and that on arrival at destination the
owner should be informed by telephone or
messenger.

SHIPPING BEES WITHOUT COMBS.

Under Beginning with Bees the
combless packages of bees are illustrated
and described. The cages should be pro-

Empty three-frame nucleus shipping boxes. Note
that the boxes are made of light thin stuff, and
screened top and bottom.

vided with a large amount of ventilation;
and when two or more cages are sent by
express they should be crated apart so as
to provide ventilation. When only one
crate is sent the cleats should project in
such a way as to make it impossible to

]\IUSTARD

557

shove the package close np to something
else and thus shut off the ventilation.

Quite an extensive business is carried on
in shipping bees in one, two, three, and
five-frame nuclei. The illustrations show
a light shipping box, the sides and top of
which are made of good strong lumber
only 3-16 inch thick. The ends are %.
The bottom is covered with wire cloth,
then two cleats are nailed across the ends
to raise the nucleus off the floor. For the
sake of convenience the wire cloth is se-

Three-frame nucleus shipping boxes filled with bees.
The screen tops (with the convenient cross -rail for a
handle)- are secured to the nucleus box proper with two
screws at each end. Such boxes are very handy for
moving bees, either for shipping or carrying from one
part of the yard to the other. They are also very
handy for carrying combs.

cured on the special cover shown above,
which, when set in place, leaves a space of
an inch between the cover proper and the
wire cloth. The thin board over the wire
cloth protects it from the direct rays of
the sun, and from sharp projections of any
object. It also affords a convenient place
to attach the address, and to put on the
caution, "With Great Care." See Ship-
pixG Bees.

Bees go at a rate and a half by express,
hence it is very necessary that the packages
be as light as possible ; and for that reason
the combs should hold no more honey than
just enough to carry them thru to their
destination. Xeatly printed directions on
the outside explain stimulative feeding so

that a nucleus may be made into a strong
colony. See Begixxixg v^^ith Bees.

MUSTARD {Brassica arvensis (L.)
Ktze.). — Wild mustard, or charlock, be-
longs to the same family (Cruciferae) as
the turnip, cabbage, radish, and rape, all
of which secrete nectar while in bloom.
Introduced from Europe it has become
naturalized over all the United States, and
is often very abundant in grain fields,
where it sometimes presents an almost un-
broken expanse of yellow. Almost equally
common is the black mustard {B. nigra
(L.), Koch), which flourishes everwhere
in waste places. We have had a good op-
portunity of testing many of these plants,
because acres of them are raised for other
purposes than the honej^ It will be a hard
matter to determine which is best for a
locality T^dthout trying every kind. One
should find out what market there is for
seed, and then proceed to raise it as if it
depended on the seed alone to pay ex-
penses. Should one secure a good crop of
honey from it. he will then be so much
ahead, and there is little chance of any
great loss.

The seed should be sown very early in
the spring, either in shallow drills so far
apart that the cultivator can be used be-
tween them, or broadcast. The fonner
plan is, of course, the better one for nearly
all honey plants, but it is more trouble.
From 6 to 10 lbs. per acre will be needed,
sown in drills, and from 15 to 20 when
sown broadcast. If the seed is to be saved
it should be sown not later than July 1.

Two kinds of mustard — ^the English yel-
low and the Trieste or red — are extensively
cultivated in the Lompoc Valley, Califor-
nia. The latter comes from Austria, and
gets its name from a town in that country
where it is grown on a large scale. From
this crop alone in a single year the farmers
of this valley have realized a quarter of a
million dollars. The average yield per
acre is from 800 to 1,000 pounds. The
average price of seed is 3 cents per pound,
tho as much as 8 cents has been obtained.

The cultivation of mustard in the Lom-
poc VaUey, says E. A. Gates, is easy and
inexpensive ; but it must be grown in rota-
tion with other crops, as it will not pro-
duce bountifully two years in succession on
the same land. When a majority of the

558

MUSTARD

pods are ripe it is ready for the reaper,
and should be cut early in the morning or
late in the afternoon, when there is mois-
ture in the air to prevent the seed from
shelling out of the pods.

The bees work alike on both yellow and
red, which indicates that there is no differ-

tendency to candy quickly. It may candy
in the tank in four or five days, but this
may be prevented by using a tank with a
glass top, protected by a wooden shutter,
which is removable at will, exposing the
honey to the sunlight.

When sage is in bloom, bees appear to

Black mustard.

ence in the amount of nectar they secrete.
The period of flowering lasts about a
month; and where the sowings are made
at different intervals it can be prolonged
for a period of ten weeks. The honey is
mild in flavor and light in color, and com-
mands the same price as sage. Tho riot as
heavy-bodied as alfalfa, it has the same

prefer its nectar to that of mustard. When
it is not necessary, it has been observed by
M. H. Mendleson that they will not gather
from an inferior source. In 1884, he says,
one colony out of 200 gathered exclusively
from an abundance of mustard bloom; the
199 gathered from the sages. This was an
exceptional case.

N

NECTAR.— Strictly speaking nectar is a
cane sugar (sucrose) gathered from flowers
by bees. It is thickened and transfoi-nied
by them into honey. (See Hoxey/) Many
times has honey been analyzed by compe-
tent chemists, but veiy seldom has there
been an attempt to analyze nectar, owing
to the difficulty of securing a sufficient
quantity for experimental purposes.

The only satisfactory experiments of the
kind which hare yet appeared are those of
Prof. Planta, of the University of Ziu'ich.
S^Yitzerland, who was not only one of the
best chemists in Europe, but also a com-
petent beekeeper besides.

It will be noted he experimented with
the nectar of two American plants,. Agave
Americana (century plant") and Bignonia
radicans (trumpet creeper). The former
is a prodigious yielder of honey, far ex-
celling any plant we know of in the Xorth.
and excelled only by some tropical trees
such as Pro-'ea milliiera, Sakeas, and Ltu-
codendron, and perhaps others not yet
known. It grows in the southwest part of
the United States, and is common in Mex-
ico.

Several translations of Dr. Planta's arti-
cle on nectar analysis have appeared, and
we give one which we deem best for our
purpose.

In the Zeitschrift fuer Phvsiologische Che-
mie, Band X., Heft 3. Dr. A. de Plant a de-
scribes his researches on the chemical com-
position of some of the nectars in plants. He
says it was a great pleasure for Mm during
his researches on the life of bees to have es-
tablished the relation which exists between
nectar and honey, nectar serving for the prep-
aration of honey. There was a great diffi-
culty in getting a sufficient quantity of nec-
tar, as plants yield it usually in small quan-
tities, but there are some exceptions. Among
these are Protea mellifera, Hoya carnosa, and
Tacoma radicans^ or trumpet creeper, which
contains such large quantities of nectar that
it is easily collected. Thunberg says in his
"Flora Carpensis" of Protea mellifera (Zuy-
kerbosches, Zuykerboom, Tulpboom) that it
flowers in autumn; that is to say, in March

and the followino- months. The flowers are
often ::aii hheo ~i:h -eatery honey which fur-
nishes un exocUeiii 5yr\;p after it has been
filtered to rid it of insects and impurities,
and slightly evaporated by gentle heat.

This syrup is an anicle of commerce at
Cape Town. Two bottles of it were produced,
the specific gravities being 1.375 and 1.372.
It has a shght acid reaction, but contained no
albuminoids or nitrogenous matter. It con-
tained 73.17 per cent solids, 10.08 being glu-
cose and 1.31 per cent cane sugar. By glucose
is meant a mixture of crystaUizable grape
sugar ('dextrose") and uncrystallizable grape
sugar !e"."";:h:se . both having a similar chem-
ical composition. This glucose may already
be formed in the nectar by the action of the
ferments it contains upon the cane sugar,
transforming it into glucose: and this inver-
sion can be continued in new honeys, owing to
the action 'which he had already demon-
strated in 15 79^ of the saliva of . bees which
also transforms cane sugpu' into glucose.

Grape sugar from the syrup was also ob-
tained in a crvstallized form. Xo trace of
formic acid ccaild be detected in the syrapj
tho Cjuantities of poUen were found in suspen-
sion, determined by Professor C. Cramer to
be that of Protea mellifera, testifying to its
genuineness.

Wishing to compare this with fresh nectar,
he succ celled, after great difficulty, in getting
thicc o:r:h:s. The specific gravity was 1.07S,
l.'jT'y cc::';! I,'j77, These contained 17.66 per
cent cf s:--ds, of vmich I'.Oo was grape su-
gar, Thev Ciintaincd rC' cane sugar. There
^vas nc't the .east trace or formic acid. A
comparLSon of the x^o shovrs that the differ-
ence was due only to the extra quantity of
water contained in the fresh nectar.

Besides these he also examined the nectars
of Hoya carnosa and Bignonia radicans, both
in the fresh and evaporated states. The fol-
low ino- table oives the results:

Sugar Cane Grape

sugar sugar

17.06 17.06

96.60 96.60

40.64 3.5.65 4.99

99.68 87.44 12.24

Xectar of
Protea mellifera. fresh
Protea mellifera^ dry
Hoya carnosa. fresh
Hoya carnosa. dry
Bignonia radicans. fresh 15.27 .43 14.84
Bignonia radicans, dry 99.85 2.85 97.00

Dr. de Planta has also made aqueous ex-
tracts of various flowers, among others those
of Ehododendron hirsutum and Onobrychis
sativa. In order to obtain 1 gram of sugar
(equal to 1.3 grams of honey) the bees must

560

NUCLEUS

visit at least 2,120 flowers of Ehododendron
hirsutum and 5,530 of sainfoin (Onobrychis
sativa).

As honey is almost entirely formed from
nectar, he gives the following table, com-
paring the quantity of water he has found
in nectars and also in old and new honeys:

Nectar

Water in

Nectar Old New
honey honey

Protea mellifera, 82.34
Hoya carnosa, 59.23
Bignonia radicans 84.70
Fritillaria imperalis, 93.40

Honey from
Department of Landes
Senegal,
Melipona,

Canton Grisons (alt. 600 m.).
Sainfoin

Canton Grisons (alt. 1,395 m.).
Canton Grisons (high Alps),
Buckwheat,

Acacia from Ingoldstadt,

19.09
15.59
18.84
18.61
19.44
17.52

21.74

20.41
21.68
33.36
20.29

Whereas the nectars vary between 59 and
93 per cent, the quantity of water contained
in old honey varies only between 17 and 21
per cent, and that in new honeys 20 to 21
per cent, with the sole exception of buck-
wheat honey, in which he found 33 per cent.

From these observations he thinks that the
bees throw off a considerable quantity of the
water while it is in their stomachs. He does
not admit that it is evaporated entirely in the
cells, for the analyses he has made of honey
newly deposited in the cells show that it al-
ready reaches them considerably concentrated.
The following table shows the relative propor-
tions of sugar contained in different honeys:

Quantity

A — Old honeys from —

Present

formed by

inversion

Department of Landes

87.00

1.00

Senegal

85.40

3.70

Canton Grisons

(alt. 600 m.)

80.60

2.70

Sainfoin

88.70

0.00

Canton Grisons

(alt. 1,395 m.)

84.10

0.50

B — New honeys from

Canton Grisons

(Alpine region)

8L60

10.60

(alt. 600 m.)

81.60

9.30

(Alpine region)

87.20

0.80

Altho most of the nectars contain a con-
siderable quantity of cane sugar it is found
in very few of the honeys of the Alps. Some
honeys contain a little, while in others it is
entirely absent. It is clear that, during the
formation of honey, the cane sugar in the nec-
tar is converted into grape sugar by the saliva
of the bees, which contains a ferment endowed
with this property (see his researches on this
subject in Deutsche Bienenzeitung, 1879, No.
12).

Another difference between honey and nec-
tar consists in the former containing nitro-
genous substances and formic acid. MuUen-
hof has shown how this last is deposited in
the honey, and E. Erlenmayer has proved its
antiseptic properties. — British Bee Journal.

Probably all nectars do not analyze
alike; but Dr. Planta's analysis will be
found, until we get something better, suffi-
ciently near an average to satisfy all prac-
tical requirements.

It will be observed Dr. Planta attributes
the inversion of nectar to the saliva of the
bees. It seems on the face of this to be
only a "guess," and yet it has been repeated
ever since by many writers on the honey-
bee. We know inversion is taking place
even while the nectar is still in the coroUa
of the flower, and it occurs long after the
honey has been made and deposited, for
new honey contains quite a large per-
centage of sucrose (sugar) whereas old
honey contains little or none. We are very
sure this change is caused by minute micro-
organisms similar to those in soft sugar or
rum. For this reason the composition of
honey is quite variable — so much so as to
baffle many chemists in making a true
standard by which to judge honey. Old
honey, therefore, is actually superior to
new, for the process of inversion is com-
plete. If kept in a dry place it also con-
tains less water, and, besides, loses the
ethereal essential oils or essences of the
flowers from which it was gathered; there-
fore nectar collected even from poisonous
plants may become quite innocuous if al-
lowed sufficient time to ripen. See Honey.

NUCLEUS.— This word, when applied
to bee culture, means just what the name
signifies — a small colony of bees. It may
mean a hundred bees with a queen, and as
such it is called a small baby nucleus ; but,
as shown in Queen-rearing^ so small a
number will not hang together. Reference
will be made to this later. The term "baby
nucleus" more properly means a larger force
— anywhere from five hundred to a thou-
sand bees with a queen — a force large
enough to set up housekeeping in real ear-
nest. Usually these babies are put on min-
iature frames in miniature hives. See Baby
Nuclei under the head of Queen-rearing.

Generally speaking, the word " nucleus "
signifies one or two full-sized frames of

NUCLEUS

561

bees, either in a full-sized hive or one just
large enough to hold two frames and no
more. "When it has five or six frames of
bees and brood it is usually called a light
or a weak colony.

These small aggregations of bees must
be built up to full-sized colonies in order
to make them useful for honey produc-
tion ; for it requires a strong colony of not
less than eight or ten frames in size to pro-
duce honey, and a two-story colony of bees
and brood at the beginning of the flow is
much better. While a two- or three-frame
nucleus will furnish a little extracted honey,
the amount that it will produce in compari-
son to a large colony is relatively small.
Or, to put it another way, five two-frame
nuclei will not begin to produce as much
honey as one ten-frame colony. How to
build^ up these nuclei into colonies so they
will be of some use is fully described under
the head of Buildixg up Colonies, and

IXCREASE.

Nuclei are used for one of two purposes
— for making increase and for the mating
of queens. It is a waste of time and bee
force to have virgins mate from a full col-
ony. While cells should be raised in such
colonies, the queens should be mated in
miniature hives having anywhere from five
hundred up to one thousand bees. For
particulars regarding this phase of the
subject, see Queex-rearikg.

Nuclei may also be useful for the pur-
pose of instruction. A beginner can handle
a light force of bees much more freely than
a big, powerful colony. The small babies
or the two-frame nuclei can be manipulated
by the average ABC scholar very readily.
Queens can be introduced much more easily
than to the large stocks. As the nucleus
grows in size, the beginner, who is con-
stantly watching them, gi'ows in experience ;
and by the time the colony reaches the full
size he is perfectly capable of handling
them, provided, of course, he has read arti-
cles on A B C OF Beekeeping ; IManipula-
Tiox OF CoLOxiEs; Stixgs; and Robbixg.

BABY XUCLEI REQUIRE WATCHFUL CARE.

At the very outset mention was made of
the fact that baby nuclei of only a hundred
bees are not practicable. Some years ago
the late E. L. Pratt of Swarthmore, Pa.,

found he could mate queens from very small
nuclei. Sometimes he used a single section
of honey, placed it in a little box, and gave
it about a hundred bees and a cell or a vir-
gin. He had a large number of these in
use, and found it possible to mate his
queens, using only a very small number of
bees. While he succeeded, and we succeeded
with them, we found, as did practically all
others, that these little babies of 100 bees
were too fickle ; that many times, when the
virgin went out to mate, all of her bees
would follow her. They were constantly
swarming out — so much so that it was
found to be much more practicable to use
at least five hundred bees, and, better, a
thousand. A hundred does not make up a
strong household, and the bees know it.
They know that something is wrong, and so
they swarm out on the least provocation.

Moreover, it was discovered that these
little babies of a himdred bees are robbed
out. The powerful colonies in the vicinity
made their lives miserable. Even contract-
ing the entrance to a passage large enough
for only one bee was not found to be suf&-
cient ; and the poor little chaps had to give
way to the superior numbers of their ene-
mies, with the result that their homes were
despoiled and the nucleus broken up.

A pound of bees consisting of approxi-
matety five thousand makes a very nice
nucleus. As mentioned under Begixxixg
WITH Bees and Movixg Bees, the selling
of bees in pound packages without combs is
getting to be quite an industry. When bees
die in the spring, a pound of bees, or two
or three pounds, as the case may be, will
give a neAv lease of life to a nucleus that is
all but gone, but having a good queen. A
little later in the season, the beginner can
take half a pound of bees, and by feeding
have a good colony at very small expense
by fall. (See Feedixg axd Feeders.) In-
deed, the expert can do much better if he
starts early enough. The author once took
five half-pound packages of bees, each with
an untested queen, in July, and built them
up to fine colonies by November. See In-
crease, Buildix^g up Coloxies^ and Be-
gixxixg with Bees.

formixg xuclei for ixcrease.

As already explained, dividing colonies
into nuclei for the sake of increasing the
number of hives with bees in, is a mistake

562

ISrUCLEUS

if honey is the object. But after the main
honey flow, increase can be made by split-
ting up the colonies into units of two and
three frames, supplying each with a cell,
virgin, or laying queen. The process ap-
pears to be much simpler than it really is.
The question often comes up in the mind
of a beginner, " What can be easier than to
take a ten-frame colony and divide it into
five two-frame nuclei on as many hive-
stands ? " If the bees moved from the par-
ent stand would stay where placed, the
problem would be very much easier. Un-
fortunately the old field bees, especially
right after a honey flow, will go back to the
parent stand, leaving nothing but the young
bees to take care of the brood, which,
in a great many eases, is neglected and
dies. This is not all. Robbers, ever pres-
ent, will be ready to invade the entrances
of these deserted nuclei with just a few
young bees; and before Mr. Beginner
knows it he has a perfect uproar, and the
loss of some thousands of bees, and per-
haps trouble with the neighbors on account
of robbers smelling around the entire
neighborhood after they have wrought
havoc with the nuclei. See Robbing, sub-
head " Robbing of JTuclei."

If the beginner buys a colony of bees
from some farmer or beekeeper two or
three miles away he can bring it home and
make the divisions before the bees mark
their location, and the bees of each nucleus
will stay where they are placed. This will
effect an equal division, and everything will
be easy, provided, of course, that the en-
trances are contracted and the beginner
uses ordinary caution. At the time the
nuclei are formed, each should be supplied
with a cell, virgin, or a laying queen. If
it is desired to make increase rapidly, the
nuclei will make greater progress when
supplied with laying queens. If it is de-
sired to let each nucleus raise its own
queen, precaution should be taken to see
that eggs or very young larvae are in each
nucleus; but it should be understood that
the progress will' be very much slower, and
that queens reared in nuclei are never the
equal of those reared in strong colonies.

In many cases the colony or colonies to
be divided have grown so strong the bee-
keeper desires to make increase and to
keep down swarming at the same time.
How shall he do it and avoid having many

bees going back? This can be accomplished
after forming the nuclei by putting wire
cloth over the entrances, and keeping them
closed for three or four days. In the mean
time, if the nuclei are not already shaded
and the weather is hot it would be well to
put a shade-board over the hives to prevent
any danger of suffocation. At the end of
the third or fourth day the wire cloth can
be removed. We do not advise this shut-
ting-in practice for strong nuclei.

Usually it is better not to make too great
a division after the first of July or August.
If the beginner splits his colonies up into
halves, the problem will be very much sim-
pler. In that case he should remove about
two-thirds of the bees, all sealed brood as
far as possible, and the old queen, to the
new location, leaving the unsealed brood
and about a third of the bees on the old
stand. The latter should be given a cell or
virgin. Most of the flying bees will return
to the old home, making the division some-
where near equal, with the chances that the
old hive wiU have the larger force of bees
in 24 hours. But the split-off, or nucleus,
on the other stand, will have all the sealed
brood and hatching brood, and will soon be
more than able to match forces with the
other colony. The old queen, which will
act as an attraction to hold the bees in the
parent colony, will soon supply it with
eggs and young larvae as fast as the bees
can take care of it or as fast as the brood
hatches out.

In a similar way three colonies canHbe
made out of one; but most of the sealed
brood and most of the bees should be given
to the nuclei on new stands, always keeping
in mind that most of the flying bees will
return to the old stand. If, however, the
entrances are kept closed for three or four
days there will not be so much returning.
Of course, the nucleus on the old stand will
not need to have its entrance closed. If it
is discovered that one of the nuclei, or both
of them, are short of bees, a frame or two
of bees from some other colony can be
shaken in front of the entrances of the
nuclei on new stands. When doing this, it
may be advisable to cage the queen for a
day or two.

If the nuclei are formed immediately
after the honey flow, all the old bees will go
back to the old stand; but if two or three
weeks or a month elapses, during which lit-

NTJCLEUS

563

tie or no honey has been gathered, there
will be very much less returning.

The beginner should take this fact into
account when he forms his nuclei, and in a
day or two afterward he should see that
there are bees enough in each division so
that the young brood at least is not neg-
lected. This is the reason why the advice is
given to put the sealed brood on the new
stand and the unsealed brood on the old
stand. For a few days, or until the brood
hatches out of the new stands, some of the
young brood may be neglected ; and this is
a point that should be carefully taken into
account.

The Alexander plan of increase, as given
under Increase^ explains how nuclei can
be formed on another plan for the purpose
of securing honey as well as increase.

Under the head of Feeding and Feed-
ers^ subhead Feeding to Stimulate, will be
given full particulars on how to feed up
these nuclei if there is no nectar in the
fields. The Boardman one-hole feeder
should be used for the purpose, and the
entrances should be kept contracted down
to the space so that only two or three bees
can pass at a time. If the division is made
on the basis of five nuclei out of one full
colony, the respective entrances should be
closed down to an opening that will permit
only one bee to pass at a time.

As soon as the nuclei begin to prosper,
an extra comb may be added on the outside.

If the nuclei are formed in the first place
as early as the first of June, when they are
built up to about five-frame strength they
can be divided again, and built up again to
a strong colony by November, altho in most
localities cold weather will come along by
October 15. In the Southern States one
can keep on dividing, as already explained,
much later.

In 1892, on the principles already out-
lined, the writer, without any special effort,
increased an apiary from ten colonies, some
of which were almost nuclei, to 85 good
colonies, and obtained about 2,000 lbs. of
honey. These were not fed, but depended
entirely on nectar gathered from the fields,
for the season was a good one. Colonies
were divided in the latter part of May, and
given frames of foundation and laying
queens. They were given every possible
advantage, and by fall we had 85 nice colo-

nies with plenty of winter stores gathered
from fall bloom.

somerford method of forming nuclei.

W. W. Somerford described a method of
forming nuclei that has worked very satis-
factorily, especially when the work is done
at outyards. While it involves some of the
principles already described, it is enough
different to warrant giving it a place here.

To begin with, in all your fancy stock re-
move the queens or cage them, after getting
the brood-nest well filled with brood (the
more brood the better — 8 or 10 frames in a
hive if possible). Wait ten days after re-
moving the queen, when the bees will gener-
ally have cells on each and every comb, and
be in a broody or listless condition, waiting
for cells to hatch. Divide and remove the
frames quietly, giving each new hive two
frames of brood and all adhering bees' and
one good frame of honey, using it for a
division-board (and, by the way, such division-
boards are to my notion the best in the
world) ; put the two frames of brood and
bees next to the wall of the hive, and let the
honey-frame be the third from the side of
hive. Be sure to see that you have at least
one good ripe-looking cell in each new hive, or
division, and don't forget the frame of honey.
As soon as each division is made, stop the
entrance of the hive by stuffing it full of
green moss. If you haven't any green moss,
use green grass or leaves, and be sure to stuff
them in tight — as tight as tho you never in-
tended the bees should gnaw out, and be sure
there are no cracks or holes that a single bee
could get out at; for if there are, your divi-
sion will be ruined by aU, or nearly all, the
bees that can fly leaving it. Each parent col-
ony should make four or five good divisions
that will make booming colonies in 40 or 50
days, and I have had them the best in the
apiary in less time. Leave or loose the old
queen (if not too old) on the old stand, and
the bees from it will work straight ahead, as
they don't have to be confined to make them
stay at home.

Bon't be uneasy about the divisions that
are stopped up, unless you failed to stuff the
entrances well, for they will not smother, but
busy themselves gnawing at the moss or grass
for two or three days, possibly four or five,
if you have done an extra good job at stuffing
the entrance. At the end of that time you
will find they have all gnawed out so as to se-
cure egress and ingress. Then you can move
enough of the grass or moss to give them a
clean entrance, 1^ or 2 inches wide; and by
looking into them you will be astonished at
the quantity of bees you have in each hive
(and they, too, well satisfied), having con-
sumed so much time in gnawing out that the
queen had time to hatch and kill off her rivals
and be ready for the wedding trip by the time
the entrance is cleared. So, instead of, in a
week's time, having a worthless weak division

564

NUCLEUS

with a chilled inferior queen, as is the case in
the old-style way of dividing, where nine-
tenths of the bees return to the old hive, you
have a strong vigorous queen and a nice little
satisfied swarm of bees, ready for business in
the way of pulling foundation before they are
three weeks old.

I have succeeded with 19 out of 20 divisions
made in the above way, when I did not even
see them until the third week, after dividing
as above; and for the average beekeeper who
has out-apiaries I think there is no better way
in the Avorld to make increase.

In the above method of increasing, you
have no queens to buy, no robbers to bother
with, and but little time lost, as an expert can
make 20 divisions an hour.

Navasota, Tex.

In the first paragraph, Mr. Somerford
mentions removing or caging the queen. It

should be explained that usually any queen
can be caged in her own hive for weeks at
a time, and her bees will take care of her
thru the wire cloth. If a queen is removed
entirely it is implied that she is to be caged
in another hive, or introduced. She may,
however, be put in a cage supplied with
queen-cage candy, and kept for a week or
ten days in a warm room. But there would
be danger of losing her, as she might die,
because, under artificial conditions, she can-
not get the " balanced rations " that she
needs to keep up her bodily functions.

Another plan of making two colonies out
of one is given under the head of Increase.
For full consideration of the subject of
Baby Nuclei^ see Queen-rearixg.

I

A portion of Mr. Stewart's apiary, Contra Costa County, Calif.

o

Ordinary observatory hive for showing a single comb and a set of sections as thoy
appear in a regular hive. This form of glass hive is often on display in grocery windows
where honey is for sale, or at fairs and expositions to illustrate the relation of combs to
sections.

OBSERVATORY HIVES.— The origin
of hives with windows or transparent sides
is lost in the mists of antiquity. In very
ancient times pieces of transparent sub-
stances such as horn, isinglass, mica, etc.,
were let into the sides of the hives that the
work of the bees might be observed. Such
windows, however, afforded but meager op-
portunity for studying the behavior of the
bees in the hive. The &st approach to the
modern type of observatory hive was in-
vented by W. Mew of Easlington, Glouces-
tershire, England, about 1650. This ap-
pears to have been but little more than a
hive Avith glass windows. At about the
same time, John Thorley of Oxon, Eng-
land, put bees in a bell glass and used bell
glasses as surplus chambers on his hives.

Xo practical advance was made from this
until about 1730, when Reaumur the emi-
nent French naturalist established a swarm
between two panes of glass. These panes
were so far apart that the bees could build
two combs between them, hence much of
the work of the bees and queen was hidden.
Bonnet the Swiss naturalist recommended
a hive with " doors " only so far apart as
to permit the bees to build one comb be-
tween them; and Huber, about 1790,
adopted this suggestion, and the result was
the wonderful advance which he and his
faithful assistants, his wife and his serv-
ant Burnens, made in the knowledge of bee
life. From that time until the present, lit-
tle change has been made in observatory
hives, except in so far as the use of mov-

566

OBSERVATORY HIVES

able-comb hives changed the methods of
stocking them.

The usual type of observatory hive con-
sists of a single-comb hive with glass pan-
els. Sometimes there is a row of sections
on top to show the relative position of the
sections to the brood-nest while they are
being filled by bees in the regular way. Of
course it would not be possible to produce
section honey in a single-frame nucleus;
but when an observatory hive with sections
is displayed in a window where honey is on
sale, it not only attracts prospective buyers
but it educates them, in that it shows a part
of the brood-nest with the bees and the
brood, and the sections of honey just as
they are on the hive. It advertises honey
as nothing else does. Great crowds congre-
gate on the street watching the bees on the
comb " making honey."

The bees are usually left in the window
for about a week. By that time they will
need to be renewed or they will soon die;
and by that time, also, the most of the peo-
ple in the vicinity will have seen it.

Experience shows that this display hive
of bees will immediately increase the sales
of honey, both comb and extracted, and
grocers who have had it are loud in their
requests to have bees put in their windows
— especially if their neighbor across the
street has them in his window.

The single-comb hives can be studied to
good advantage in the home or in the
school. In either case they are placed on a
shelf on a level with the window sill so that
the entrance will pass under the window
sash. The space on each side is closed with
a stick. The bees will set up house-keeping,
go to the fields, and enter upon their ordi-
nary work as tho there were no one on
hand to see why and how they do it.

Sometimes an observatory hive can be
placed some ten or twelve feet from the
window or side of the building. In that
case, a tube connects the hive to a hole thru
the side of the building. Strange as it may
seem, the bees will learn to go thru this
long tube to the outside. At the San Fran-
cisco Exposition in 1915, an observatory
hive was arranged in this way, and the bees
used this long tube entrance the entire sea-
son. This, of course, made it unnecessary
to replace the bees every so often.

Where nature study is being taught in
schools these observatory hives are used to

a considerable extent; and very often bee-
keeepers themselves who desire to become
more intimately acquainted with the habits
of the bee find pleasure and profit in keep-
ing one of these hives up next to the win-
dow of the living-room.

When the bees come in with fresh loads
of pollen or new honey, they show the
usual signs of rejoicing by shaking their
bodies, apparently to attract attention, and
thus induce other bees to find the treasures
that they have brought home. A great
many other interesting things can be dis-
covered with one of these hives where the i
comb is parallel with the glass panel. But
what transpires in the cells and behind the
cappings cannot be determined with this
kind of glass hive.

Arthur C. Miller of Providence, R. I., an
ardent student of bee culture, and one who
has watched the bees for many hours at a
time, discovered a plan by which he can see
the bees at work and the larvee spinning
their cocoons as well as if he had X-ray
eyes.

It was his desire to see what the bees
were doing in the cells ; and one day when
a small burr of comb was found built i
against the glass, and a bee seen at work in
it the idea was conceived of fixing in an
observatory hive a small comb or several of
them, so that a whole row of cells was par-
allel to the glass. It is not necessary to de-
scribe the many and crude attempts before
success was achieved, but at last a stage
was reached where a row of combs was
fixed between two panes of glass about
four inches apart, and a small colony estab-
lished therein.

The hive was placed indoors before a
window, the bees passing in and out be-
neath the partly raised sash. The little
colony started at work nicely, and soon
honey and pollen were being stored in the
cell against the glass. By accident the
wooden shutters were left off the hive for
two or three days, and when it was ob-
served at the end of that time the bees were
found at work in a perfectly normal man-
ner and no running over the glass was
noticeable. Obviously, the shutters were
not necessary, and their abandonment
seemed to mark a distinct advance. A cold
storm which occurred shortly after nearly
destroyed the colony, and the shutters were
again used. Matters improved, and the

OBSERVATORY HIVES

567

colony gained until another storm put them
back again despite the shutters. Investiga-
tion showed a sharp draft thru the hive
from the entrance to the sundry ventilators.
These -were closed, but the entrance did not
furnish sufficient air, and other troubles
appeared. Then followed long experiment-
ing with ventilation until at last a relative-
ly large area at the bottom of the sides of

Miller's observatory hive.

the hive was opened for ventilation, and
screened to confine the bees. This was all
below the combs, and the bees could have
as much or as little air up among them as
their instincts dictated. That was a suc-
cess, but it developed another trouble, for
every time the door of the room was
opened or closed, or if the wind was strong
toward the window, the bees were blown
out of or into the entrance in a most
troublesome way. A short passage or tun-
nel considerably^ larger than the hive en-
trance and having a wirecloth top was put
between the entrance and window opening,
and that trouble stopped.

This was not all done in one hive or in
one season, but extended over several years.
The colony would seem thrifty for a time,
then it would meet with some reverse,
and it would often take a season or two to
find the cause of the trouble.

There came a day when eggs were seen
in cells next to the glass, and in due time
they hatched and the larvas were fed and
grew until they touched the glass, then the
bees puUed them out. The shutters were
tried but with not much advance. Then

" storm sash " in the form of an extra pane
of glass on each side were applied and the
hive was a success. A quarter of an inch
confined air space was left between the
panes.

From then on, the bees used the ceUs
next to the glass as readily as the others.
Almost every action was observable; the
bees could be seen every way except face to
face. Another hive was made and stocked
and a piece of comb was put in which was
less than half a comb, for it was onh^ the
cell walls from one surface of the comb.
The glass wall of the hive was to — and did
— form its new base. The bees used it as
readily as the other combs, and the queen
laid in it and bees were raised in it. The
book of natui^e had been opened at a new
page. Thereafter the development of the
hive was a matter of detail. As now made
it has a base about six inches wide and
deep enough for a grooved feeder block to
be slid into it under the floor of the hive.
Access to this feeder is obtained thi'u sev-
eral holes bored in the floor and guarded
with excluder metal to keep the queen from
wandering in. A similar guard is adjust-
able at the hive entrance to prevent the

Miller's observatory hive.

loss of a swarm if the colony has to be left
to itself for an extended period, for if
thrifty it soon becomes overcrowded. The
uprights are approximately three inches
wide and grooved for four panes of glass,
the inner panes being about one inch apart
and the outer ones a quarter of an inch
from the others. Panes flfteen inches long
by ten inches wide have been found to be
a very satisfactory size. The uprights are

568

OBSERVATORY HIVES

A close view of comb built against the glass of the Miller observatory hive. This form of hive enables the
observer to see the bees at work in the cells, the hatching of the egg, and the development of the larvae.

fastened to two horizontal pieces extending
across the base. These latter pieces each
have a groove one-half inch above the
floor. Into these grooves are slid two strips
of glass to close the space at the bottom
between each pair of panes. Between these
strips and the raised sides of the base,
strips of wire cloth are put and furnish the
ventilating area. Galvanized wire cloth of
fine mesh has proved preferable to ordinary
painted wire cloth. The woodwork of the
hive and the wire cloth is painted a dead
black, both inside and out. This gives a
sharp contrast with the combs, and is ad-
vantageous when taking photographs. The
outside of the hive may be finished in nat-
ural wood, but the inside of uprights and
under side of top should be dull black.

The distance between the inner panes
has been varied from half an inch to three
inches. The former is too close and the

latter unnecessarily wide. An inch to an
inch and a quarter is best, and then no bee
can completely escape observation.

To stock this type of observatory hive
is a bit troublesome. The two panes of one
side of the hive are removed and the hive
is laid on its side in a box prepared for the
purpose, the "tunnel" of the hive connecting
with an entrance in the side of the box. If
this box arrangement is not used, trouble
will be experienced by bees clustering on
the outside of the ventilators. A sheet of
new comb has previously been given to a
colony; and as soon as it has larvae one to
three days old it is ready for use. It is cut
vertically into strips just a little narrower
than the space between the inner panes
These strips are then laid in the hive,
spacing them about an inch and a half
from center to center. It is desirable that
comb containing some honey be used also,

OBSERVATORY HIVES

569

and if there is not any honey in the upper
part of the brood-comb, a strip or two of
comb containing honey should be cut from
some other sheet. If cells with the ends
against the glass are also desired, a little
more delicate work is necessary.

From a new dry comb a strip somewhat
wider than needed is cut, then with a hot
knife the cells are cut from the base. These
baseless cells are very delicate and must be
cut to the required dimensions with the hot
knife. They are then lifted on a cool knife
or piece of cardboard and slid into posi-
tion in the hive. No gluing or waxing is
needed, for the bees will do that perfectly.

The other pair of panes are next care-
fully slid into place. If any of the strips
were cut too wide the glass will hit and
move them and cause a lot of trouble, but
otherwise the operation is easy. The en-
trance guard is lifted, a queen put in and
the guard replaced, and the cover put on
the box. On a wide board in front of the
entrance are now shaken the bees from two
combs taken from any hive. The older bees
will go home, the others will crawl into the
hive. They go in better if the hive is dark ;
hence the putting of the cover on the box;
but it may be opened from time to time to
watch matters. If they are a little slow to
enter they may be hurried by a gentle puff
of smoke now and then, but on the whole
it is better to let them take their time.

This operation is preferably done near
the close of the day, and at a time when
nectar is being secured, then robbing is not
troublesome.

The hive is left in its horizontal position
for a couple of days, the box being shaded
from the direct rays of the sun. If it is
found that not enough bees are in the hive
to fill the spaces fairly between the strips
of comb, more may be shaken in front at
any time. In about two days all of the
combs will be seen to be attached to the
upper one of the inner panes. By the time
this is noted, it may be certain that the
combs are likewise attached to the lower
one of the inner panes. The hive may now
be taken from the box, set in an upright
position and taken away.

MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION.

As soon as the hive is in its place syrup
should be given in the feeder and feeding

continued for several days, for the little
colony has virtually no field force, and will
soon exhaust the honey in the combs. Also
the feeding will stimulate wax production
and enable the bees to complete the combs.
During a heavy honey flow these little colo-
nies will gain stores, but in a light flow
their field force is too small and help may
be needed in the shape of syrup or honey
in the feeder.

By coloring syrup (using a candy color)
it is easy to see just where it is put first
and more or less of it moved afterward.
An ounce of deeply colored syrup is enough
to use at a time for this experiment.

If feeding is necessary in cold weather,
use a hot syrup, nearly filling the feeder
(a half -pint). It will warm the hive and
arouse the bees, and as soon as the syrup
cools sufficiently they will take it. Use for
this purpose a syrup made of two parts
sugar and one of water. If the weather is
very cold, close the hive and remove it to
a warm room, keeping it there until the
bees have taken up all or most of the
syrup. If, however, the combs were packed
with stores before settled cold weather, and
the room temperature keeps between 35 de-
grees, and 60 degrees F. as the extremes, the
bees will not need feeding until spring.

If the hive becomes over-populous, it
should be removed at night to some other
window and in its place should be put any
convenient box containing a piece of comb
with unsealed brood, or a caged queen. The
next morning the field force will start out
as usual, but will return to the old location
where the brood or queen will hold them.
As soon as the population of the observa-
tory hive seems to be reduced enough, its
entrance should be closed to prevent the
escape of more bees. Within two or three
hours the box on the old location may be
closed and taken away and the hive put
back and the entrance opened. The re-
moved bees may be destroyed or kept con-
fined for a few days, and then at nightfall
be dumped into some hive in the yard.

If the colony in the observatory hive
becomes weak, it is most easily strength-
ened by turning in a lot of young bees. An
easy way to do this is to shake into a box
the bees from a comb from some thrifty
colony in the apiary, and cover the box
with a piece of wire cloth. Carry it to the
observatory hive and fix it so the edge of

570

ORANGE

the box is close to the opening to the tun-
nel. Remove the wire cloth over the box
and the bees will soon enter the hive.

The same manner of weakening and
strengthening may be followed with the
prevailing types of observatory hives, but
it is often easier with them to remove the
comb and bees and restock the hives com-
pletely.

The new type of observatory hive is good
for about two years without renewing the
comb, but by that time the comb becomes
dark and opaque and the glass more or less
coated with wax lumps, propolis, cocoons,
etc. Therefore it has proved more satisfac-
tory to restock the hive every year.

Bees winter nicely in these little hives
provided the temperature of the room does
not go to freezing nor stay below 40 de-
grees F. very long at a time. A room tem-
perature up to 65 degrees or even 70 de-
grees does not cause trouble in the winter,
provided the hive entrance is wide open. A
few bees may venture to go out ; but by the
time they reach the outer end of the tunnel
they meet the cold air and turn back. A
window facing south is the best for winter;
but any exposure will do for summer, tho
one not facing the prevailing winds is to
be preferred.

All types of observatory hives should
have the ventilating space solely at the
bottom of sides or ends, and with double
glasses with a confined air space between
them. Extra space into which the bees
may spread and yet not build comb is
greatly to be desired, particularly in single-
comb hives. This and ideal ventilating
conditions are secured by having the floor
wider than the hive and having such exten-
sion covered by wire cloth spaced half an
inch above it.

ORANGrE {Citrus Aurantium L.). — The
orange is a native of southeastern Asia,
whence its cultivation has extended since
the tenth century thruout the warmer re-
gions of both worlds. It is believed that
the Arabs carried it into Africa and Spain,
and that the early Spanish settlers intro-
duced it into Florida. Later colonists found
large groves of wild orange trees. It has
been estimated that there are in this State
10,000 square miles adapted to orange cul-
ture. There also belong to the genus Citrus
the grapefruit {C. Decumana), the lemon

{C. Limonium), and the lime {C. Limetta)
and the mandarin or tangerine {C. nohilis).
All the species are evergreen trees or shrubs.
Most of them have fragrant white flowers,
tho those of the lemon are purplish.

The cultivation of the orange and other
citrus fruits is conflned in Florida chiefly
to the southern half of the peninsula, altho
when given special care and protection dur-
ing cold winters they will flourish as far
north as Jacksonville. The date of the be-
ginning and the length of the period of
blooming vary greatly according to the
variety of the fruit, the extent of cool
weather in winter and early spring, and
differences in rainfall and soil. For in-
stance, in the middle of the State flowers
have been seen on the round orange as
early as Feb. 6 ; but in 1912 the flrst bloom
did not appear until Mar. 15. On an aver-
age Feb. 20 is the date on which blossoms
begin to appear in this section. The spring
of 1915 was unusually cold and rainy, and
the flowers did not open until about the
first of March, and did not yield nectar
well until the end of the month, when the
bloom became very abundant. Usually nec-
tar is not gathered later than April 10 ; but
this year a hive on scales showed a gain of
three pounds on April 20, and the flow did
not cease entirely until a few days later.
The trees remain in blossom for about four
weeks, if the weather is not too hot and
dry. As a rule the later the bloom appears,
the shorter the time that it lasts. Cool and
frosty weather will prolong it unless the
frost is so severe, as in 1911, that it injures
the blossoms, when it brings the flow
speedily to a close. The average surplus in
a good year is about 40 pounds. The best
hive in the apiary at DeLand in 1914
stored 200 pounds, and in 1915, 150. At
Plant City, about 100 miles south of
DeLand, in 1915 there was an average of
not more than 10 pounds per colony — the
poorest record since 1904.

An orange grove in full bloom, display-
ing innumerable white blossoms among the
dark-green leaves and exhaling a sweet fra-
grance that can be perceived for a quarter
of a mile in all directions, is beautiful be-
yond description. The bloom is as sensi-
tive to weather conditions as is that of the
mangrove. Either very hot and dry weather,
or sudden changes to cold and wet weather,
will lessen the flow. In 1915 at DeLand the

ORANGE

571

How varied more, according to E. G. Bald-
win, than he had ever noticed in any previous
season. One day the scales would show a
gain of 11 pounds, the next day it would
drop to four or five, then seven, then
eleven, then four again. A warm damp
day, with sun and cloud alternating, seems
to be most favorable for the secretion of
nectar. Then it can be seen in the early
morning shining in the white blossoms, and
the bees are heavily laden thruout the entire
day. Because of the uncertainty of the
secretion of nectar, orange trees can not be
counted on for honey
oftener, on an average,
than one year in three.
. The honey is light
amber, clear and crys-
talline, without the
thick opaque appear-
ance sometimes ob-
served in even clear am-
ber palmetto honey. It
has a body heavier than
cabbage palmetto, but
not as heavy as scrub-
palmetto honey. The
flavor and aroma, which
preserve the fragrance
of the blossom, are de-
lightful, and can not be
duplicated in any other
honey. E. R. Root once
said of this honey : "We
are inclined to think the ,
flavor is a little finer
than anything of the
kind we have ever
tasted."

W. S. Hart, Hawks
Park, Fla., also de-
clares that " pure orange honey is unex-
celled in color, body, and flavor; but it is
scarce, and always will be." Altho shipped
from California by the carload, pure or-
ange honey is not easy to get in Florida for
the reason that there is only a limited area
where the trees are sufficiently abundant to
yield a surplus unmixed with nectar from
any other source. There must be thousands
of trees within an area six miles in diame-
ter, and little else in bloom at the same
time. A little admixture of wild cherry or
andromeda will spoil the pure article and
give it a dark tint and a pungent taste.
While there are many orange groves in

Florida they are so widely scattered that
there are not many good orange-honey lo-
calities. Probably Volusia County has more
sections where pure orange honey can be
obtained than any other single county in
Florida, unless possibly it be Manatee
County on the west coast. There are also
extensive groves which are attractive and
promising at Wauchula, De Soto Co. ; Or-
lando, Orange Co.; and at Eustis, Pal-
metto, Bradentown, and De Land.

The orange is also extensively cultivated
in California, Louisiana, and Texas. About

Orange blossom.

40 miles below New Orleans on the western
bank of the Mississippi River there are
many miles of almost continuous orange
groves. The first orange trees were planted
in this section more than 100 years ago. In
recent years thousands of orange trees have
been planted in the coast country of Texas,
bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, which it
is expected will presently become an im-
portant source of orange honey.

The orange was introduced into Califor-
nia by the early Catholic missionaries, and
today it many times over surpasses Florida
in the production of citrus fruits. The
citrus belt includes the southern portion of

672

OUT- API ARIES

the State, especially the counties of River-
side and Orange, and extends northward to
the San Joaquin and Sacramento Valleys.
As with many other honey plants, the secre-
tion of nectar varies in different localities
and is greatly influenced by weather condi-
tions. In the cool regions near the coast
there is little nectar. Fog also often inter-
feres with the flight of the bees so that
there may be very few days which are ideal
for field work. Near the foothills it is
occasionally very cold; and an apiary at
an elevation of a few hundred feet has been
snowed under for a few hours while in the
valley below the orange trees were also
white — but with flowers, not snow. At
Redlands the weather is very warm and
there is little fog, with the result that four
years out of five, orange bloom yields a fair
crop, in proof of which may be cited the
experience of a beekeeper who states that
he has shipped one or more carloads of
pure orange honey every year except 1904.
Yet even here the weather is sometimes so
cool that tons of nectar are lost because the
bees are forced to remain in the hives.
Even in fair weather the flowers have been
known to yield only a scanty supply of
nectar. But when the conditions are suit-
able there is probably no other honey plant
in the United States which secretes nectar
so copiously. At times the clothing of
pickers and pruners is wet by the dripping
nectar, and the horses and harness require
washing at the close of a day's cultivating
among the trees; while even the ground is
dampened by the many falling drops.

In southern California the trees are in
bloom during the last of March and thru-
out April, or about six weeks. The period
of blooming varies greatly — sometimes be-
ing much later than usual. It would be for
the advantage of apiarists if the honey
flow was later, for while it aids in building
up the colonies, the latter are often not
sufiSciently strong to bring in all the nectar,
or the cold compels them to remain inactive.
With large colonies and clear warm weather
the nectar comes in very rapidly. At Red-
lands a hive on scales showed a gain of 119
pounds in 17 days from April 7 to 23. The
honey ^vas secured in about five hours of
each day from 11 to 4 o'clock. During the
morning the bees brought in pollen from
various flowers, but before noon they were
all at work on the orange bloom. A sur-

plus of from 60 to 120 pounds per colony
is obtained. The nectar is frequently very
thin when first gathered, and naturally after
irrigation is thinner for a few days; but
toward the end of the flow, if the weather
is warm, it becomes much thicker.

The very heavy water-white honey is un-
surpassed in flavor ; but as it usually crys-
tallizes in a few months many dealers pre-
fer to buy sage honey. It is very easy to
obtain orange honey pure, for sage does
not blossom until the weather is warmer.
At Pomona the land for miles is entirely
occupied by groves, and it is difficult to
obtain room for an apiary. Here after the
honey flow is over the bees bring in nothing
for the rest of the season except a dribble
of dark honey from pepper and hoarhound.
Taking it all in all, the orange is the most
dependable source in southern California.

A large acreage in California is devoted
to the cultivation of the lemon and grape
fruit, but these trees do not yield nectar as
freely as does the orange. The other citrus
trees are not common.

In the hope of maintaining a more even
temperature in both summer and winter a
six-acre lemon grove at Corona, Calif., was
covered with tobacco-cloth, a strong kind
of mosquito netting. This netting was
stretched over wire, and was supported by
posts about 16 feet tall. Two colonies of
bees were placed in the grove and given
sections of drawn comb ; but they died out
entirely in a few months from close con-
finement and lack of pollen. The stronger
in a short time filled 12 or 15 sections with
lemon honey. The color of this honey was
verj^ light and the flavor excellent, with
none of the tartness of the fruit. Under
these conditions the manager estimated that
the crop of lemons was increased fourfold.
Unfortunately, a heavy wind wrecked the
structure, and when removed the trees drop-
ped to their previous rate of production.

OUT-APIARIES.— Within late years this
term has been used to apply to a bee-yard
remote or distant from the home yard by
some two or three miles. It is a well-known
fact, that only a limited number of colonies,
comparatively, can be supported in any one
locality, different places being able to sup-
port widely different numbers of colonies.

OUT- API ARIES

573

NUMBER OF COLONIES IN AN APIARY.

The number of colonies of bees that can
be profitabl}^ kept in one locality is limited
by the amount of pasturage. Of late years
quite a number of beekeepers have estab-
lished one or more out-apiaries, for the
, sake of keeping more bees than the home
1 pasturage would support. Just how many
bees can be supported in a single locality
has probably never been ascertained, and
ii is just as probable that it never will be.
One field may support five times as many
as another, and the same field may support
five times as many this year as last. Most
beekeepers, however, think it inadvisable
to keep more than 75 to 100 colonies in one
apiary, while a few think their locations
so good that 200 or more can be profitably
kept together. As many as 500, and in one
case even 700, have been kept in one yard.
These cases are very rare, however, as it is
seldom that bee pasturage will be strong
enough to support so many. The man who
has only a few more colonies than he thinks
• best to keep in one apiary may find it bet-
I ter to have his bees just a little crowded at
home before he goes to the extra expense of
an on.t-apiary. Indeed, it depends somewhat
upon the man, whether, having been suc-
cessful with one apiary, he will find any
profit in the second. But having gone so
far as to have one or more apiaries away
from home, it is not best for him to have
any crowding in the least. If 100 colonies
will do well in each apiary, the probability
is that 75 will do better ; and while there is
unoccupied territory all about him he had
better keep on the safe side and have so
few in each place as to feel sure of not
overstocking. His own convenience should
have much to do in deciding. For instance,
if he has, in all, 300 colonies, and thinks
that 100 can find enough to do in a place,
but can get thru the work of only 75 in a
day, then he will keep the 300 in 4 apiaries
of 75 each, rather than in 3 apiaries of 100
each. For it will make one less trip to
have in each apiary just what he wiU do in
a day's work. If he can do 50 in a day,
then he may just as well have 100 in two
apiaries as in one, for in either case he
must make two trips to get thru with them.

As a general thing, most localities will
not support to the best advantage over
fifty colonies to the yard. In a series of

outyards owned by the authoi^ we find it
an advantage to have not more than 30 to
40, altho there are some seasons when a
larger number could be operated to advan-
tage.

The number of hives per apiary will de-
pend very much on the amount of available
forage for the bees. A locality that has
large acreages of alsike, some red clover, as
well as white clover, will support twice as
many colonies as one where there is only
white clover. The presence of considerable
sweet clover will help materially.

In western territory where alfalfa is
grown, the number of stocks will depend on
the number of acres grown as weU as on
the time when the alfalfa is cut. Some
ranchmen cut their alfalfa earlier than oth-
ers. Some grow alfalfa for seed. ^Yhere
seed is raised, a much larger number of col-
onies can be handled to advantage.

It is almost impossible to give a definite
number per apiary. One may have to ex-
periment to -determine how many he can
keep. In an eastern locality if there have
been early spring rains and there is a con-
siderable amount of alsike, sweet, and
white clover, and especially if there is some
basswood, 75 colonies to the yard could be
operated to advantage. If there is only
white clover available, probably not over 30
could be placed. In that case the farmers
should be urged to put in alsike. If they
can be induced to give it a trial on the
basis of the beekeeper furnishing the seed
at half price, they will probablj^ continue
to use it year in and year out, with the re-
sult that the locality will be measurably im-
proved. (See ''Alsike" under Clover.)
As a rule it is better to have too few colo-
nies than too many to the yard; and it
should alwaj^s be borne in mind that strong,
powerful colonies will gather relatively
more than the weak or medium. See Build-
ixG Up Colonies.

In these days of automobiles, by which
one can cover three or four yards in the
afternoon, it is not so necessary as it was
in the olden days of the slower horse and
wagon to have so large a number of colo-
nies per yard. For that reason, if for no
other, it is safer to err on the smaller
number.

Some yards will show up nmch better
than others year after year. In that case

574

OUT-APIARIES

i

a larger number can be placed in such
yards.

DISTANCE BETWEEN APIARIES^ AND LOCATION
THEREOF.

A location for an out-apiary must, of
course, be far enough distant from the
home apiary not to interfere much; but
just how far is best, it is not easy to de-
cide. Perhaps, all things considered, a
good distance is something like three miles
apart. As the area of flight is a circle, the
ideal plan of locating out-apiaries so as to
occupy fully all adjoining territory is to
put them in hexagonal form, in which case
a circle of six will surround the home
apiary.

In the diagram, A represents the home
apiary, and B, C, D, E, F, Gr, the out-
apiaries, at equal distances from A and
from each other. If more than seven are
needed then a second series may be started,
as at K, M, L, indicated by the letters. The
circles representing the area of flight from

each apiary are seen to overlap each other ;
but this is at the outer parts, where the
ground is more sparsely occupied, and the
doubling on the same ground is compen-
sated by the convenience of the shorter dis-
tance to go from one apiary to another.
But this ideal plan, altho a good thing to
work from as a basis, is not likely ever to
be fully carried out. Many reasons will
make it desirable to vary. The roads may
run in such directions as to make a differ-
ence ; no good place may be found for any
apiary at some of the points. It may be

remarked that the area of flight is not al-
ways a circle. An apiary placed in a valley
between two ranges of hills might have an
oblong area, the bees perhaps flying twice
as far along the line of the valley as in the
other direction. When an apiary is on a
hill overlooking a valley bees will fly fur-
ther than when on a level. (See Flight
OP Bees.) If only a single out-apiary is
to be planted, it is probably best to go in
the direction of the best pasturage — a thing
not always easy to determine. Sometimes
one location proves to be better than an-
other, year after year, altho no apparent
reason for it can be seen. It may even be
worth while to vary a location a mile or
more for the sake of having it where pleas-
ant people live. But one can do much
toward making the people pleasant by be-
ing pleasant himself. As little trouble as
possible should be made, and one should be
still more careful than at home to avoid
everything that may incite robbing, for
robbing begets cross bees on the place.

Since the days of the automobile and the
automobile truck it is feasible to locate
beeyards much further apart than was
practicable under the old plan of horse
and buggy or team. While it is true that
bees often do not fly more than a mile, and
sometimes not over half a mile, it is equally
true that some seasons they will go flve
miles in the same location. As already
stated, the general lay of the land, the con-
dition of the roads, etc., will determine to
a great extent the location of the outyard.
As far as possible, apiaries should be lo-
cated just ofl from stone or brick roads.
They should also be placed in sight of some
dwelling house. While this is not absolute-
ly essential, yet the fact remains that thieves
are less inclined to meddle with the bees
when the apiary is in sight of some d well-
rag house.

It is desirable to have the apiary located
where there are suitable windbreaks. (See
Apiary and Wintering.) This is especial-
ly important if the bees are wintered on
their summer stands; for good wintering
cannot ordinarily be secured outdoors when
the hives, no matter how well packed, are
exposed to piercing winds. Some years
ago the late Edwin France had an article
on the location of out-apiaries. As he was
a very successful producer, as is also his
son N. E. France, who followed him, it has

OUT-APIARIES

575

been thought best to reproduce what he
says :

I have taken pains to make a correct dia-
gram of the territory that we occupy with
our bees; and I must say that I was surprised
myself when I saw the exact position of each
yard. They are clustered together more than
I had supposed. The accompanying diagram
will show how they stand, and I will give some
facts and figures that will make quite an in-
teresting study about setting out out-apiaries
and overstocking our pasture. Of course, it
is impossible to locate a set of out-apiaries
just so far from the home apiary, in a circle,
each one in its proper place, just as nicely as

we could make it on paper. We have to take
such places as we can get, and many of the
places that we can get won 't do at all, for
some reason or other; and when you have six
or eight yards planted you will be lihely to
find, as in our case, some of them badly
crowded — too much so for profit.

The circles in the diagram are three miles
each, or 1% miles from center to outside,
which is a very short distance for a bee to go
in search of honey. If the bees fly three or
four miles, as I think they do in poor seasons,
it is plain to see how it works in a poor sea-
son. The outside apiaries may be getting a
fair living, while the inside yards are nearly
starving. In first-class seasons, when honey is
plentiful everywhere, and very few bees go
over one mile, there is enough for all. I here
give the number of colonies this year of al-
most total failure, the honey taken, and the
amount of feeding this fall to put the colonies

in trim for winter.

Atkinson yard. Colonies, spring count 100

Cravin yard. Colonies, spring count 90

Kliebenstein yard. Colonies, spring count 96

Waters yard. Colonies, spring count 88

Jones yard. Colonies, spring count 80

Gunlauch yard. Colonies, spring count 90

Home yard. Colonies, spring count 105

Total 649

No increase to speak of.

Floney extracted, per yard:

Atkinson yard 190

Cravin yard 208

Kliebenstein yard 740

Waters yard 497

Jones yard 600

Gunlauch yard 350

Home yard 540

Total 3125

Fed back, per yard :

Atkinson yard 000

Cravin yard 336

Kliebenstein yard 000

Waters yard 000

Jones yard 210

Gunlauch yard 486

Home yard 900

Total 1932
Surplus after feeding 1193

Now, notice the EHiebenstein yard, how it is
located away by itself, as, for instance, from
other yards. It has a great advantage; and
then there is plenty of basswood all around it.
It has no bees belonging to other parties on
its territory. It gave the most honey, no feed-
ing, and is in the best condition of any yard
for winter stores.

We wiU now notice the Atkinson yard. It
is pretty well hemmed in on the north and
east sides by the other yards, but has an un-
limited field on the west, of good pasture.
We took but little honey there, but it is in
good condition for winter, without feeding.

jSTow, away over on the east side we have
the Waters yard. It is two miles from bass-
wood, but a splendid white-clover range —
plenty of basswood two miles north and east.
This yard gave some honey, and required no
feeding for winter.

Then there are the Cravin and the Gun-
lauch yards, each 90 colonies in spring, only
1% miles apart — too close, with very little
basswood north of them. Both of these yards
were fed more honey than we took from them.
There were a few acres of buckwheat near
them that helped them a little. The Jones
yard did fairly well, considering its surround-
ings. It had the least number of bees, an
abundance of basswood near, and then had
eleven acres of buckwheat just over the fence.

We wdll now notice the home yard. There
were 105 colonies. The Jones yard is rather
too close. Then there is an apiary of 20 colo-
nies a little over half a mile east, at a point
marked Beihls; another apiary 1% miles
east, 30 colonies marked Nails; another apiary
southeast, marked W, about 40 colonies; an-
other apiary still further to the east, and a
little to the north, marked W, about 40 colo-
nies. So you see the home yard territory is
overstocked the worst of all, and had to be
fed 360 lbs. more than was taken from them.
The home yard has the best clover field of
any, but basswood is scarce within two miles.
In looking at the diagram, one not acquainted
with the ground would naturally ask, "Why
don't you use that open space southeast of
the home yard?'' It is all prairie land. Corn
and oats don't yield much honey.

576

OUT- API ARIES

We will now just look back to the record of
a year of plenty, 1886, and see how the yards
averaged up then.

COLONIES^ SPRING OF 1886.

Atkinson yard, 72 cols. ; average lbs. per col., 106

Cravin j'ard 80 cols. ; average lbs per col., 106%

Kliebenstein yard 60 cols. ; average lbs. per col., 109

Waters yard 72 col. ; average lbs. per col., 107

Gunlauch yard 50 cols.; average lbs. per col., lOOVz

Home yard 61 cols. ; average lbs. per col., 117
Jones yard not planted then.

FOR 1883.

Four yards, average for the whole 105 lbs.

Number of colonies, 35, 48, 33, 60.

FOR 1884.

Atkinson yard, 51 cols. ; average lbs. per col., 107

Cravin yard, 41 cols. ; average lbs. per col., 113

Kliebenstein yard, 51 cols. ; average lbs. per col., 109

Waters yard, 41 cols. ; average lbs. per col., 130

Gunlauch yard, 41 col. ; average lbs. per col., lOe^/^

Home yard, 61 cols. ; average lbs. per col., IISV2

FOR 1885.

Atkinson yard 56 cols.; average lbs. per col., 90

Cravin yard 53 cols. ; average lbs. per col., 74
Kliebenstein yard, 46 cols. ; average lbs. per col., . 62

Waters yard 57 cols. ; average lbs. per col., 57

Gunlauch yard 46 cols. ; average lbs. per col., 77%

Home yard 62 cols.; average lbs. per col., 71^/^

In 1887 we kept no record. It was a very poor
season, and we got but little honey.

The year 1888 was a very poor one also.

Cols, in spring Average per col.

Atkinson yard, 76 23

Cravin yard, 75 20

Kliebenstein yard, 67 31

Waters yard, 69 32

Gunlauch yard, 77 21 1/^

Home yard, 66 37%

FOR 1889.

Cols, in spring Average per col.

Atkinson yard, 72 40

Waters yard 79 40

Kliebenstein j-ard, 87 63

Gunlauch yard, 79 47

Cravin yard, 78 49

Whig yard, 52 40

Home yard, 84 52

Now, friends, you have the figures and the
map of the ground that our bees are on.
Study it for yourselves. But if you plant
out-apiaries, don't put them less than five
miles apart if you can help it. If you are
going to keep help at the separate yards, to
run the bees, six miles apart is near enough;
then, if the pasture is good, you can keep
from 100 to 150 colonies in each place. If
you go from home with your help every day,
then you want to gauge the number of colo-
nies so as to work one whole yard in one day;
or if you have but three or four apiaries in
all, you will have time to work two days in
each. But don't go over the roads for less
than a full day's work when you get there;
and remember, when you are locating an

apiary, that, when you are hitched up and on
the road, one or two miles further travel will
pay you better than to crowd your pasture.
Don 't overstock your ground.

Platteville, Wis. E. France.

Soon after the appearance of Mr. France's
diagram, there appeared in Gleanings an-
other article from C. P. Dadant. It sub-
stantiates what Mr. France has said, and
shows the relation that apiaries bear to
each other along the banks of the Missis-
sippi.

The very interesting article of Mr. France,
on out-apiaries, has induced us to give you our
experience in this matter, not because we can
throw any more light on the question, but be-
cause our practice, which extends back to
1871, in the matter ©f out-apiaries confirms
the views of both Mr. France and Dr. Miller,
and will add weight to their statements.

South

The Dadant system of out-apiaries along the Mississippi
River.

OUT- API ARIES

577

Under ordinary circumstances it is not ad-
visable to place apiaries nearer than four
miles apart; but Dr. Miller is undoubtedly
right when he says that the configuration of
the land has a great deal to do with the
greater or lesser distance that bees travel in
certain directions.

In the diagram (opposite page) you will per-
ceive that these apiaries are all located on
land sloping toward the Mississippi River, and
are separated from one another by creeks, and
groves of timber land. The Grubb apiary is
owned by D. W. McDaniels, who has had
charge of our apiaries also for a few years
past. Of all these apiaries, the Sherwood is
the best in the product of both spring and fall
crops, altho there are seasons like the past
when the fall crop fails there altogether.

The Villemain apiary has the poorest loca-
tion, to all appearances ; but it is located near
the only basswood grove there is in the coun-
try, and has also quite a fall pasture from
blossoms that grow on the islands near it.
But what will you think of the Sack apiary,
which is located a little over two miles south
of the Lamet apiary, with another apiary
close to the latter, but not shown on the dia-
gram, and only one mile and a quarter north
of another apiary of 60 colonies, owned by
A. Dougherty? Yet this Sack apiary gives as
the best average of honey of all, excepting the
Sherwood apiary. The reason of it is, that
the pasturage is all west of it on the river
bottoms, and very abundant. It is probable
that the bees in this apiary go as far west as
the river, about three miles, while they per-
haps do not travel over a mile east on the
bluffs. Their course north and south, in the
direction of those other apiaries, is over a
hilly country covered more or less with tim-
ber which makes their flight more difl&cult.

The two small circles in the northern part
of the diagram show the spots where we had
apiaries formerly, and which, you will per-
ceive, were further away from home than the
present. At that time the Sherwood apiary
did not exist, nor did the Grubb apiary; and
yet we must say that we can see no difference
in the jdeld of the home apiary. We are satis-
fied that the Grubb bees go east, the Sherwood
bees and the home bees northeast, for their
crop. AVhen we say the bees go in a certain
direction, we do not mean all the bees, but
the greater part of them. We can give you
one convincing instance of the correctness of
this opinion.

By glancing at the diagram you will notice
that the home apiary is just about a mile and
a half from the north point of an island in
the river. In certain seasons the islands are
covered with water in June; and after the
waters recede they become covered with lux-
uriant vegetation, and the yield of honey from
them is very large. In one of these seasons
we found a colony, belonging to a neighbor,
located half way between us and the river,
harvesting a large yield of honey from this
source, while our bees harvested nothing. Is
it not evident that our bees had not gone that
19

far? Yet we have seen them two miles and
more from home in another direction.

Hamilton, 111. C. P. Dadant.

In 1890, and also 1897, the author visited
a number of extensive apiarists in the
States of iSTew York and Vermont. Among
others called upon was P. H. Elwood, who
occupies a territory for his system of out-
apiaries not mam^ miles from that former-
ly occupied by Mr. Quinby. Mr. Elwood
runs about 1,000 colonies in a series of
eight or ten out-apiaries, and they are lo-
cated in the valleys in the midst of those
Xew York State hills. These hills are
from 500 to 1,000 feet high, and are cov-
ered with basswoods and clover. The former,
scattered over the hills from top to bottom,
prolong the duration of the honey flow very
considerably. Instead of there being only
ten days or two weeks of basswood, it
sometimes lasts a whole month. The first
basswoods to blossom are at the foot of the
hills; and as the season advances, those
higher up come in bloom; so the flow does
not entirely cease until the trees at the
very top of the hills have gone out of
bloom. Beekeepers who are situated in
such a country, or in swamp land, are in
the best localities for honey. It might be
weU to observe in this connection, that
these hills form excellent windbreaks for
apiaries in the valleys. In Vermont, a
colder climate, this feature cuts quite a fig-
ure. J. E. Crane's apiaries were located
among the hiUs, in some cases on the sides
of the mountains ; but, unlike Mr. Elwood,
he had no basswood there.

REXT FOR OUT- APIARIES.

The agreement between the beekeeper
and his landlord, for rent, is as varied as
the cases that occur. Some pay a fixed
sum, five to twenty-five dollars per year;
some pay ten cents per colony; others
agree to pay a per cent of the crop; some
make a bargain to pay so much for every
swarm hived by some one of the landlord's
family, and so on, while some cannot get
the landlord to agree to take any rent
whatever. In this latter case it is only
right to make sure that the landlord has a
good supply of honey for his family to use
during the coming year. In any case, be
sure to do a little better than is expected.

578

OUT-APIARIES

HAULING BEES AND BEE SUPPLIES TO
OUTYAEDS.

Out-apiary management demands some
sort of conveyance, not only to carry the
beeman and his helpers to and from the
outyards, but to haul the bees and the sup-
plies. Formerly a horse and buggy or a
team and wagon were used exclusively for
the purpose; but the rate of travel was so
very slow that the time lost on the road
was considerable of an item. With a horse-
driven vehicle it is not practicable to han-
dle more than one or two outyards in one
forenoon or afternoon, and generally about
half the time is spent on the road. If a
beeman's time is worth in the height of
the season one dollar an hour, and his
helper half that, and if the time of the
team is worth $5.00 a day, it makes the
net cost $2.00 an hour.

AUTOMOBILE FOR OUT- APIARIES.

On the other hand, an automobile will
make the trip to the yards in one-fifth or
one-seventh of the time. A safe average
running speed is about 15 miles an hour,
altho on good roads one can run as high as
20 or even 25 miles. It costs anywhere
from 5 to 20 cents* a mile to operate an
automobile if depreciation of the machine
itself, wear and tear, tires, gasoline, and oil
are included. But even on this basis the
automobile is considerably cheaper, pro-
vided, of course, there is a series of not less
than three or four outyards, or, better, five
or six. The self-propelled vehicle makes it
possible to have yards further apart; and
this makes it feasible to have a lesser num-
ber of colonies to the yard, and a larger
average yield. If a yard is overstocked it
will not, of course, give as large an average
per colony.

It is not necessary to buy an expensive
truck. An ordinary light machine selling
for less than $600 with a wagon-box on the
back will handle practically 95 per cent of
the out-apiary work provided there are not
more than four or five yards. For very
heavy hauling, a big truck can usually be
hired at an expense of about 20 cents a
mile, including driver ; and this will be far

* A Ford will run for from 3 to 5 cents as against
a ton automobile truck at 15 to 20 cents per mile.

cheaper than for the beekeeper to own the
machine. Or a trailer can be hitched on
the light machine and carry 750 lbs. in
addition to 500 or 750 lbs. on the truck
itself. The automobile without a trailer
can carry 750 lbs. to the trip, and thus do
practically all the work, even to hauling
the bees home in the fall, altho there is an

Ford and trailer.
A two-wheel trailer, if rightly designed, will carry
from 700 to 1,000 pounds. In some places one can be
rented for $1.50 a day. Its cost will run all the way
from $50 to $150. It is a very common practice in
California for beekeepers to move their bees with a
two-wheel trailer.

increasing tendency on the part of out-
apiary beekeepers to winter their bees at
outyards in large quadruple winter cases.
(See Wintering Outdoors.) In that
case the small machine can do all the haul-
ing provided the owner manages to take a
light load at each trip, both going and
coming.

This is a better trailer and costs about $150. It
will handle easily at one load 50 colonies, or one ton
of weight. For moving bees it is always best to have
a strongly built machine.

If there is a series of eight or ten yards
one can well afford to have a light machine
to carry the men to and from the yards,
and a trailer capable of carrying 750 lbs.

OUT-APIARIES

579

more,* altho it is surprising to see how
much work can be accomplished with a
Ford alone.

The illustration of a Ford truck under
the head of Moving Bees shows a little
machine that the author has been using at
his outyards with considerable success. We
have actually loaded on to it at a time
twelve to fifteen colonies, and two or three
trips will carry a whole yard of bees from
one point to another. Twenty-five empty
hives and supers with combs can be piled
up and roped on to the machine; for so
long as the weight is kept down to about
750 lbs. one may pile on to it as much as
he can get on.

The upkeep of an automobile costing less
than $600 is about a third of the cost of
operating the larger machines costing
$1,200 or more. The former use small tires,
and, what is of great importance, the first
cost is much lower. Beekeepers should un-
derstand that the main expense of operat-
ing an automobile is depreciation, which
cannot be figured at less than 33 per cent
the first year; 25 for the next, and 10 per
cent for each succeeding year. The depre-
ciation is the largest item; and as the cost
of the low-priced machine is less than half
the ordinary'- machines, the depreciation is
correspondingly less.

But there is another item to be consid-
ered. The little high-speed engine in the
smaU machine will give about twice the
mileage per gallon of gasoline of the heavier
machines, and this is no inconsiderable
item.

By lengthening the wagon-box a much
larger bulk of hives can be carried at a
load; and, generally speaking, the author
would advise having the wagon-box stick
out at the rear at least two feet or more,
because a great deal of the stuff carried to
the outyard is bulky but not heavy. But
when the wagon-box is enlarged, precau-
tion should be taken not to put on a load of
more than 750 lbs. While the chassis of a
light machine will carry 1,000 lbs., such a
load is rather hard on the tires, and it is
advisable to make an extra trip rather than
trying to do the whole job in one load.

* E. L. Hoffman, Zanesville, Minn., handles 1,000
colonies with one assistant, a Ford, and a trailer. He
secures big crops of honey, and with his Ford he sells
and delivers his crop in his locality. The Ford with
trailer is used very commonly in California and other
States.

A large heavy automobile trucK costing
from $1,000 to $1,500 with a maximum
speed of only 15 to 20 miles an hour is an
expensive and wasteful proposition for the
average beekeeper. What he needs is some-
thing that will make quick trips at a mini-
mum expense.

Whatever the kind of hive used, some
plan must be adopted for fastening in the
bees, so that they may have abundance of
ventilation while being hauled. As, how-
ever, the hauling is done in spring and fall,
less ventilation is needed than during hot
weather. The ordinary entrance, say 14
inches by %, covered by wire cloth, will
answer, as that gives a ventilating surface
of about 5 inches, altho more would be
much better. (See Moving Bees.) Of
course, the bees should all be shut in when
not flying, and in spring it is a good plan
to shut up in the evening all that are to be
hauled the next day. In the fall the weather
may be such that bees will not fly at any
time in the day, otherwise one must get to
the out-apiary early enough in the morning
to shut in aU the bees he will haul that day.
If one is to take bees to an out-apiary in
the spring, the sooner it is done the better,
as pasturage is then apt to be rather scarce
at best. Where bees are to be brought
home in the fall to be cellared, they may as
well be brought just as soon as heavy frost
occurs, or as soon as they stop gathering;
at least they should be brought early enough
to have a good fly before going into winter
quarters. After being unloaded from the
wagon the bees may be liberated at once by
blowing a little smoke or dashing in some
cold water; or, if loaded too late in the
evening to fly, they may be left till the next
morning when they will be quietly settled
down; and if carefully opened, no smoke
need be used. For full particulars on the
difficulties in hauling bees see Moving Bees.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF OUT-APIAEIES.

The management of outyards will depend
very largely on the man, the locality, and
the general conditions. Sometimes up in
the mountain country where the roads are
very poor, and a very large number of
colonies can be supported per apiary, it is
more practicable to have a man at each
yard who camps on the job night and day
until the main honey flow is over. Of

580

OUT-APIARIES

course, it is not necessary to have a man at
the yard during the dormant season; but
when warm weather sets in some one should
be on hand to build up the colonies and put
them in proper condition to catch the
honey flow.

As a rule, however, a man at each yard
is too expensive, and it is, therefore, better
to have one force operate all the yards,
using an automobile, even if an occasional
swarm does get away. This plan has the
advantage that the owner of the bees can
always be present with the men, directing
the work, thereby securing efficiency and
at the same time better service. The help-
ers usually work better when the boss is
around; and the boss who does not see to
his own job will soon run himself out of
business. One who is capable of operating
a series of outyards is capable of directing
his men, and usually he is a man who has
gradually grown into the business, increas-
ing it from year to year as knowledge and
experience permit. It follows, therefore,
that when the owner can keep his eye on
every colony at every outyard, and direct
the individual treatment, he gets far better
results than if he has a hired man out of
his sight at each outyard.

The owner of the bees, when he takes his
helper or helpers, should make his plans
well in advance before he starts for the
yard. He should not only know what he is
going to do, but whether he has the proper
equipment with him to work out the plans
for the day or trip. He should go further
and have his plans matured a week in ad-
vance so that he can take care of each
yard at a definite period. He should see
to it that he has on hand sufficient supplies
of every description; and if he does not
have enough equipment at each yard he
should so arrange his work that he can
carry what is necessary at each trip ; other-
wise he will be working at a great disad-
vantage.

It is not essential that a helper should
have experience. The beeman who uses his
brains can take a comparatively raw man
or boy and almost double his own capacity
for work in a day. Our yardman takes
along with him one or two helpers.
The helper with smoker opens up the hives
in advance, so that all is ready when the
boss makes his inspection. His practiced
eye will see almost at a glance what treat-

ment is required, and he will, therefore,
direct his helper or helpers to bring him
the necessary equipment to put the colony
in proper condition. An experienced man
who has his plans well worked out will be
able to keep one man bringing him stuff.
As the men acquire more experience the
boss simply tells them what to do with a
colony. In the meantime he studies the
needs of the next colony.

A good beeman who is capable of getting
along with help will be able to take care of
seven or eight hundred or perhaps a thou-
sand colonies with one or two men as help-
ers. When conditions are right, and with
the proper system, he sometimes may be
able to handle twice the number with the
same help.

Of course it goes without saying that the
owner or boss should know how to operate
his automobile. As already pointed out,
he cannot afford to waste time with a horse
and buggy, as he will thus kill valuable
time.

But perhaps it may be urged that the
roads are bad and almost impassable for
any automobile, and that a horse and buggy
must therefore be used. But usually a
Ford with a good driver will go where any
horse can.

In this connection it may be said that
out-apiaries should be located on paved or
stone roads as far as possible and as close
to the road as conditions will permit. This
is quite important during the early part of
the season when early rains would make an
ordinary clay road muddy and slippery for
a machine. Good management, therefore,
requires not only a definite plan for eack
day and each week, but an arrangement of
outyards along highways that will be pass-
able during the months of the year when
bees will ordinarily be handled.

No beekeeper should go to an outyard
without a spare inner tube and an outer
casing, with a boot to provide against blow-
outs, and patching stuff to make repairs to
inner tubes. In the rush of the season it is
the height of folly to get caught on the
road with a blowout or a puncture without
means for making repairs. To run on an
uninflated tire is the ruination of the inner
tube and a damage to the casing. As a
general thing the author would recommend
having a Ford equipped with a detachable
rim. With this extra rim carrying a tire

OUT-APIARIES

581

already inflated, one can get started in a
very few minutes.

An extra box should be provided on the
running-board of the machine to hold
smoker, smoker-fuel, hive-tools, bee-brush,
grass-hook, or anything else that may be
required at the outyard. These tools will
be needed on every trip, besides the combs,
supers, and other equipment that will ordi-
narily be loaded in the wagon-box for that
special trip.

Sometimes it is necessary to take along
a scythe, and while the boss is making an
inspection of colonies his helpers can be
employed in cutting down grass and weeds
and leveling up the hives. This last item
may not seem to be essential; but if a hive
is on a tilt it will have its combs in the
section-supers built out of plumb. If the
season happens to be a good one, and there
are four or five supers on the hive, a stiff
wind just before a thunderstorm may blow
the whole thing over. It is important,
therefore, to have a good foundation for
each hive at the yard.

At every outyard there should be a small
collapsible building ( See Buildings) . This
is to hold extra combs, supers, and equip-
ment; and if the extracting is performed
with a small hand machine it can be done
in a building of this sort.

As given under Extracting^ the author
advises one large extracting-outfit at the
home yard, where the work can be done
inside of a bee-proof building. It is not
advisable ordinarily to extract at outyards,
on account of the danger of robbers, and
because conditions usually are not favorable
for putting up an extracting-outfit.

In the case of bee disease it is sometimes
necessary to extract at the outyard, in order
to avoid mixing the combs, and danger of
carrying disease to the home yard. But
even in that case, if one plans rightly he
can arrange to take his combs off, load them
on the machine, carry them home, extract,
and return. There should be a drip-pan in
the wagon-box to catch any drip from the
supers after extracting. And it may be
advisable to throw a large canvas over the
load to keep any bees in the home yard
from getting a taste of the honey. In any
case the extractor should be thoroly washed
out after extracting from diseased or sus-
pected combs. Such work cannot be done
too carefully. '

wintering out-apiary bees.

It is the practice of some to haul the
bees home from the outyard and put them
in a large cellar; others winter in large
quadruple winter cases at the outyard.
(See Wintering Outdoors^ subhead

Quadruple Winter Cases.") If there is
any danger that the bees may be tampered
with during winter by thieves or boys, it is
advisable to haul the bees home and winter
them under the eye of the owner. Usually
an outyard can be located in sight of some
house. If the land is rented from the
owner of the house he will be willing to
keep a watch on the bees; but as a usual
thing bees may be left out of doors year in
and year out without disturbance.

If the bees at the outyards are well sup-
plied with stores in the fall, and put into
double-walled hives or large winter cases,
they will not require much attention except
to see that the entrances do not become
clogged with dead bees, which may happen
along late in the winter. Usually some
one near the outyards can be hired to rake
the dead bees out of the entrances, as it
may not be practicable for the owner to
make a visit when roads are bad.

For building up outyard bees the reader
is referred to Building up Colonies ; Nu-
cleus, and Increase.

FAILING LOCATIONS.

Experience has shown, in many in-
stances, that a yard which in years gone
by has furnished tons of honey is now
practically worthless, or so nearly so that
the moving of the bees to some more
favorable location is a necessity. For in-
stance, four or five years ago an apiary
furnished an abundance of basswood
honey ; but the basswoods have all been cut
off; there is no clover and the field is
worthless. Again, a locality had once fur-
nished immense quantities of white clover;
but intensive agriculture has set in, and
clover pasturage has given way to immense
wheat fields. The inroads of civilization
sometimes cut off the honey resources of a
locality ; at other times they augment them
very considerably. There are a few loca-
tions in New York State that formerly gave
very little honey until the farmers in recent
years introduced buckwheat to such an
extent that these are now splendid buck-

582

OVERSTOCKING

wheat countries; and the yield of this
dark rich honey plays a considerable part
in the net profits of the season. In Cali-
fornia some sage locations that were for-
merly good were ruined by fire. In other
places in the State the planting of orange
groves has made these places good for
bees.

A SCALE HIVE AT AN OUT-APIAEY.

It is a well-known and established fact,
that one yard may yield quite a crop of
honey while another, only a few miles dis-
tant, requires to be fed. It is highly im-
portant to be able to tell just what the bees
are doing at stated periods during the sea-
son. One beekeeper kept a hive on scales
at each yard; and every time he visited
one he consulted the scales. If they indi-
cated an increase of several pounds, he
knew the bees in this apiary needed more
room, and were also liable to swarm; but,
if they indicated a loss of several pounds,
he inferred that the whole yard was losing
likewise, and that some colonies needed to
be fed. Of course, the hive on the scale
should contain a fair average colony. In
many cases it is not always possible to
visit yards at regular periods, and in that
case some resident near the apiary can be
employed to watch the scale, and report by
postal card or telephone. See Scale
Hive.

a caution about entering into the
out-apiary business.

While there are many beekeepers who
have brains and capacity enough to man-
age a series of out-apiaries, there are also
more who should never think of going into
the business. To be a keeper of several
out-apiaries means great perseverance and
a good deal of system, besides ability to
manage not only the bees, but the help
who are to take care of them. If one
cannot make 50 or 60 colonies pay in one
location, he should not delude himself by
the idea that he can make bees pay by
establishing a series of out-apiaries. The
man who can not make a small business
pay probably will not make a large one do
so. When one can manage successfully his
home apiary, it may be profitable, as soon
as the increase is sufficient, to take a part
of it to an outyard.

OVERSTOCKING.— This means putting
more colonies in a locality than can be
supported profitably. Sometimes a local
beekeeper makes the mistake of putting too
many bees in a place; but it more often
happens that another, observing that the
locality is good, brings in one or more
yards, thus crowding the territory that was
already overstocked in the first place. See
under Apiary, Backlot Beekeeping,
Farmer Beekeepers^ and Out-apiaries.

A given locality with only ten colonies
to gather the nectar in it may show a
wonderful average per colony — perhaps
200 or 300 pounds. When the number is
tripled or quadrupled, the average will be
cut down a half. The locality should be
carefully studied, and only that number of
colonies used which on an average, one
year with another, will give the largest
results in honey, with a minimum of labor
and capital. If 75 hives during an average
season would furnish an average of 150
pounds to the hive, then, perhaps, the
number might be increased to 100 or even
150. If, on the other hand, the average is
only 50 lbs. of extracted honey, and there
are only 50 colonies in the apiary, then,
clearly, 50 would be all there could be kept
with profit in that spot; and it could be
questioned whether or not 35 might not be
just as profitable, and at the same time
save a little in the investment and some
labor in gathering and harvesting the crop.

But in some locations, notably Califor-
nia, Colorado, Cuba, and in some portions
of Florida, one can have as many as 300
or 400 colonies, and in some rare instances
500 colonies in one apiary. The late E.
W. Alexander of Delanson, N. Y., had
some 700 colonies in one beeyard; but he
had immense acreages of buck^eat and
goldenrod. The celebrated Sespe apiary,
in southern California, owned by Mrs. J.
F. Mclntyre, has, in one yard, some 600
hives of bees; but the great mountains on
either side, the fertile valley, and the great
abundance of honey flora, make such a
number possible. See Apiary; also Out-
apiaries.

overstocking and priority rights.

A new phase of overstocking has bee
developed within recent years, bringing up
a rather difficult and serious problem. In
good localities such as, for example, th

OVERSTOCKING

583

irrigated regions of Colorado, the keeping
of bees is mncli more profitable, or at least
once was, than in some of the less favored
localities in the Central and Northern
States of the Union. It has come to pass
that, in recent years, certain beekeepers,
learning of the wonderful yields in Cali-
fornia, Nevada, Colorado, Idaho, Mon-
tana, and Arizona, in the irrigated alfalfa
regions, have started apiaries within less
than a mile of some other beekeeper hav-
ing 100 or 200 colonies in that locality.
When the new comer establishes another
apiary of 100 colonies, the place becomes
overstocked, with the result that beekeeper
Xo. 1 has his average per colony cut down
very materially. There is only a certain
amount of nectar in the field to be gath-
ered; and if all the colonies get a propor-
tionate share, then beekeeper No. 2 prac-
tically robs beekeeper No. 1 of a large per-
centage of honey that he would have ob-
tained had not other bees been brought
into the locality to divide the spoils. But
there is no law against such a procedure.
The only protection that the original squat-
ter has is the unwritten moral law that is
observed among the better class of beekeep-
ers, to the effect that no beekeeper should
locate an apiary so close to another as to
rob him of a certain amount of nectar in
the field which is his by priority of loca-
tion. In a good many localities, unfortu-
nately this unwritten moral law is only
loosely observed. Locations that once af-
forded an average of 100 or 150 pounds
per colony now afford only about 50 or 75
pounds.

For the other side, on this question of
priority of right it may be said that the
first-comer beekeeper has in no sense
leased, bought, or borrowed the land grow-
ing the plants from which the nectar is
secreted; that any and every one has a
right to the product from the flowers.
Legally the second comer has just as much
right to the field as his neighbor.

No attempt will be made to define moral
distinctions which may be involved in this
question any more than to state that, if a
beekeeper has, by luck, careful observation,
or at great expense, discovered a locality
that yields large amounts of honey, he
ought to be left in the peaceful enjoyment
and free possession of his discovery, to the
extent that no one else should locate an

apiary nearer than a mile and a half from
any of his apiaries; and right here it
would appear that the principle of the
golden rule ought to be used to settle aU
such problems; for it is practically certain
that beekeeper No. 2, who comes into an
already occupied field to divide the profits,
would not regard with very much favoi
such action on the part of another if ho
were in the position of the one having
prior rights.

In many localities there is a very strone
sentiment on the part of local beekeeper*
established in good territory against ne-^
comers putting more bees into a placf
already overstocked. This sentiment is so
pronounced and strong that the new man
is often glad to sell out or move away of
his own accord. Sometimes he is stubborn,
and attempts to fight it out; but usually
he is the loser in the end, because he does
not know the locality as do the old-estab-
lished beekeepers, and his yields per colony
will be considerably less. While the policy
is not here advocated, local beekeepers
sometimes agree on the plan of freezing
out, or, more exactly, starving out, the
new comer. The latter enters the territory
with a yard of bees. Immediately the
old-established beekeeper or beekeepers
wiU place around that yard, within a
quarter of a mile of it or less, a lot more
bees — enough to overstock the place very
greatly. The old residents, knowing the
locality, build up their colonies, and are
ready for the nectar when it does come in.
But there is not enough to go around by
considerable; and the result is, the bees
will not secure an average of ten pounds
per colony. But the old resident beekeep-
ers will secure more than the new comer
because they know the locality and how to
meet the conditions. After Mr. Newcomer
has tried it out one season, and finds he
cannot make anything, he will move out.
This freezing-out or starving-out game has
been worked to a fijiish in a good many
places in the West. As a rule the resident
beekeepers in the locality wiU agree among
themselves to divide up the ten^itory and
put no more bees to the yard than the
locality wiU support. This policy prevails
in many of the orange and sage districts
of California and the alfalfa districts of
the West. A good feeling exists, and in
some places they co-operate among them-

584

PALMETTO

selves to sell their honey, perhaps picking
out one of their number to visit the big
markets. Such a policy is much more
sane than for every one to grab territory
and compete against his neighbor, with the
result that no one can make a fair living.

In one or two localities Mr. Newcomer
has been met by a shotgun. He is told to
get out or "take the consequences." As
such a policy is, of course, indefensible, a
milder and gentler means should be em-
ployed.

As a rule the new comer can find terri-
tory if he will make some inquiry before
he attempts to squat his yard or yards.
By making a personal visit and becoming
acquainted with the beekeepers in any
given locality, he can usually make satis-
factory arrangements, and open territory
may be assigned if there is any. Some-
times none is available. In that case, Mr.
Newcomer should not attempt to crowd in,
for he may find some one beekeeper who
will resort to the shotgun argument.

P

PALMETTO {Sahal palmetto (Walt.)
R. & S.). — Also called cabbage palmetto
and cabbage tree. This is the most pic-
turesque tree in all Florida. Like all the
palmettos, the cabbage palmetto belongs
to the order Palmales and the family Pal-
maceae. The leaves are fan-shaped, in
length about five or six feet, in width
about three or four ; color of leaves, bright
green. The name " cabbage palmetto " is
from the cabbage that forms the bud at the
top of the growing trunk, and from which
all the leaves grow. It grows from 20 to
30 feet high, at its best even higher, and is
found in profusion along the east and west
coasts, and on all river courses and ham-
mocks thruout the southern half of Flor-
ida. In general its habitat is the south
two-thirds of the State, tho it is found
as far north as Jacksonville. The trunk is
straight, and, as the tree ages, is bare and
gray in hue, looking like a weather-beaten
pineboard. The wood is fibrous, and im-
pervious to water, resisting decay when
entirely submerged, tho it quickly decom-
poses when exposed to dampness and hot
sun alternately. The sheathing bases of the
leaf stems are imbricated and form a boot-
like lacing of bark about the trunk for
many feet below the top; these, the so-
called "boots," gradually fall away, leav-
ing the trunk bare, with slight perpendic-
ular ridges, showing the fibrous corruga-
tions, due to the nature of the wood. Its
blossoming time varies according to local-

ity. In the extreme south it begins to
bloom about the first part of July; as late
as August in northern portions. The blos-
som stalks shoot out from the bud at the
top, among the leaf stems, and at first look
like huge " blacksnake whips," only they
are greenish brown in hue, These gradu-
ally unfurl, forming a profusely flowered
raceme resembling a giant ostrich plume.
The resemblance to a plume is intensified
when the racemes open in a mass of green-
ish-white petals that fill the air with a
delicate aroma, as pronounced as that of
apple blossoms. One such raceme, in full
flower, is a sight to be long remembered.

The florets are very sensitive to atmos-
pheric conditions. Too much dampness
blights, and too dry hot air blasts the deli-
cate blossoms. As a consequence, it can
not be counted on as a good yielder oftener
than one year in three, on an average.
When it does yield, it is profusely. It
yielded well in 1907, again in 1909, and
fairly well in 1912. The roar of the bees
during a good flow from the cabbage pal-
metto is like that in locust or basswood
bloom. The honey is almost water-white,
clear, and translucent. The aroma is dis-
tinctive, tho not at all resembling that
from saw palmetto. In body it is rather
thin, under normal, never thickening,
even in cool weather, to a very heavy con-
sistency. In warm weather it runs almost
like water. It often froths considerably
on extracting — just after uncapping, in

PALMETTO

585

fact — tho that all disappears after the
honey has stood for a few days. It re-
quires rather careful handling to keep at
its best. While it does not rank as high as
the honey from saw palmetto, it would still
come about fifth or sixth in the entire list
of honeys from Florida. The flavor is ex-
tremely mild. It is an excellent honey to
"blend" with other honeys. In the vicinity

Cabbage palmetto.

of Hawks Park, Fla., it blooms almost
simultaneously with the mangrove, so that
the two are always secured together, never
separately, in that section. Further south
they are secured separately. For example,
on the southwestern coast there is little
mangrove, so that the palmetto honey is
obtained in its purity. The combination
of this honey and the mangrove, however,
is, fortunately, a fine one. It won signal
praise from the father of modern apicul-
ture, L. L. Langstroth himself. W. S. Hart
of Hawks Park had sent a sample of the
blended honeys to Chas. F. Muth of Cin-
cinnati. Mr. Langstroth later received a
smaller sample of it from Mr. Muth, and
wrote him the following interesting letter:

Friend Muth: — I have delayed giving you
my opinion of that Florida palmetto honey
till I got the verdict of others as to its
merits. In color it is unexceptionable, an-l
its flavor is very pleasant. I am not sure

but the majority of consumers v^ill consider
it the equal if not the superior of -white
clover. Our southern friends are to be con-
gratulated on being able to supply our mar-
ket with such a choice article.

L. L. Langstroth,
Oxford, 0., Nov. 16, 1882.

SCRUB PALMETTO.

The scrub palmetto {Sahal megacarpa
(Chapm.) Small) is a low shrub with thick-
set branching leaves that grow from a
trunk that is long and crooked, erect early,
later prostrate, and half submerged in
earth. The branches, like the entire family
of Palmaceae, grow from a central bud at
the end of the trunk, and are imbricated
in the bud. The stems, supporting the
light-green fan-shaped leaves, are about
four feet tall on the northern limits, but
reach six or seven further south, where the
plant is at its best. In shaded portions or
damp sections, perhaps, owing partly to
the soil, the leaves are often bluish in

Scrub palmetto.

color. The trunk, when it falls over, sends
up fresh clusters or clumps of shoots that
form a new shrub. One trunk may thus
send up many clumps of leaves resembling
distinct plants, but really attached to a
single trunk.

586

PARTHENOGENESIS

The flowers are borne on a branched
stalk in slender racemes from two to four
feet long, so that the whole cluster has a
plume-like appearance. They are cream-
white, or sometimes greenish, small and
delicate, resembling the blossoms of the
lily of the valley, with a very sweet fra-
grance. They secrete nectar freely.

The plant grows freely on sandy soil
over the southern two-thirds of the penin-
sula of Florida, becoming scarcer toward
the northern boundaries, and smaller as
well. It reaches its finest form from a line
east from Tampa to the coast, southward,
and flourishes on the Keys. It begins to
blossom in the vicinity of Fort Myers and
Miami, about April; further north. May
is the flowering time. May is the time for
blossoms about midway of the State. The
edges of the stems of the leaves show on
either side serrated points, or teeth, that
give the name " saw palmetto " to this
species. But the real saw palmetto ranges
much further north, even extending into
the Carolinas, and is the Serenoa serrulata,
not the Sahal megacarpa. The serrations
of the saw palmetto are deeper and more
rasping. On the west coast of Florida,
from about Tampa, north and south, the
scrub palmetto extends for miles eastward
in an unbroken sea of green. On the Sea-
board Airline Railroad it is possible to ride
for miles without being out of sight of the
scrub palmetto that makes such an im-
pressive sight, seen in such masses. Usu-
ally pine trees grow scatteringly among
dense hammocks of the scrub palmetto.
These form what are commonly called '*the
flat-woods." On the edges of heavy, damp
hammocks, where the soil is richer, the
scrub reaches much greater density, size,
and vigor. There are still wide areas of
scrub-palmetto hammocks and flatwoods
yet unoccupied by any beemen, that offer
an attractive field for apiculture. There is
one objection to such areas, however: The
palmetto is usually the only nectar-secreting
plant in such territory, and colonies have
to be watched or they will run out of stores
in seasons when the palmetto does not
bloom. But there is no honey plant in
Florida that is more reliable, year in and
year out, than the same scrub palmetto.

The product ranks among the best four
honeys of the State, and, tho forest fires
destroy much of the bloom for that year,

still the sections burned one year produce
the most honey the second year, so the loss
is not without some advantage. The honey
is clear, amber, almost lemon-hued; body
thick and waxy, and aroma exquisite. Al-
most all are enthusiastic over such honey,
once they taste the pure article. In many
localities it is disguised by the admixture
of other honeys gathered by the bees either
during the flow or just prior or subsequent
to it. Once known, it is always popular
with consumers. It candies pretty early,
but not so promptly as orange honey. 0.
0. Poppleton pronounces it the best honey
in Florida, with possibly the exception of
that from white tupelo. See Tupelo.

PARTHENOGENESIS.— In the great
majority of cases the sex cells disintegrate
unless they unite with the products of the
opposite sex of the same species ; but in
some cases of the animal kingdom cells are
given off from the ovary, which, without
fertilization, are able to undergo develop-
ment. That these cells, are true eggs is
evident from their origin, appearance, be-
havior, and fate, while the only difference
between these eggs and eggs requii^ing fer-
tilization is that the former are able to
divide and grow without receiving the
stimulus given by the male sex cell. To
this phenomenon the name " partheno-
genesis " is applied.

The word parthenogenesis (virgin de-
velopment) was first used in this sense by
Professor v. Siebold in his classic paper,
"Parthenogenesis in Lepidoptera and Bees,"
in 1856.

However, earlier writers described the
phenomenon under various other names.

In 1745 Charles Bonnet described the
parthenogenetic development of plant lice;
and Prof. Oscar Hertwig, the great Ger-
man embryologist, designated this work as
marking one of the milestones in the his-
tory of the science of development.

Just one hundred years later the Rev.
Johannes Dzierzon of Carlsmarkt, Ger-
many, put forth the theory that the drone
or male bee is produced from an egg which
is not fertilized. This work, published in
the Eichstadt Bienenzeitung, may well be
looked on as the starting point of the
theory of parthenogenesis, since it began a
very important discussion, and marked the
origin of a host of works along similar

PARTRIDGE PEA

587

lines. Dzierzon based his views on the
following facts observed by him and since
confirmed by many others :

1. An unmated queen occasionally lays
eggs, but these produce only drones.

2. Workers under certain peculiar cir-
cumstances lay eggs, but these develop
only into drones. Worker bees have never
been known to mate.

3. Old queens may exhaust their supply
of spermatozoa received in mating, and
thereafter produce only di'ones. As the
supply diminishes they lay an ever in-
creasing percentage of drone eggs. See
DziEEZox Theory.

While this theory is based on the work
of Dzierzon, it must not be forgotten that
its establishment is due in no small part to
the researches of Professor Leuckart and
von Siebold of Germany.

The facts brought out in an examination
of this work have an important bearing on
the practical work of the apiary, and it is
necessarj' for the queen-breeder, at least,
to know the application. If, for example,
a C}T)rian queen is mated to an Italian
drone, the resulting workers are a cross
between the two races, or Cyprio-Italians.
Any queens reared from this colony are
also Cyprio-Italians; but the drones of
this cross-mated queen are pure Cyprians,
the Italian di'one in the cross having no
influence on the male offspring of the Cyp-
rian mother. If, therefore, but one purely
mated queen is obtained, her daughters
produce pure drones, regardless of mis-
mating, and the race may be established in
an apiary.

The conclusion frequently di'awn from
this theory is that the queen can voluntarily
control the sex of an egg by withholding or
allowing its fertilization. It is sometimes
further held that aU eggs in the ovary are
male, and the sex changed by fertilization.
These conclusions are not based on obser-
vation, and proof is entirely lacking. In a
statement of the theory, therefore, it is
necessary to stick to facts.

The Dzierzon theory has been combated
by many different scientists, .more recently
by Dickel, a German beekeeper with scien-
tific aspirations. While the theory has
been somewhat modified by recent work, it
remains the prevalent view today, and
Dickel generally receives the condemnation
so richly deserved.

Parthenogenesis occurs in many other
orders of both plants and animals, and a
comparison of the various results is most
interesting. Merely to cite some cases for
comparison: In the bee, only males are
produced parthenogenetically ; in certain
lepidoptera, only females are so produced;
while in plant lice and certain small Crus-
tacea, both males and females are pro-
duced from unfertilized eggs. Ants were
formerly supposed to have a parthenoge-
netie development identical with that seen
in the honeybee; but more recent work
makes this doubtful as a general statement.
The silkworm is occasionally parthenoge-
netic.

PARTRIDGE PEA (Cassia Cliamae-
christa L.). — Also called sensitive pea, A
tough, hardy weed of the pulse family
[Leguminosae) , growing plentifully in the
high pine woods of central and northern
Florida. In summer the gi'ound is yellow
with it for miles. It is scraggly in form,
branching low to the ground, and reaching
a length of two and three feet on good
ground; limbs tough and woody when
dried. The yeUow flowers are sHghtly
clustered, and the petioles bear one or two
glands at the base, from which the bees
gather the nectar. We have seldom seen a
bee on the blossoms proper. The stems are
brown, and often branch out as low as an
inch above the ground. As the branches
grow they widen horizontally, sometimes
h'ing almost parallel to the surface of the
ground. The bloom period is long, lasting
from July to mid-September. Unless the
summer rains are too heavy and continu-
ous, it yields nectar every season. In
rainy seasons the nectar is washed out of
the plants before the bees gather it. The
honey has a pretty hue, being light amber.
The body is thin, even exceptionally so,
and the flavor is disappointing. It is far
inferior to ordinary sorghum. A good tea-
spoonful of pure r'esin or turpentine would
hardly shock the palate more, especially if
fresh from sampling palmetto or orange
honey.

The late H. W. Herlong of Fort White,
Fla, secui'ed all his surplus from this
source and chinquapin, which yields a bit-
ter honey. He produced almost exclusively
comb honey; and, poor as the flavor is, he
managed to sell his crops at pajing figures.

588 PEPPER

The fine appearance of the capped article
doubtless was the secret of this. As an
extracted honey, it is valuable only for
baker's use. It is a safe and sure crop in
its locality, and quantity partly atones for
. lack of quality.

The partridge pea is also common thru-
out the other Southern States and extends
northward to New England. In many dry
sandy sections of the South it is the chief
dependence of the beekeeper, making bee-
keeping possible in most unfavorable local-
ities, A surplus of 100 pounds per colony
is obtained. The honey, according to J. J.
Wilder, is nearly water-white with a fine
flavor. In the morning the cup-like glands
on the leaf stems hold large drops of nec-
tar which shine in the sunlight like dew-
drops. It is a very reliable yielder for
more than 100 days. The flowers are
pollen flowers, devoid of nectar, and vis-
ited by bumblebees only for pollen.

PASTURAGE. — See Artificial Pas-
turage.

PATENTS RELATING TO BEE CUL-
TURE.— Under the head of Inventions
Relating to Bee Culture is given a list
of all the useful ideas and inventions, pat-
ented or otherwise, that have been accepted
by beekeepers. It is but fair to state that
there is in use today hardly a hive of value
that is covered by an unexpired patent.
The field of apicultural invention has been
so thoroly covered by some 2,500 patents
on file in the Patent Office that it is prac-
tically impossible to secure a patent on any
hive or bee-appliance today that will have
claims of any value. Even if the patent is
granted, the claims are generally so loosely
drawn, and so complicated to avoid con-
flicting with other patents, that it is worth-
less. As already pointed out at the close
of the article on inventions, no patent
granted today on beehives or bee-feeders
will be worth anything to the inventor.
The unpatented hive has so far reached the
point of utility and perfection that it
would be practically impossible to make
any improvements ; and the improvements,
if any, would not be fundamental.

When the field was wide open, as in the
days of Langstroth, it was possible to
secure fundamental patents ; but even with
a fundamental patent Langstroth was

TREE

•>

robbed of the fruits of his brain, and died
almost penniless, notwithstanding the fact
that his invention was so useful that it was
accepted, at the time of his death, practi-
cally thruout the whole known world, but
long years after his patent of 1852 had
expired.

In the early days of bee culture the
country was full of patent-right venders
who sold county or state rights. Some of
these sharks reaped a harvest in selling
moth-proof hives. Practically all of these
patent-right venders sold useless contrap-
tions, and most of them were men without
principle — so much so that the business
of selling out county and state rights has
come into ill repute.

PEDDLING HONEY. — See Honey-
peddling; also Extracted Honey.

PENNYROYAL {Satureja rigida Bart.).
Perennial shrubby plants, two or three
feet tall, growing on sandy barrens and
pine lands thruout southern Florida. It
is of little value to the beekeeper north of
Lake Apopka. The stems branch diffusely
and bear head-like clusters of light purple-
2-lipped flowers. In localities it densely
covers the ground, as near Tampa on the
west coast and Stewart on the east side.
The honey flow comes in January, at a
time unfortunately when the colonies in
this section are usually weak. During the
flow they build up rapidly, and flll the
hives with stores. The honey is excellent
in quality, light in color, and delicious in
flavor; but only a small quantity of it is
placed on the market. While pennyroyal
is an important honey plant in southern
Florida, it is not dependable, for in Janu-
ary there is likely to be unfavorable
weather which will check the secretion of
nectar and prevent the flight of the bees.

PEPPER TREE {Schinus molle L.).—
From Peru. This is really not a pepper
tree at all; its flowers and the honey have
a peppery flavor, and the seeds resemble
pepper. It is a magnificent shade tree, and
in California has been very largely planted.
The honey is thick and dark, but it serves a
very useful purpose in helping the bees to
tide over bad times without feeding. It is
under a ban now, as it is supposed to har-
bor injurious insects ; but it seems proba-

POISONOUS HONEY

589

ble these pests would still exist even if all
pepper trees were destroyed.

PERFORATED ZINC— See Drones.

PHACELIA {Phacelia tanacetifolia
Benth.). — Introduced from California into
Europe, where it has been highly praised
both as a honey and forage plant. Some,
however, deny its value as a forage plant,
and not until 1904 did any Californian
ever mention it as such. It has blue flowers
much resembling heliotrope, the beauty of
which makes it worthy of a place in the
flower garden, where the bees may be
found on it in great numbers. One season
in California, M. H. Mendelson extracted
a carload of phacelia honey, but never
before nor since has he extracted as much.
The honey is stated to be amber-colored,
and pleasantly aromatic in flavor. In his
list of honey plants of Texas, Scholl men-
tions two other species of phacelia.

. I

PICKLED BROOD.— See Foul Brood ;
subhead " Sacbrood."

PLAYSPELLS OF YOUNG BEES. —

' Under the head of Robbing mention is
made of the playspells of young bees as
being very similar to the performances of
' robbers as they fly about in front of the
i ; entrance of the colony they are trying to
i'l rob. As soon as settled warm weather
1 : comes on in the spring, especially after a
! few days when the bees have been shut in,
\ I there wiU be a very pronounced demonstra-
' ' tion of hundreds of bees flying around in
f ! front of the entrances of a number of
' hives. They fly up and down and back
1 and forth, some coming out of the en-
trances, some going in, and all apparently
having a good time. Some of this behav-
ior is- not unlike robbing. The numbers
and commotion increase until in front of
the strongest colonies there will be seen
quite a little swarm in the air. The dem-
onstration will keep up for perhaps a few
j minutes and then gradually subside.

If these playspells occur at a time when
no nectar is coming in, they sometimes
cause a little apprehension on the part of
the owner of the bees. Sometimes these
frolics are so much like a genuine case of
robbing that the best experts are puzzled.
However, there are two important distinc-

tions : 1. When bees are playing, there are
no fighting bees, as is the ease when rob-
bing is going on. On the other hand, when
a colony has been overpowered, robbers
will perform in front of an entrance like
a lot of bees at play. They will cavort all
around in front of the entrance, apparent-
ly to determine whether the coast is clear
— that is, whether they can dart in at the
entrance without opposition. If it is a case
of robbing, the colony has been overpow-
ered; and the actions of the robbers are
for all the world like those at play.

2. A playspell is of short duration. With
robbing there is no let-up. If the demon-
stration of flying bees begins to subside,
and finally stops altogether, one may rest
eas3^ But if the flight keeps up for half
an hour or more, something is going wrong.
The entrance should be contracted, and the
colony should be treated as recommended
under Robbing. See Drifting.

POISONED BROOD.— See Fruit Blos-
soms and Foul Brood.

POISONOUS HONEY.— There are cases
on record, apparently authenticated, which
seem to show that honey gathered from
floT^'ers of plants that are in themselves
poisonous is also poisonous either to hu-
man beings or to the bees themselves, or
to both. Xenophon tells how, in the mem-
orable march of the ten thousand Greek
soldiers to the sea, some of them were
taken seriously ill after eating poisonous
honey. The facts are so carefully and
minutely recorded as to leave no doubt of
the honey-poisoning.

The wild honey in one or two of the
Southern States, in some very isolated lo-
calities, is reported to produce sickness,
and in some instances this is so sudden and
violent that it has given occasion for alarm.
In certain regions of Virginia, especially
near Halifax Court-house, mountain laurel
grows quite extensively in the mountains.
The bees are very fond of it ; and while it
does not seem to affect them particularly,
it is dangerous to human beings, or at least
is so reported. The plant itself is an ex-
tremely distressing narcotic, varying in ef-
fects according to the quantity taken into
the stomach. Dr. Grammer of Halifax
Court-house reports that, during the late
civil war, himself and quite a number of

590

POLLEN

comrades were poisoned by eating honey
from this plant. There was, he says, a
queer sensation of tingling all over, indis-
tinct vision, with an empty, dizzy feeling
about the head, and a horrible nausea that
could not be relieved by vomiting. This
lasted for an hour or so, while the effects
did not wear off for several days.

Yellow jessamine.

The lambkill (Kalmia angustifolia) and
the mountain laurel (K. lati folia) are
abundant over large areas, and in the
mountains of Carolina the mountain laurel
often presents an unbroken sheet of bloom.
Tf the honey were deleterious frequent re-
ports of illness might be expected, but
nothing of the sort happens. Kalm, the
Swedish traveler, after whom the genus
Kalmia is named, says that if domestic
animals eat the leaves they fall sick or die,
but that they are harmless to wild animals.
The belief that the leaves are poisonous
seems to have extended to the honey. But
Dr. Bigelow states in his Medical Botany
that he repeatedly chewed and swallowed
a green leaf of the largest size, without
perceiving the least effect in consequence.
A powder made from leaves recently dried
in doses from ten to twenty grains pro-

duced no perceptible effect. The taste of
the leaves is perfectly mild and mucilagi-
nous. Dr. Bigelow believed that the nox-
ious effect of the leaves on young domestic
animals was due to their indigestible qual-
ity. The probability is that the honey is
entirely harmless; the matter should be
tested, using, of course, proper caution.

In Georgia and Florida the yellow jessa-
mine (Gelsemium sempervirens) is very
abundant, and the bees visit the yelloTV
blossoms from February to March. But a
surplus of jessamine honey seems never to
be obtained, and it is useful chiefly for
spring stimulation. According to E. G.
Baldwin no injurious effect has ever been
observed, either from the nectar or the
honey in the hives.

POLLEN.— The anthers of flowers are
composed of four sacs, which contain nu-
merous small dust-like grains called pollen
or microspores. Pollen is a highly nutri-
tious food which is eagerly eaten by many
insects, and is gathered in large quantities
by bees as food for their brood. A pollen
grain is protected by an inner and an outer
coat (in a few species there is but one
coat), and is filled with a semiliquid in

Avhich float manj^ minute granules. Its
contents form a complete food, consisting

1?.

-After Fletcher.

POLLEN

591

of proteids, substances rich in nitrogen,
sulphur, and phosphorus; and carbohy-
drates, or starch, oil, and sugar. Pollen
thus offers a rich supply of easilj^ obtained
nourishment to all insects, especially to
those which are not predaceous.

Pollen grains vary in size from 1/100 of
an inch in Iris to 1/3000 of an inch in
some saxifrages. The number of pollen
grains is also very variable but is usually
large. Each anther of the peony has been
estimated to produce 21,000 grains; and
if there are 174 stamens to a flower there
would be 3,654,000 grains. In wisteria
there are said to be 7000 grains to each
ovule. The excess of pollen is thus so
large as to permit of much waste. In
shape the grains may be globular, .ellipsoi-
dal, potyhedi^al, or of the form of a dumb-
bell in the borage family; or in some
Polygalaceae they have the shape of " a
wickerwork basket." The outer coat may
be banded, ribbed, or checkered, and beset
with sharp teeth, points, spines, prickles,
or knobs; variation in the sculpturing is,
indeed, almost endless. The air in the
numerous little pits and hol-
lows on the surface of the TrOchctTlie/
grains protects them from
contact with water. The projections enable
them to adhere to insects. While yellow is
the prevalent color, red, blue, brown, and
green hues also occur.

THE BEHAVIOR OF BEES IX COLLECTING
POLLEIST.

The behavior of bees in collecting poUen
is of great interest to both beekeepers and
fruit-growers. Bees are the onlj^ insects
which feed their brood on poUen, to obtain
which in sufficient quantities they are com-
pelled to visit a great variety of flowers,
and incidentally are thus most valuable
agents in pollination. The small primitive
bees of the genus Pi-osopis have nearly
smooth bodies, and the pollen-brushes on
the hind legs are so feebly developed that
they are little better adapted for carrying
poUen than the wasps. The common ground
bees of the genera Halictus and Andrena
show a much greater advance. The body
is hairy, and the hind legs are entirely
covered wdth collecting hairs, which become
filled with loose, dry pollen grains. A fur-
ther step in the development of the pollen-

collecting apparatus of the hind legs was
the acquisition of the habit of moistening
the pollen with honey. Among the solitary
bees, Macropis and the Panurgidae carry
in this way large balls ' of damp pollen
moistened with freshly gathered nectar.
Finally among the bumblebees and honey-
bees there occur on the hind legs structures
called corbicula3 or pollen-baskets in which
the damp pollen is packed, while the tarsal
brushes are highly specialized. In honey-
bees the tibial spurs on the hind legs, used
by the wasps and solitary bees in digging
holes in the ground, have been lost because
no longer useful.

In another series of bees the Megacliili-
dae, or leaf-cutting bees, the iDoUen-coUect-
ing hairs form a stiff brush on the under
side of the abdomen. These hairs slant
backward and varv in length and color in

jCoxa

Femur

Jnienna

Cleaner-^ ^ y

SrushonPalma-^

Fig. 1. — Left fore leg of a worker bee.— Bulletin No.
121, Bureau of Entomologj'.

the different species. As the bees crawl
over level-topped flowers, like the sun-
flower and other species of Compositae,
which have a large amount of free pollen
on the surface, the abdominal brush be-
comes filled with dry pollen. The leaf-
cutting bees are also very common visitors
to leguminous flowers, as the vetches and
clover, which have an apparatus for plac-
ing pollen on the under side of the bodies
of insects. This large family of bees has
become adapted to collect poUen chiefly
from these two groups of flowers. None
of the species moisten pollen with honey,

592

POLLEN

did

Femur

Tibia-

-^nierior
edge

-Plarifa

Posterior
edffe-

Pecien

Aurich^z.

,PollenG)mk

Fig. 3. — Outer surface
of the left hind leg of a
worker bee. — Bulletin No.
121, Bureau of Entomol-
ogy.

The behavior of the honeybee in collect-
ing pollen has been carefully investigated
and described by Casteel. ("Behavior of
the Honeybee in Collecting Pollen," D. B.
Casteel, Bur. Ent., Bull. 121.) Honeybees
collect pollen from flowers by the aid of
the mouth parts, the three pairs of legs,
and the dense coat of long plumose hairs.
The feather-like structure of the hairs en-
ables them better to retain the pollen which
falls upon them. The mouth parts are
especially serviceable in the ease of small
flowers, or of those which produce little
pollen. The mandibles are actively used in
biting and scraping the anthers and free-

FiG. 4. — Inner surface
of the left hind leg of a
worker bee. — Bulletin No.
121, Bureau of Entomol-
ogy.

ing the pollen, which is brushed up by the
Maxillae and slender tongue. All the pol-
len gathered by the mouth parts is very
thoroly moistened with nectar or honey
which comes from the mouth. It is, in-
deed, so wet that in its transfer to the
pollen-baskets the hair on the breast and
the brushes of the legs becomes so damp
that it easily moistens the dry pollen swept
from the bee's body.

The leg of a bee is composed of nine
segments: The coxa, by which it is at-
tached to the body; the trochanter, femur
or thigh, tibia or shin, and the five tarsi.
The first tarsal segment, or metatarsus, is

POLLEN

593

as long as the four tarsal segments to-
gether. This segment of the fore-legs is
called the palma (palm), and of the middle
and hind legs the planta (sole). The inner
side of the metatarsal segments of all three
pairs of legs bears a dense bnish of im-
branched haii's, which on the plantae of
the hind legs has become modified into a
regular series of transverse combs. The
palmar bmshes of the fore-legs take away
the mass of wet pollen from the month
parts, and collect the dry pollen from the
pubescence on the head.

The metatarsal brushes of the middle
legs receive the pollen from the fii'st paii'

The hind legs are very highly specialized
for carrying the pollen masses. The tibia
is dilated at its lower extremity and the
metatarsal segments {plantae) are much
thinner and wider than the corresponding
segments of the fore and middle legs. The
pollen-basket or corbicula is a longitudinal
groove on the outer side of the tibia. It is
broadest at the lower end and is nearly
surrounded by a salient rim. On the front
edge of the tibia there is a fringe of haii's
overarching the pollen-basket, and on the
hind edge a row of hairs slanting back-
ward. The floor of the basket is nearly
smooth except for a few small spines near

Fig. 6.— a bee upon the wing, showing the position of the middle legs when they touch
and pat down the pollen masses. A very slight amount of poUen reaches the corbiculae thru
this movement. — Bulletin No. 121, Bureau of Entomologv.

of legs and transfer it to the plantar
brushes of the hind legs. This transfer is
effected by drawing each of the middle
legs between the plantae of the hind legs.
In this way the pollen on each middle leg
is scraped off on the pollen combs of each
opposite hind leg. The middle legs also
brush off the pollen entangled in the
hair on the thorax, which is moistened
by coming in contact with the wet pollen
from the mouth parts. The middle legs
are further used to pat down and compact
the growing pollen mass in the pollen-
baskets.

the entrance. The moistened pollen is lield
in position largely by its adhesiveness. The
lower end of the tibia, except the articula-
tion, is truncated, slightly concave, and
fringed along its inner margin, with 15 to
21 stiff' spines, inclined backward, called
the pecten. Immediately below the flat-
tened end of the tibia on the upper edge of
the playita is the auricle. This ear-shaped
structure is concave and covered with short
spines. Its inner edge, when the leg is
straightened, slips along the spines of the
pecten, while its outer edge which is fringed
with hairs projects into the entrance of the

594

POLLEN

pollen-basket. The end of the tibia and the
auricle have the appearance of a pair of
jaws or pincers ; and in the older works on
bee culture are erroneously described as
being used for taking scales of wax from
the wax-pockets. The inner side of the
planta, or metatarsus, is covered with about
eleven transverse rows of stiff spines which
serve as pollen combs. The spines of the
lowest comb are the largest and are used

by Casteel, the hind legs hang downward
beneath the abdomen, and the plantar
combs are in contact for most of their
length. If pollen is to be loaded into the
left pollen-basket the right planta is drawn
upward, scraping against the pecten of the
left leg. A small portion of the pollen
will be left on the spines and the end of the
tibia. The left leg is then flexed, pushing
the auricle against the flat end of the tibia,

Fig. 8. — Camera drawings of the left hind legs of worker bees to show the manner in which pollen enters
the basket, a, shows a leg taken from a bee which is just beginning to collect. It had crawled over a few
flowers and had flown in the air about flve seconds at the time of capture. The pollen mass lies at the entrance of
the basket, covering over the fine hairs which lie along this margin and the seven or eight short stiff spines which
spring from the floor of the corbicula immediately above its lower edge. As yet the pollen has not come in
contact with the one long hair which rises from the floor and arches above the entrance. The planta is ex-
tended, thus lowering the auricle ; h, represents a slightly later stage, showing the increase of pollen. The
planta is flexed, raising the auricle. The hairs which extend outward and upward from the lateral edge of the
auricle press upon the lower and outer surface of the small pollen mass, retaining it and guiding it upward into
the basket ; c, d, represent slightly later stages in the successive processes by which additional pollen enters the
basket. — Bulletin No. 121, Bureau of Entomology.

for picking up wax scales. This highly
specialized apparatus receives the pollen
and loads it into the pollen-baskets. See
illustrations.

Most of the pollen on the plantar combs
of the hind legs is received from the middle
legs as has been described, but a portion of
it is swept from the abdomen. During the
act of loading the pollen into the corbiculae,
which has been described in much detail

squeezing out a thin layer of pollen. The
spines of the pecten prevent this layer of
pollen from escaping on the inner side,
but on the outer side there is a way open
to the pollen-basket. In a similar way pol-
len is transferred from the plantar combs
of the left leg to the right pollen-basket.
The movements alternate very rapidly, the
legs rising and falling with a pump-like
motion. As the amount of pollen loaded

POLLEN

595

at each stroke is very small a great many
strokes are required.

The pollen at first lies at the extreme
lower end of the pollen-basket, but as suc-
cessive layers are added it is gradually
pushed upward. If pollen from different
species of flowers and of different colors,
which occasionally happens, is collected,
the mass will have a stratified appearance.
The shape of the pollen mass is largely
determined by the hairs which fringe the
sides of the basket. The hairs on the front
edge, which curve inward, prevent it from
projecting far forward; while the hairs on
the posterior edge, inclined outward, per-
mit it to extend backward far outside of
the tibia. Casteel found it possible to
manipulate the legs of a recently killed bee
with a pair of forceps, and artificially load
lihe pollen-baskets with thin layers of pollen
as has been described. It was formerly be-
lieved that in loading the pollen-baskets the
hind legs were crossed, and the plantar
combs scraped over the edges of the baskets
and the fringes of hair. On trial it is
found that this method yields wholly dif-
ferent results.

Chemical analysis shows that the liquid
with which the pollen is moistened is chiefly
honey or nectar recently gathered. In pollen
taken directly from the anthers of corn the
sugar content was 11 per cent, while in
pollen from the pollen-baskets the sugar
content was 28 per cent; showing that a

large amount of sugar had been added.
Since the pollen from the corbiculae con-
tains three times as much reducing sugar
as sucrose it is indicated that the liquid
added is honey (largely a reducing sugar)
rather than nectar which contains more
sucrose.

Honeybees make their collecting trips
more frequently in the morning than in the
latter part of the day. Young bees return-
ing with their first loads are said to show
great excitement, while the older bees move
about leisurely. After a suitable cell has
been selected, which may take some time,
the bee grasps, according to Casteel, one
edge with its fore-legs, while the apical
end of the abdomen rests on the other side
of the cell. The hind legs hang free within
the cell, the pollen masses about even with
its margin. The pollen masses are then
forcibly thrust out of the baskets by the
plantae of the middle legs. The bee then
usually departs, leaving to another worker
the packing of the pollen in the cell. The
pellets are broken up and pressed down-
ward, and sugar and perhaps some other
liquid is added to preserve them.

Necessity of Pollen- for Brood-rearing.

Both the solitary and the social bees re-
quire pollen for brood-rearing, and would
speedily perish if deprived of it. Alone
among insects the existence of this grour*

596

POLLEN

depends on an ample supply of pollen.
While a colony of honeybees cannot pro-
duce brood without pollen, the adult bees
themselves do not appear to use it as food,
since they will live only as long as the hive
contains honey, and, when that is con-
sumed, they will die of starvation, altho
there may be an abundance of pollen in
the combs. The less specialized solitary
bees, however, belonging to the genera
Prosopis, Halictus and Andrena, have been
observed to feed on both pollen and nec-
tar. There are also highly specialized
genera of beetles and flies, which, like the
honeybee, live wholly on nectar, while the
more primitive species consume both kinds
of floral food. If honeybees are confined
and fed only on sugar syrup they will live

Substitutes for Pollen.
In the absence of flowers honeybees will
gather many other substances as substi-
tutes for pollen. In early spring they
often may be seen in large numbers re-
sorting to sawdust heaps, and collecting
fine particles of wood, which contain a cer-
tain amount of nitrogenous matter. They
also gather at times the spores of fungi,
which are very similar in composition to
pollen grains. In Michigan they have been
reported as gathering loads of fine black
earth from the swamps, and they have been
known to collect even coal dust. The owner
of a cheese factory states that one day bees
were observed hovering over the shelves in
the cheese-room, and, as their numbers in-
creased, they were found to be packing on

Masses of pollen taken from legs of bees. These were photographed with a thimble to

show the relative size.

for a long time, build comb, and, since
they void no excrement, will not require a
flight in the open air, but they will rear no
brood. Pollen is a necessity for the life of
the colony, and it is for this reason that
honeybees are equipped with the elaborate
apparatus described above, and gather it
so diligently from spring till fall. In stor-
ing pollen preference is given to the cells
immediately surrounding the brood. In
very late fall it is common to find large
quantities of pollen packed firmly in
cells but not protected in any way; in
other cases it is covered with honey and
the cell capped over. To provide suffi-
cient pollen is a vital problem to both bees
and beekeepers.

their legs the fine dust that had accumu-
lated from handling the cheese. Micro-
scopic examination showed this dust was
embryo cheese-mites, so that the bees had
actually been using animal food as pollen,
and living animals at that.

At times also when there is a scarcity of
pollen bees will raid barns, stables and
chicken-houses to obtain bran or meal.
There have been numerous reports of their
invading the premises of farmers, stinging
the cattle and driving them out of the sta-
bles and causing general annoyance. This
difficulty may be remedied easily by sup-
plying them with a quantity of rye meal.
As it has been known for many years that
in springtime bees will use the flour or

Pollen masses on legs of bees. — Photo by E. F. Bigelow. Several show side hairs (like stakes on a hav-wagon)

to hold the load.

598

POLLEN

meal of different kinds of grain, many bee-
keepers believe that they can feed substi-
tutes for pollen to advantage. Usually
they resort to rye meal, cottonseed meal,
wheat flour, oatmeal, or pea meal, and
sometimes to strange mixtures of eggs,
milk, and sugar. Rye meal is a favorite
spring feed, and cottonseed meal has been
strongly advocated. If it is desired to feed
the meal inside the hive, flour candy is
used. This is made by mixing one part of
rye meal with three parts sugar and a little
water, and cooking it until it will sugar.
It is then vigorously stirred and poured
into greased pans. It is difficult to make,
may cause brood-rearing at the wrong time,
and is probably of no benefit. The dry
meal is placed in shallow pans, protected
from the rain and wind, and if a little dry
pollen saved from the tassels of corn the
preceding season is scattered over it, the
bees will soon begin carrying it into the
hives very eagerly. Care should be taken
to prevent the packing of the combs with
it to the exclusion of pollen later in the
season.

There is no doubt but that these substi-
tutes will stimulate brood-rearing, for in
colonies in which there were healthy queens
but no pollen, eggs, or brood, three days
after rye meal had been fed, there was a
large number of eggs in the cells. The
fact that brood-rearing can thus be stimu-
lated has led many beekeepers to jump to
the conclusion that the use of poUen sub-
stitutes must be desirable. But careful ob-
servation of the effects of feeding pollen
substitutes, especially in regions where
there are pollen famines, seems to show
that they are not only not beneficial, but
are positively injurious. In the tupelo sec-
tion of Florida, along the Apalachicola
River there is plenty of pollen until about
June 15, but after this date there is little
or none for nearly 90 days, or until Sep-
tember, for the tupelo furnishes very little.
The colonies become very weak and the
queens cease laying, but two prominent
beekeepers in this section report that they
never feed meal. It is the practice of one
beekeeper after the flow from tupelo is
over to move his apiary southward to a
locality where pollen is more abundant,
and where it remains for the balance of the
year. In Australia pollen famines are as
regular as the seasons themselves. There

is a " critical period " in midsummer, when
the pollen fails, the queen ceases to lay
eggs, and the brood dies of starvation.
This shortage is due to the failure of the
gum-trees, or Eucalypti, to produce much
pollen. So small is the supply that colo-
nies working on yellow gum dwindle down
to mere handfuls, altho there is a fine crop
of honey. Beuhne says that he has used all
kinds of substitutes in large quantities;
but, altho, hives were well filled with brood,
the bees thus raised were lacking in vitality
and were short-lived. He has never been
able to obtain a strong force of field bees.
In Connecticut Latham states that as the
result of years of observation he believes
that the ground grains do more harm than
good. One season strong colonies were fed
freely with cottonseed meal; but when
opened a month later they showed clearly
the futility of feeding substitutes, for they
not only showed no advance but were actu-
ally weaker in bee strength. Out-apiaries
which never received any meal invariably
contained stronger colonies, than the home
apiary which was fed. Feeding meal in
early spring apparently causes the bees to
fly out and waste away in cold weather,
when they had better remain quiet, and
retards building up later on; injures their
digestive powers; while the weak bees and
brood thus obtained lessen in the end
rather than add to the strength of the
colony. In the course of centuries bees
have become adapted to the use of pollen,
and it is not surprising that neither the
nurse bees nor the larvas can digest meal
equally as well.

Discarding the feeding of pollen substi-
tutes as of no benefit, or injurious, the only
practical method in most instances of meet-
ing a dearth of pollen would seem to be the
giving of combs of pollen. It is often as
important for beekeepers to reserve sur-
plus combs of pollen as it is combs of
honey. Not infrequently, especially in lo-
calities where pollen is very abundant,
combs largely filled with pollen can be re-
moved from the hive without apparent dis-
advantage. Bees without queens are said
also to store large quantities of pollen. Such
combs stored in a dry room would keep for
a long time, and, introduced into the hive
as required, would often make a great dif-
ference in the season's results.

POLLINATIOX OF FLOWERS

599

POLLEX IN SECTIOX BOXES AXD COMB HONEY.

The author does not mean to convey the
idea that we should be satisfied with pollen
in our honey, for a ybyj good and useful
thing is sometimes a very bad one, if out of
place. When pollen or meal is brought
into the hive, it is taken at once very near
the brood ; in fact, it is placed in the comb
next to it, if possible. When opening hives
in the spring, vre find pollen scattered all
thru the brood-combs to some extent; but
the two combs next the two outside brood-
combs are often a solid mass of pollen.
Should a few stormj- days intervene, how-
ever, this will disappear so quickly that one
who has not witnessed the rapidity with
which it is used in brood-rearing would not
know how to account for it. When it is
gone, of course the brood-rearing must
cease, altho the queen may continue to lay.
The amount of brood that can be reared by
keeping a stock supplied with pollen arti-
ficially, during such unfavorable weather,
is a very important item where rapid in-
crease of stock is desired.

Some of those who use shallow hives
have complained that pollen would go up
into the sections. It has been clauned by
the users of shallow frames that this can be
usually obviated by putting a comb of pol-
len in the brood-nest.* The presence of
this below will usually induce the storage
of more pollen in the same place, leaving
the sections clear for the storage of honey
only. The same principle will apply, of
course, to deeper hives; but it is very sel-
dom that pollen will be found in the sec-
tions where the brood-nest is as deep as the
Langstroth. It is where there is less depth
that there is danger.

QUEEX-EXCLUDIXG HOXET-BOARDS DO XOT
XECESSAEILY EXCLUDE POLLEX.

It is said that the strips of perforated
zinc in the slatted honey-board will largely
prevent the storage of poUen above. From
what experience we have had, we are in-
clined to think the zinc will discourage it
to some extent; but if contraction be car-
ried too far, the bees will put the pollen
where they please, zinc or no zinc.

For a further consideration of this sub-
ject see Fruit Blossoms.

* I seriously question this. — C. C. M.

POLLINATION OF FLOWERS. — Be-
fore we consider the wonderful little
schemes by means of which flowers are
pollinated, we should become acquainted
with the names of the dili'erent organs or
parts of the flower. In the accompanying
illustration we have a figure of what is
known as an hermaphrodite fiower — that
is, one containing both stamens and pistils.
!Many of the specimeus shown deviate from
a perfect fiower. If some common flower,
as a rose or buttercup, is selected for ex-
amination, it will be seen to consist of nu-
merous small thread-like organs surrounded

— After Fletcher.

by two whorls of leaves. The outer circle
of leaves is green, and forms the calyx, or
cup, each leaf of which is called a sepal.
The office of the calyx is to protect the
inner and more delicate organs, especially
in the bud, when the calyx alone is visible.
The second circle of leaves is large and
bright-colored — red, white, or yellow in the
rose, and yellow iu the buttercup; this is
the corolla, or little crown, and each leaf is
known as a petal. The brilliant hues of
the corolla are designed to attract the at-
tention of insects. Within the coroUa are
the stamens, composed of slender stems,
and the filaments, bearing the four-celled
anthers, which eontaiu fine grains of pow-
der known as poUen. In the center of the
flower stand the pistils. Usually a pistil

600

POLLINATION OF FLOWERS

consists of three parts — the ovary, style,
and stigma; but the style is sometimes
wanting. The base of the pistil is the
ovary, and is a capsule containing the
nascent, unfertilized ovules; the style is
a porous stalk rising from the ovary, and
bearing at its upper end a glutinous recep-
tive surface called the stigma. Pollination
is the transference of pollen from the an-
thers to the stigma. If the pollen is from
the same flower it is self-pollination ; but
if from a different flower of the same spe-
cies it is cross-pollination. Cross-pollina-
tion between the flowers of different species
is hybridization.

Soon after a grain of pollen has lodged
on the stigma, if the proper conditions ex-
ist, it sends out a slender tube which grows
down thru the porous style, by which it is
nourished, until it comes to one of the
ovules in the ovary. It enters the ovule by
a little orifice (micropyle, meaning little
gate), and there passes from the end of the
tube a male cell or germ, which unites with
an egg cell in the ovule — this is fertiliza-
tion. Fertilization does not always occur
immediately after pollination ; for instance,
the flowers of witch-hazel are pollinated in
the fall, but fertilization does not occur
until the following spring. It would be
well to bear in mind these botanical terms
in the descriptions which follow, in order
to understand how beautiful and perfect is
the design in nature in bringing about
cross-pollination.

Before we consider a few of the mutual
relations of flowers and insects for the pur-
pose of ensuring cross-pollination, some-
thing should be said about the importance
of crossing, both in the animal and vege-
table kingdom. The effects of self-fertili-
zation and cross-fertilization were first
clearly pointed out by Charles Darwin. He
was experimenting with two beds of toad-
flax, or butter-and-eggs {Linaria vulgaris),
one set being the offspring of self-fertiliza-
tion and the other of cross-fertilization.
The plants had been raised for the purpose
of studying heredity, and not the results of
cross-breeding. To his astonishment he ob-
served that the plants which were the result
of cross-breeding were far more vigorous
than the others. He temporarily abandoned
all his other investigations and devoted
himself to making numerous experiments

in interbreeding, and to acquiring informa-
tion as to the practical experience of horti-
culturists and breeders of animals.

As the result of his inquiries he laid
down the general law that no species of
animal or plant can fertilize itself thru
numberless generations, and that an occa-
sional cross is indispensable. The evil ef-
fects of interbreeding had, indeed, long
been known in a general way, and are even
instinctively recognized by barbarous races.
The deterioration goes on so slowly at first
that it is not easily discovered; but finally
results in loss of size, vigor, and fertility,
and may be accompanied by deformity.
The good effects of intercrossing are imme-
diately manifest. When plants were crossed,
their offspring were larger in size, grew
more vigorously, bloomed a little earlier,
and yielded more seed than their parents.
The two parent plants, or animals, must
not, however, be exactly alike. Since then,
says Dr. Fletcher, endless observations
have confirmed the accuracy of Darwin's
law, and it has been found that, in the vast
majority of plants, special appliances ex-
ist which will secure more or less frequent
intercrossing.

A summary of the more important ways
in which self-pollination and consequently
self-fertilization are prevented in plants is
given in the following table.

A. SEPARATION OF STAMENS AND PISTILS BY

SPACE.

1. Stamens and pistils in different flowers,
but on the same plant.

2. Stamens and pistils in different flowers
and on different plants.

3. Stamens longer than the pistils, or pistils
longer than the stamens.

4. Stamens bent away from the pistils, or
pistils bent away from the stamens.

B. SEPARATION OF STAMENS AND PISTILS BY

TIME.

1. Anthers mature before the stigmas.

2. Stigmas mature before the anthers.

C. MECHANICAL SEPARATION OF THE STAMENS

AND PISTILS.

1. Absolute separation. Anthers or pollen
masses held in a fixed position, and never set
free unless the flower is visited by insects.

2. Partial separation. Self-pollination may
occur during the latter part of the blooming
period.

POLLINATION OF FLOWERS

601

D. PHYSIOLOGICAX. SEPARATION OF THE STAMENS
AND PISTILS.

1. Stamens aborted in some flowers, pistils
in others.

2-. Pollen from a different flower prepotent
over pollen from the same flower.

3. Pollen from the same flower is sterile or
impotent on the stigma.

But while there is wide provision for
cross-pollination among flowers, they very
generally retain the power of self-pollina-
tion, so that, in the event of the failure of
cross-pollination, before the period of
blooming closes self-pollination may occur.

The more common ways are as follows:

a. The stamens lengthen, contract, or bend
so that the anthers touch, or drop pollen on
the stigmas.

b. The pistils lengthen, contract, or bend
so that the stigmas receive pollen from the
anthers.

c. If lobed, the lobes of the stigma roll back
so that they touch the anthers.

d. The filaments and styles become twisted
together.

e. The corolla in wilting closes, causing the
stigmas to be pollinated.

f. Self-pollination caused by the growth or
movement of the petals.

g. Change in the position of the flower
caused by the curving of the flower-stalk.

But while there are many plants in which
self-pollination is a secondary result, there
are also many which are regularly self-
pollinated, and, consequently, self -fertilized.
When the flowers expand, the anthers rest
directly against the stigma, which thus nec-
essarily receives the pollen. Many plants
produce, besides conspicuous flowers, small
green flowers, which never open, and which
(tho invariabl}'' self -fertilized,) are very
fertile. Many of these self -fertilized plants
are very common, very vigorous and fer-
tile, and extend over a large portion of the
earth, as the chickweed, shepherd's-purse,
and doorweed. They prove conclusively
that, tho nature may abhor perpetual
self-fertilization, she does not abhor self-
fertilization. On the contrary, it is a most
valuable principle which is carefully pre-
served, and upon which the plant world is
largely dependent. The contrivances, says
Kerner, to bring about self-fertilization,
are no less numerous than those which
favor cross-pollination. " That flowers
should be adapted at different times to
two such diverse purposes as cross and

self-pollination is one of the marvels of
floral construction."

These facts have led certain botanists to
question Darwin's conclusions as to the evil
results of continual self-fertilization, and
to assert that the good effects of inter-
crossing are only a temporary stimulant
and are not permanent. In only about five
cases did Darwin carry his experiments
beyond the third generation. In the opin-
ion of Henslow, self -fertilized plants are
best fitted to survive in the struggle for
life. To sum up, he says they are very
numerous, increase very rapidly, are very
vigorous, flourish in the most neglected
ground, and, being independent of insects,
are best able to establish themselves in
foreign countries, and are, therefore, of
world-wide distribution.

It should, however, be noted that the
forms which are continually self -fertilized
are admittedly degraded or retrogressive
species, or at least are not advancing in
development. Like certain groups of ani-
mals they are adapted to certain places or
conditions in nature where they appear
able to maintain themselves indefinitely.
But for races of plants which are rapidly
evolving, cross-fertilization appears to be
essential. Darwin showed that, when the
offspring of cross-fertilization were brought
into competition with the offspring of self-
fertilization, the former always gained the
mastery and survived. It would, therefore,
appear that intercrossing in an advancing
race of plants would be indispensable in
enabling it to overcome its competitors.

Flowers according to the ways in which
they are pollinated are divided into three
groups.

Flowers pollinated by the wind {Anem-
opMlae, wind-lovers).

Flowers pollinated by water {Hydro -
philae, water-lovers).

Flowers pollinated by animals {Zoidio-
philae, animal-lovers).

Flowers pollinated by animals may again
be subdivided into :

Snail-pollinated flowers (Malacophilae) .

Bat - pollinated flowers {Chiroptero-
philae).

Bird-pollinated flowers (OrnithopMlae) .
Insect-pollinated flowers {Entomophi-
lae).

Flowers pollinated by insects are divided
into :

602

POLLINATION OF FLOWERS

Flowers visited by miscellaneous insects,
fly-flowers, moth-flowers, butterfly-flowers,
bee-flowers, bumblebee-flowers, wasp-flow-
ers, ichneumon-fly flowers.

Flowers may be divided into pollen flow-
ers and nectar flowers according as they
contain nectar or only pollen ; or they may
be divided into flowers with the nectar fully
exposed, partly concealed, or deeply con-
cealed.

Flowers pollinated by the wind. — If in-
dividuals and not species are considered,
there are more plants pollinated by the
wind than in any other way. The cone
trees (Coniferae) are all wind-pollinated.
Vast forests, covering many millions of
acres, of pines, spruce, cedar, larch, and fir
occur in the north-temperate zone of the
Old and New World. Pollen is produced
in enormous quantities. Sometimes it rises
in clouds, and is mistaken for smoke; the
air is filled with myriads of grains which
powder the foliage of the trees and even
the ground. The so-called " showers of
sulphur" are the falling pollen grains of
the cone trees.

In all the Coniferae the stamens and ovules
are in different cones. Cross-pollination is
here, therefore, an invariable rule, and fur-
nishes a strong argument in favor of inter-
crossing. There is no stigma, style, nor
ovary; but the ovules are unprotected,
except by the scales of the cone, and the
pollen comes directly in contact with them,
instead of being deposited upon a stigma;
hence the name gymnosperms, or naked
seeds. The young cones are often very
handsome, and are colored red or purple,
or the scales, as in the fir, may be a very
delicate shade of green.

Wind-pollination existed long before in-
sect-pollination, for fossil cone trees are
found in the rocks long before there is any
evidence of the existence of the true flower-
ing plants. The wind offers an excellent
medium for intercrossing. It levies no toll
for its services, and it is seldom that there
is not sufficient air stirring to carry pollen.
In the pines the grains of pollen are pro-
vided with little wings. A gentle breeze is
much better than a strong wind, which
sweeps the pollen away too quickly and too
forcibly. When the weather is stormy (and
this is often the case when the wind is
high) the anthers do not open; and if they

have already dehisced they close again to
protect the pollen.

It is better not to apply the name flower
to the cones of the Coniferae. It is true
that Asa Gray and the older botanists often
speak of " the flowers " of the fir and pine;
but botanists are not agreed as to what
constitutes, among the gymnosperms, a
flower and what an inflorescence, or flower-
cluster. There is, moreover, no stigma,
style, or ovary, but the ovules are borne on
an open leaf or scale called a carpel. The
word " flower " should, therefore, be re-
stricted to the higher flowering plants or
angiosperms.

The grasses, sedges, and rushes are also
all pollinated by the wind with the excep-
tion of a few cases of self-pollination. In

Ragweed and corn, showing the two kinds of blossoms
on one stalk.

all parts of the world grass clothes the
land ; " should its harvest fail for a single
year famine would depopulate the earth."
Who would even attempt to estimate the
countless hosts of flowers'? Many species
bloom at dawn, when the sun is just rising
above the horizon, when, their anthers
loaded with pollen, they exhibit an attrac-
tiveness very different from their appear-
ance at noonday. The stamens and pistils
often occur in the same flower; but self-
poUination may be prevented by the stig-
mas ripening before the anthers. Common
corn is an illustration of a grass which has
the stamens and pistils in separate flowers.
The blossoms that bear the seed are low
down, and are what we commonly term the

POLLINATION OF FLOWERS

603

ear; the pistils are the silk. The flowers
that bear the pollen are at the very summit
of the stalk, and are known as the spindle.
When ripe the pollen is shaken off and
falls on the silk below, or, what is still bet-
ter, it is wafted by the wind to the silk of
neighboring stalks, thus preventing in-
breeding.

Very many deciduous-leaved trees and
bushes are wind-pollinated, as the alders,
birches, oaks, hornbeams, elms, walnuts,
hickories, and beeches. Usually the sta-
mens and pistils are in different flowers,
either on the same plant or on different
plants. Trees the world over more often
have the stamens and pistils separated, and
consequently the sexes, than herbaceous
plants. Anemophilous trees bloom in early
spring before the foliage has appeared, in
order that the leaves may not intercept and
waste the pollen.

Many coarse homely weeds are pollinated
by the wind, as pigweed, ragweed, nettle,
hop, pondweed, sorrel, dock, hemp, and rue
anemone. Their flowers are small and
green or dull-colored. The common rag-
weed {Ambrosia art emisiae folia) also
sometimes called bitterweed, bears two dis-
tinct and entirely unlike flowers. On the
ends of the tall racemes, as at B, the pollen-
bearing blossoms are seen very conspicu-
ously; and many of you who are familiar
with the weed perhaps never imagined that
it had any other blossom at all. If so, will
you please go outdoors and look at them
again? Right close to the main stem, where
the branches all start out, you will find a
very pretty little flower, tho it possesses no
color except green. These little green flow-
ers bear all the seeds, as you will see on
some of the branches where they have
matured. Now, if you will get up early in
the morning you will find that these flow-
ers, when shaken, give ofL a little cloud of
fine green dust, which is the pollen of the
plant of which we have been speaking. As
these plants are in no way dependent on
bees for the pollination of their blossoms,
they contain no nectar. During two sea-
sons, however, we have seen bees busily
engaged in gathering pollen. Both the
ragweed and the corn insure intercrossing
with other plants of the same species. A
stalk which succeeds in pushing itself above
the others, and producing a profusion of
pollen, will probably be the parent, so to

speak, of a multitude of the rising genera-
tion. This process repeated for genera-
tions would develop a tendency in corn
and ragweed to send up tall spires, clothed
with an abundance of pollen-bearing blos-
soms. The tallest plants also are most like-
ly to shed their pollen on the neighboring
plants, and this, too, fosters the tendency
mentioned.

Flowers pollinated by water. — Flowers
pollinated by the agency of water are com-
paratively rare. There are, however, four
common species, two growing in salt water
and two in fresh water, which deserve men-
tion. The two marine species are ditch
grass {Ruppis maritima) and eel grass
{Zostera marina), both of which are very
abundant in shallow streams and bays along
the eastern coast. The two fresh-water
fomis are waterweed {Elodea canadensis)
and tape grass {Vallisneria spiralis) ,^h.iQh.
grow in ponds and canals thruout much of
eastern North America. Tapegrass is also
caUed ^^wild celery" because it is the fa-
vorite food of the canvas-back duck. The
pollination of tapegrass and waterweed is
so very remarkable that it must be briefly
described. The flowers are dioecious, that is,
the staminate and pistillate flowers grow on
different plants. Both kinds of flowers are
formed under water near the base of the
plants. The pistillate rise to the surface,
upon which they float, anchored by a long
thread-like stem. The staminate flowers
while still in bud break away from their
stems, and rise to the surface, where they
float about like little boats. Presently they
expand; and when they drift against a
pistillate flower the anthers come in contact
with the broad leaf -like stigmas and polli-
nate them. Then the fertile flower is again
drawn down into the water by the spiral
coiling of its stem, where its fruit is ma-
tured.

Flowers pollinated by birds. — In Brazil
there are many hummingbirds and honey-
suckers which visit a great number of
flowers and play an important part in their
pollination. The color of bird flowers is
almost invariably scarlet, crimson, or bright
red. The cardinal flower, the scarlet-
painted cup, the trumpet honeysuckle, and
the trumpet creeper are common humming-
bird flowers. The nectar in these flowers
lies at the bottom of long tubes, where it is
beyond the reach of hive-bees, yet the car-

604

POLLINATION OF FLOWERS

dinal flower is sometimes listed by mistake
as a honey plant. The wild columbine and
the spotted touch-me-not are also very
often visited by hummingbirds, but they
are likewise much frequented by bumble-
bees, to which they seem better adapted
than to hummingbirds.

Honeybees obtain both nectar and pollen
from the flowers of the spotted touch-me-
not. Did you ever notice the spot of fur,
or down, on the back of the bee, just be-

Flower of the wild touch-me-not, showing the manner
in which the bee gets the pollen on its back.

tween the wings'? Well, bee-hunters some-
times put a small drop of white paint on
this spot, so that they may know a bee
when it comes back. Several years ago
bees were going into many of the hives,
with a spot of white on this fur that looked
at first sight almost like a drop of white
paint. For several seasons we hunted in
vain to see where they got this white spot.
At one time it seemed to come from work-
ing on thistles; but we were obliged to
give this up, for we found it most on the
bees one season when they did not notice
the thistles at all. One swarm of beautiful
Italians that filled their hive nicely in Sep-
tember had a white back on almost every
bee. We lined them from the hive, and fol-
lowed them. They went toward a large
piece of wild woodland, and we scanned the
tops of the trees in vain. Finally, over
between the hills, beside a brook, we found
acres of the wild touch-me-not (Impatiens) ,
the same plant that we have often played
with in childhood, because the queer little
seed-pods will snap all to pieces when ripe
if they are touched ever so carefully. The
nectar is secreted in the spur of the flower,
shown at B.

The bee can reach this only by diving
down into it almost out of sight ; and when
the coveted treasure is obtained it backs
out with a ludicrous kicking and sprawling
of its legs, and in so doing the down on its

back is ruffled up the wrong way. Now,
this would be pretty certain to get the
pollen dusted all over it; but nature, to
make sure, has planted a little tuft that
bears the pollen just on the upper side of
the entrance to the flower, at A ; and as the
bee struggles to get out, white pollen is
brushed on its back most effectually, to be
carried to the next flower, and so on.

Flowers pollinated by insects. — It is es-
timated that there have been described in
the world up to the present time 132,584
different kinds of flowers. Kerner places
the number of species pollinated by the
wind at about 10,000; but this, undoubt-
edly, is an underestimate. But even if it
is twice that number, there must be over
100,000 different species of flowers that are
pollinated by insects. Insect flowers are
usually bright-colored, often sweet-scented,
and commonly yield nectar as well as pol-
len. The pollen, unlike the dry dusty pol-
len of wind flowers, is thickly beset with
teeth, spines, knobs, pits, and grooves, which
cause the grains to adhere together, and to
the bodies of insects. Water is always hurt-
ful to it, and there is an astonishing num.-
ber of devices provided for its protection,
the mere description of which would fill j
many pages. It is probable that insects j
first visited flowers for the sake of the pol- j
len, and that the function of secreting nec-
tar was developed later. j

Any part of the flower may secrete nee-
tar, as the bracts, sepals, petals, stamens,
and pistils; but most frequently it is se-
creted near the base of the styles. Its
quantity varies from an almost impercepti-
ble layer to several drops or even a spoon-
ful. In a tropical orchid Coryanthes there
collects in the hollow lip over an ounce
avoirdupois.

Insects which are of importance as
flower- visitors belong to four orders : the
beetles (Coleoptera) ; the flies {Dipt era) ;
the moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera) ,
and the bees, wasps, and their allies {Hy-
menoptera) . Beetles appear to prefer pol-
len to nectar. Only a comparatively few
of them live on a floral diet. The flies are
more common, but a great many of them
are predaceous. All the butterflies and
moths are adapted to sucking nectar, but
many of the latter in the adult state never
take any food at all. The bees, especially
the honeybees, far surpass all other insects

POLLINATION OF FLOWERS

605

iu importance as pollinators, for they are
almost entirely dependent upon a floral
diet, both for food for themselves and their
offspring. The honeybee is on the wing
veiy early in the spring, and continues to
fly until late in the fall. Its great numbers,
its general size and shape, the special con-
struction of its tongue and legs, all together
make it especially well adapted for collect-
ing and carrying pollen.

Fly-flowers are malodorous, as the car-
rion-flower, purple trillium, and skunk cab-
bage. Notwithstanding their nauseous odors
honeybees visit certain kinds for pollen, as
the skunk cabbage. Sometimes they serve
as temporary prisons, holding the flies in
captivity until they are completely dusted
with pollen, as Indian turnip and Dutch-
man's pipe. The nectar in many moth and
butterfly flowers cannot be reached by
honeybees. Common butterfly flowers are
the pinks, various primroses, lilies, and
orchids, and some species of phlox. Among
moth flowers are the evening primrose, the
climbing honeysuckle of cultivation, some
species of cacti, as the night-blooming
cereus, the night-flowering catchfly, and the
thorn apple. The pollen may, however, be
accessible to honeybees, as in the evening
primrose. There are also many bumblebee
flowers from which honeybees are common-
ly excluded. The best known is, of course,
the red clover. The columbines are some-
times listed as honey plants ; but honeybees
are unable to obtain the nectar in the nor-
mal way, tho they rob the nectaries freely
after bumblebees have bitten holes in them.
So, too, there are various species of aconite,
larkspur, and sage, besides many other
flowers, which do not yield nectar to honey-
bees.

Thruout the entire vegetable king-
dom there seems to be a constant struggle
for the perpetuation of its species, which
is secured only by ripening good seeds.
Notice how the weeds in our gardens will
struggle and flght, as it were, to get a
foothold until they can get a crop of seeds
ripened, and then notice the numerous ways
they adopt to scatter this seed as widely as
possible. If the plants were animated be-
ings, we might almost call it tricks and
sharp practice; some of the seeds have
wings, and are blown about; others have
hooks, and catch on our clothing, and on
the fur of different animals, in the hope of

being carried to some spot where they have
a better place to germinate. Fruits and
berries (when the seeds are fully ripened),
instead of clothing themselves in the sober
green of the foliage surrounding them,
affect scarlet red and other bright colors,
and, sometimes, fancy stripes, which induce
the birds to take them in preference to the
fruit of other trees. Why do they want
their fruits to be eaten by the birds, if it
is their purpose to secure a place for their
seed? Well, if you examine you will find
that the seed is encased in a horny shell
that is proof against the digestive organs
of the bird, and these seeds and stones are,
therefore, voided frequently or invariably
while on the wing, in just the condition to
take root in the soil wherever they may be
cast. Bear this in mind while we go back
a little to the bees and flowers.

We have suggested that the nectar is
placed in flowers to attract the bees. After
a bee has found nectar in one flower it will
be very likely to examine others of a simi-
lar kind or appearance. If the flowers
were all green, like the leaves of the plant,
the insects would have much more trouble
in finding them than they now do, be-
cause contrasting colors, such as the white
and red of the clovers, make them conspicu-
ous. If you look back to what we said
about corn and ragweed you will see that
the flowers of both are a plain green, for
they have no need of bees to insure pollina-
tion.

It is easily proven that bees have a sort
of telescopic vision that enables them to
perceive objects at long distances. When a
bee starts out in the morning it circles up
aloft, then takes a view, and starts out for
business. If one field of clover should be
more conspicuous than the rest, it would
probably give it the preference — at least, so
far as to make an examination. If it has
been at work on a profitable field the day
before, it will, doubtless, strike for it again
w^ithout any preamble. That bees look for
honey, and hunt it out, we have proven to
our full satisfaction; and we are weU con-
vinced that what is often called instinct,
and allowed to drop there, is only profiting
by experience and an excellent m.emory of
past events, as human beings do. We say
that bees instinctively go to the flowers for
honey. We have watched them in the spring
when the blossoms first open, and many a

606

PROFITS IN BEES

bee, very likely a young one that has never
before seen a blossom, will examine the
leaves, branches, and even rough wood, of
the trunk of the tree, intently smelling and
sniffing at every part, until it finds just
where the coveted treasure is located. After
it has dived deep into one blossom, and
tasted the nectar, it knows pretty well
where to look next time.

The touch-me-not has learned, by ages of
experiment, to produce a bright orange
flower, to secure nectar in the spur, to
place the pollen-bearing stamens at the
point where the bee must rub against them
in getting the nectar, to construct those
wonderful seed-pods, which explode and
scatter the seed far and wide, just that it
may reproduce and multiply its species.
We should judge it had succeeded pretty
well in a waste piece of woodland near our
home, for there are now acres of it as high
as one's head, and it is quite a valuable
acquisition to our apiary. As nearly as we
can make out, the plant has much increased
since the advent of the Italians, as might be
expected. This is true of dandelions as
well;* and the large, brilliant, showy blos-
soms that now line our roadsides and waste
places, instead of unsightly weeds, should
remind one how much an apiary of bees
contributes to fulfill the words of sacred
prophecy :

The wilderness and the solitary place shall
be glad for them; and the desert shall re-
joice, and blossom as the rose. — Isaiah 35: 1.

Now, we cannot possibly affirm that flow-
ers were given their gaudy colors thru bees
selecting the brightest and most conspicu-
ous, thereby inducing such blossoms to bear
seed in preference to those less gaudily at-
tired, neither do we know that cherries be-
came red because the birds selected those
that showed a disposition to that color, year
after year, for many centuries ; nor can we
prove that the bright plumage of male
birds came about in the course of time,
simply because the female encouraged the
attentions of and showed a preference for
those most handsome. We can only suggest
that the actions of birds, bees, flowers, and
fruits, seem to point that way. You all
know how quickly we can get fancy-colored
flowers, yellow queen bees, or birds of al-

* See Dandelion.

most any shade of color, by careful selec-
tion for several generations. Have not the
bees so colored the flowers, and birds the
berries, etc., altho they did it all uncon-
sciously ?

It is significant that so many of the flow-
ers have a form of construction and depth
of flower tube that would indicate that it
had adapted itself to the bee. While, of
course, there are many exceptions, it ap-
pears that nature caters more to the bee
than to any other insect. Just see how she
makes a convenient doorstep of a flower
tube of just the right size and shape, so
that the bee can get the nectar which it has
to offer. Cheshire has pointed out that so
intimate and so perfect is the relation be-
tween the flowers and the honeybees that
there would be no advantage in breeding
larger bees or of changing their general
structure, because to do so would necessi-
tate changing practically the whole of the
floral kingdom. While it undoubtedly would
be an advantage to breed bees with longer
tongues, that advantage would be manifest
only in the case of red clover, and appar-
ently old Dame Nature has designed that
the common bumblebee shall perform the
work here that cannot fully be accom-
plished by the honeybee. It should be
mentioned, however, that the honeybee does
gather quite a little nectar from the red
clover, and of course accomplishes to a con-
siderable degree the work of pollination.

POLLINATION OF FRUIT BLOOM.—

See Fruit Bloom.

PRIORITY RIGHTS.— See Overstock-
ing.

PROFITS IN BEES.— This question is
a hard one to answer, as so much depends
on the locality and the man, and the num-
ber of bees to the area.

Considering the average production of the
poor and the good beekeepers, in the North-
em States, in what is known as the rain-
belt, one might perhaps expect to get any-
where from 25 to 50 lbs. of comb honey,
and perhaps from 25 to 50 per cent more
of extracted. There will be some seasons
when he might secure as much as 100 lbs.
or more on an average, and occasional sea-
sons when there would be neither comb nor
extracted, and the bees would require to be

PROFITS IN BEES

607

fed. Taking one year with another, the
ordinary beekeeper ought to average about
35 lbs. of comb honey, on a conservative
estimate, provided he has reasonable skill
and love for the business. The comb honey
might net him, deducting the expense of
selling, from 10 to 20 cents ; the extracted,
I from 6 to 15. These figures do not include
I the labor of producing the honey nor the
I cost of the fixtures. The cost of the sup-
I plies, exclusive of sections and foundations,
I ought to be sufficient to cover 10 to 20
years if no increase is made. Suppose we
I put the comb honey at 35 lbs. as the aver-
I age, and the price secured 15 cents net.
I The actual money he would get from the
!' commission merchant or grocer might be
I about $5.00 per colony; but out of this he
j must deduct a certain amount for labor,

I and 10 per cent on the cost of supplies, to
j I be on the safe side.

!l With only a few bees the labor would

I I count for nothing, as the work could be
ij performed by some member of the family

or by the man of the house, who could, dur-
ing his spare hours, do a little with bees,
and work in his garden. In case of one,
i two, or three hundred, the labor item must

■ be figured. The larger the number crowd-
i ing the available territory the smaller the
1 1 profit per colony. A rough estimate for an
! apiary in a locality not overstocked, not
j including the labor on the $5.00 actually

received for honey sold, ought to leave a
net profit of somewhere about $4.50. This
would be on the basis that the locality did
not require much feeding in the fall. If
feeding was found to be necessary, 50 cents
more might have to be deducted, making a
net profit of $4.00. On this basis it will

■ be seen that the profit in one season ought
to pay for the hives and supers in one year,
or come very close to it, leaving the invest-
ment good for ten or more years. If we
figure it that way the ten per cent need not
be added. For a professional man, or one
who has other business, even these returns
are not bad ; for if he secures only enough
for family use, the diversion or change to
relieve the tired brain is worth something.

The question as to whether one should
keep few or many bees will depend upon
many conditions; but the principal one is
the ability of the man. Many a person can
handle a few chickens, and get good re-
sults ; but when he runs the number up into

the hundreds he meets with failure. Some
have done remarkably well with a few colo-
nies; but when they have attempted to
double or treble the number they entered
into a business proposition that proved to
be too much for them.

Many years ago a neighbor cleared a
thousand dollars from one acre of onions.
It made him wild. He bought ten more
acres of the same kind of onion land, going
into debt for it, and expected to clear the
following year $10,000. When he managed
the one acre he did all the work himself;
but when he worked the ten acres he had to
hire help. The help was incompetent, or
did not understand. Onions fell in price;
and at the final roundup that year he had
a great stock of poor onions without a
buyer. They rotted. He became discour-
aged, and lost all he had.

A few persons, on account of a lack of
experience or perhaps business ability, not
understanding their own limitations and
those of their localities, will plunge into
beekeeping too deeply and meet with dis-
aster.

Many a beekeeper has done well with
four or five hundred colonies when he fails
with twice that number. When he or mem-
bers of his family can do all the work
ever3i;hing goes well; but when he has to
hire help, much of it incompetent, his
troubles begin, and his profits are cut in
two. Said one large producer, " When I
had 3,000 colonies, and my boys and I did
all the work, we made money; but when I
increased my number to 7,000, and hired
help, I actually did not make as much
money as when I had 3,000."

There are some men who are unable to
get along with their help. There are oth-
ers who, when they have good help, have no
ability to plan the work for others.

If it were not for bee disease and rob-
bing, the question of hired help would not
be so serious. A poor man in a beeyard
may make his employer a world of trouble
and expense unless his boss can be with
him constantly, and that is not always
possible.

One may double or treble the number of
his colonies if he can plan his work ahead
and then go along with the help, taking one
yard after another. After a time one of the
men may be competent enough to go to the
yards and manage the other help ; but usu-

608

PROPOLIS

ally a good man can make more money by
running and owning the bees himself than
by working for some one else. It is diffi-
cult, therefore, to hold such a man.

If one expects to expand his bee busi-
ness, tho he does not have members of his
family to help him, he will probably have
to work on a profit-sharing basis — a mod-
erate salary and a percentage of the crop.
This creates in the man a sense of responsi-
bility and ownership that makes him a bet-
ter man than if he merely had to put in so
many hours, and at the same time holds
him. If the owner can go with the help to
all the yards, it is not necessary for him to
hire on the profit-sharing basis.

Assuming that the help question can be
solved let us look at the side of expansion
of the business. Let us assume a case.
Here is a beekeeper who has 300 colonies.
During the busy season he is comfortably
busy. But during six months in the year
his time is not very profitably employed —
a distinct loss; for it will take him only a
short time, comparatively, to get his supers
ready for the next season, nail his hives,
repaint them, or do other preliminary work
that can easily be done indoors, and yet his
interest, or his rent and his living expenses
are going right on. Suppose, for example,
that this beekeeper has 600 colonies, or
1,000; that he has good business ability;
that he has plenty of bee-range. Suppose
he scatters this number in 15 different
yards, none further than 15 miles from his
home, and a good part of them not over
four or five miles away. In the busy sea-
son he will, of course, have to employ help.
If he has the right kind of executive ability
he will see that that help is profitably em-
ployed. When the rush of work is over he
will look after the marketing of the crop,
put the bees into winter quarters, perhaps
doing the work himself with the occasional
help of one man, and a machine. In cold
weather he can devote all of his time profit-
ably in preparing for the next season.
While he is operating 1,000 colonies it
costs him no more to live; the same auto-
mobile that will carry him to two or three
hundred will carry him to the other seven
or eight hundred. If he is running for
extracted honey, the same extractor, un-
capping-knives, and smokers can be used
at a central extraeting-station. He is thus
enabled to put his invested capital where

it will be earning money for him all the
time in the busy season instead of eating
up interest part of the time. We will sup-
pose that some of his swarms get away
from him; we wiU also suppose that some
of the work is not done as well as when he
had only 300 colonies; but he has in-
creased his honey crop by three times, pos-
sibly, and has increased his actual operat-
ing expenses only to the extent of the help
that he has to pay for, extra hives, and
sugar to feed. A couple of men and a boy
three months in the year — the men at $4.00
each and a boy at $2.00 per day — would
make his expense $780, counting 26 work-
ing days to the month. To this we will add
$70 for extra team or automobile truck
hire. The cost of the extra 700 colonies
with hives and supers divided by ten (as-
suming that they would last ten years)
would be $650 more, or $1,500. But we
must add $350 more for sugar for feeding
and $400 for sections, foundation, and
shipping-cases, making $2,250 as the total
added expense for the 700 extra colonies.
Say he is producing comb honey, and that
he can average 35 lbs. per colony. If this
nets him 15/ he would get from 300 colo-
nies $1,575. If he has 1,000 colonies his
gross income will be $5,250 by adding only
$2,250 to his general expenses.

This is a supposable and a possible case.
The most that we would show is that the
operating and overhead expenses will not
be proportionately increased if the number
of colonies be doubled or trebled — all on
the assumption, of course, that the bee-
keeper has the necessary skill and business
ability.

PROPOLIS.— This is a sort of resinous
gum that bees collect for coating over the
inside of their hives, filling cracks and crev-
ices, cementing loose pieces of the hive to-
gether, and for making things fast and
close generally. It is not generally gath-
ered in any great quantity until at the close
of the season, when it seems to be collected
in response to a kind of instinct that bids
them prepare for cold weather. They are
seen almost every day, during a dearth of
honey, collecting propolis from old hives,
old quilts, and pieces of refuse wax, when
one is so wasteful and untidy as to leave
any such scattered about. That the princi-
pal part of it comes from some particular

PROPOLIS

609

plant or class of plants, or tree, is probably
I true, for almost the same aromatic resinous
I flavor is noticeable, no matter what the
\ locality or season of the year. Bees gather
propolis with their mandibles, and pack
and carry it precisely as they do pollen. It
is never packed in the cells, however, but
[ applied at once to the place wanted. It is
1 often mixed with wax to strengthen their
; combs, and is applied to the cells as a var-
' nish, for the same purpose. In the absence
f of a natural supply, the bees frequently
• resort to various substances, such as paints,
I varnishes, resins, pitch, and the like; and
the superstition, popular in some sections,
[ that bees follow their owner to the grave,
after his death, probably obtained credence
from seeing the bees at work on the varnish
' of the cof&n. To save the bees the trouble
of waxing up the crevices in their hives, it
has been suggested that a mixture of melted
wax and resin be poured into the hive and
made to flow along the cracks and corners.
This may do very well, altho bees can do
this better and cheaper than we can. The
principal trouble has been to get rid of the
surplus propolis, and it would be better to
have some device to keep it out of the way
than to add more. It has been said that
grease, lime, chalk, or talc applied to the
parts will prevent bees from depositing
propolis, for the reason that they cannot
make it stick.

HOW TO KEEP SECTIOXS FREE EROM
PROPOLIS.

Of course, the readiest means is to re-
move aU sections just as soon as a single
one is capped over; and as but little pro-
polis is gathered during a strong yield of
honey, but little will be found on the honey
unless it is left until the yield has ceased.
Some bees not only cover all the woodwork
of the sections if left on too long, but they
also varnish over the whole surface of the
white capping, almost spoiling the looks
and sale of the honey.

It is next to impossible to keep the sec-
tions wholly free from propolis. Bees will
deposit at least some in the interstices be-
tween the sections. As Nature abhors a
vacuum, so do the bees dislike a crack or
crevice. The nearer comb arrangements
can be made so as to leave but few crevices
or places of contact accessible to bees, the
20

less propolis will be deposited. Some sur-
plus supers are made so as to produce com-
pression upon the sections, thus reducing
the space formed by contact with sections
to a minimum. Some prefer to have the
outside of the sections covered entire. This
can be accomplished either with the wide
frames or with holders having the top and
bottom to correspond with the outside of
the sections.

HOW TO KEEP PROPOLIS FROM STICKI^^G TO
THE FINGERS.

At certain times of the year, notably in
the fall when bee glue is very abundant
and sticky, after the honey flow is over and
the bees have nothing else to do, they will
sometimes gather a great deal of resinous
matter which they chink into every avail-
able place, smearing over the brood-
frames. When these latter are handled the
fingers gather up a great deal of the sticky
stuff, making the work unpleasant, not to
say hampering. At such times one may
wear gloves ; but as many do not like them,
the trouble can be overcome to a great ex-
tent by dipping the fingers in vaseline,
lime, or talcum powder.

HOW TO REMOVE PROPOLIS FROM THE
FINGERS.

A variety of substances have been sug-
gested. Alcohol is perhaps the neatest,
but is rather expensive; gasoline or com-
mon lye for soap-making answers nearly
as well, and is cheap ; soap will answer if
a little lard be rubbed on the hands first
but will have little effect on it otherwise. A
correspondent says he has a pair of light
cotton gloves which he slips on when han-
dling his waxy frames, and his hands are
left clean whenever he is obliged to stop
work.

For removing propolis from glass, alco-
hol is perhaps best. When much glass is
soiled, it can be cleaned most expeditiously
by boiling it in a kettle of water with a
quantity of wood ashes, or, better, lye.
Miss Emma Wilson had an article in
Gleanings in Bee Culture, that is repro-
duced here :

I put on mj wash-boiler with water and
lye, then went to the shop and selected the
most badly propoHzed supers and separators

610

PROPOLIS

that I could find as fit subjects on which to
experiment. I dropped a few separators into
the boiler while the water was yet cold, to
see what effect it would have on them. I
could not see that it affected them in the least
until the water almost reached the boiling-
point, when the propolis disappeared.

What I was most afraid of was that the
separators while wet would cling so closely
together that the lye would not reach every
part, and hence they would not all be per-
fectly clean. I was glad to find these few
did not bother at all, but came out perfectly
clean. I stirred them with the poker while
boiling, altho I don 't know that it was nec-
essary as I tried another lot without stirring,
and they came out just as clean. I next tied
up a bundle of 59 separators, that being the
number I had handy. Of course, they were
tied loosely. I dropped them in, having a
strong cord tied around the middle of the
bundle to lift them out by. I let them boil
two or three minutes, and took them out; 32
of them were perfectly clean. The rest, in the
center of the bundle, still had some propolis
left on, and were treated to a second dose.

Taking a very large qauntity of the sepa-
rators at one time, there might be more
trouble than I think about getting them
clean, but I don't believe there would be if
the water were kept hot enough, and enough
of the lye used. I don't think any harm
would come from having it unnecessarily
strong.

I next tried dipping the T supers. My
boiler was large enough to clean only half a
super at a time, so I had to dip in one half,
reverse it, and dip the other half. Had I
been able to dip one all at once, I think I
could have cleaned one a minute. And they
are beautifully cleaned. I don't know of any
other way they could be cleaned so nicely —
quite as clean, I think, as when new. We
scraped all our supers before the lye was
thought of; and while they are much im-
proved by the scraping they are not nearly as
nice as when cleaned with lye, while the scrap-
ing is harder work.

I did not have anything large enough to dip
a hive into, but of course a hive would clean
as readily as a super. With convenient appa-
ratus to work with, a large number of such
articles as separators could be cleaned at a
time with no very great amount of labor. It
is such a comfort to have everything clean!
Wood separators are so cheap that we have
always thought it did not pay to clean them.
I rather think we shall conclude that it does

pay, after this, providing we can get them
satisfactorily dried in good shape.

DO THE BEES NEED PROPOLIS ?

Much discussion has arisen in regard to
the habit bees have of making all open-
ings tight with bee glue. Theory says, if
allowed to follow their bent, or instinct,
they will smother themselves to death.
Practice says they do, at least at times, so
prevent the escape of moisture that their
home gets very damp and wet, filled with
little icicles, so that they suffer; or, at
least, such is the case in the hives we have
provided for them. Who is right — the bees
or the enlightened beekeeper? The greater
part of the fault lies in the hive we have
given them. The enameled cloth which we
formerly used for covering bees is as im-
pervious to air and moisture as the propo-
lis they collect with so much pains and
trouble. If the outside of this is allowed
to get frosty, it will condense the breath of
the bees on the inside; and if the outside
is but thinly protected from the weather,
icicles will certainly form on the inside,
and freeze the bees fast in a lump.

Under the head of Wintering Outdoors
will be found a discussion regarding the
value of packing material, the purpose of
which is to keep the outer walls from be-
coming cold and condensing the breath of
the bees into moisture and the moisture
into ice. So far as it is possible, the hive
should be packed warm enough so that the
moisture will not condense in the hive —
much less, ice form around the side walls.

VALUE OF PROPOLIS.

The gum has been used to some extent
in medicine; also in the preparation of
certain leather polishes. It is claimed that
propolis for this purpose possesses a prop-
erty that renders it superior to any of the
pitches or resins.

Q

QUEEN-REARING.— Before this sub-
ject is read the subject of Queens further
on should be gone over carefully. This
will make queen-rearing more easily under-
stood.

As a general rule, extensive honey-pro-
ducers believe that it is better and cheaper
for them to buy their queens than to at-
tempt to raise them. First, when they buy
queens they introduce new blood in their
yards ; and, second, in order to raise queens
it takes a large amount of skill, time, and
equipment, which, if devoted to the produc-
tion of honey, would yield larger results in
dollars and cents. There are other large
producers who do raise some queens of
their own, such stock coming from colonies
showing the best average in honey produc-
tion year in and year out. When swarm-
ing is controlled by caging the queen, re-
queening can be effected without very much
loss of time. Moreover the best of cells
can be reared during the swarming season.

There are certain of the smaller pro-
ducers who raise their own queens, if for
no other reason than for the fun of it. The
whole process, from start to finish, is inter-
esting if not wonderful. For the benefit of
these and others we shall attempt to show
some of the fundamental principles as well
as the methods that are used by our best
queen-breeders. But before the breeder
launches into this general subject, he should
first turn to Queens. After having read
that he may then consider queen-rearing.

CONDITIONS favorable AND UNFAVORABLE
FOR REARING QUEENS.

When a colony from some cause or other
becomes queenless, the bees will set about
rearing another.

Some hold that the best queens are those
that are reared either during the swarming
time or when the bees are about to super-
sede an old queen soon to fail. At such
times one may see large beautiful queen-
cells, looking like big peanuts, projecting

from the side of the comb. The larvae in
such cells are lavishly fed with royal jelly;
and when the queens finally hatch they are
usually large and vigorous.

As already stated there is one class of
cells that bees rear when they are about
to supersede an old queen. When she is
two or three years old she begins to show
signs of failing. The bees recognize the
fact that their own mother will soon die,
or at least need help from a daughter, and
very leisurely proceed to construct a num-
ber of cells, all of which are supplied with
larv8B, and fed in the same lavish way as
those reared under the swarming impulse.

But we can never determine in advance
when the bees will rear supersedure cells,
and it may be true that the queen about to be
superseded is not desirable stock from
T^hich to rear. For these reasons one can-
not depend on having supersedure colonies
at the time he wishes to requeen. Also, it
may be that cells reared under the swarm-
ing impulse, if from poor stock, should be
rejected; because it is certainly penny wise
and pound foolish to rear queens from any
thing but the very best select stock. All
swarming-cells from good queens should
be reserved by placing them in West queen-
cell protectors; then hunt up queens two
or three years old, pinch their heads off,
and replace them with one of these cells
in each colony. One may have good queens
even three or more years old, but it is
hardly probable. The majority of our
honey-producers think it profitable to re-
place all queens three years old, while a
good many make it a practice to requeen
all colonies having queens two years and
over, and of late years there is a tendency
on the part of a few to requeen every year.

While these swarming-cells produce the
very best queens, yet it may not be con-
venient to requeen during the swarming
season, which in some localities may be a
very bad season to do so, owing to the
interruption that it makes in the regular

612

QUEEN-REARING

Queen, drone, and worker.

production of honey; for some believe
that a good many colonies will not do as
well in honey-gathering when they are
queenless. If swarming-cells are needed,
however, they may be given to nuclei in
order to save them.

Among the several systems of rearing
queens, the one put out by Mr. Doolittle
a few years ago forms the basis of some
of the best now in vogue. It is very sim-
ple, requiring no special tools more than
one can improvise for himself. Thoroly
understanding this, the reader will be in
position to carry out the more advanced
ideas put forth by Mell Pritchard, Samuel
Simmins, E. L. Pratt, Henry Alley, and
others.

THE DOOLITTLE METHOD OF REARING QUEENS.

While Mr. Doolittle's system is slightly
artificial yet he endeavored to make his
methods conform as nearly as possible to
Nature's ways. It is of prime importance
in the rearing of queens to bring about
conditions that will approach, as nearly as

possible, those that are generally present
during the swarming season at a time when
the bees supply the cell-cups lavishly with
royal food. One of the first requisites,
then, for cell-building is strong powerful
colonies; second, a light honey flow, or a
condition almost analogous, viz., stimula-
tive feeding if the honey is not then com-
ing in. Queens reared during a dearth of
honey, or queens from cells reared in nu-
clei, are apt to be small. The mothers that
do their best work are those that are large,
and capable of laying at least from 2,000
to 3,000 eggs per day.* A queen that is
incapable of this should not be retained.
A colony with a good queen might earn for

* It is not necessarily the large queens which do
the best work. Also 2,000 to 3,000 is hardly the
maximum of " best " queens. A Langstroth comb has
approximately 6,000 cells, and good queens will not
infrequently fill all of one and part of another in 24
hours. This summer I saw 14 colonies, each with two
12-frame chambers for the queen ; and in several
which I inspected, the queens had the whole 24 frames
filled with brood in various stages. This figures out
like this: 24 times 6,000 equals 144,000 cells of
brood. Divide this by 21, the time from egg to mature
bee, and the result is 6,857 for a day. Allowing for
some pollen (and there was not much in those 24
combs) the figure 6,000 could not have been far from
what those queens were doing. — A. C. ]\Iiller.

QUEEN-REARING

613

its owner in a good season $5.00 to $25.00
iu clean cash. In the same season the
same colony (or, perhaps, to speak more
exactly, the same hive of bees), with a
poorer queen, would bring in less than half
that amount. A queen that can lay 2,000
or 3,000 eggs a day at the right time of the
year, so that there will be a large force of
bees ready to begin on the honey when it
does come, is the kind of queen that should
be reared.

The old way of raising queens was to
make a colony or a nucleus queenless ; wait
for the bees to build their own cells; then
distribute them to colonies made queenless
beforehand. This plan is veiy slow and
wasteful, and, worst of aU, results in the
rearing of inferior queens. Mr. Doolittle
took advantage of Nature's ways to such
an extent that he was enabled to rear a
large number of queens from some selected
breeder, by increasing the number of cells
ordinarily built ; for the prime requisite in
queen-rearing is cells — plenty of them —
that will rear good strong healthy queens.

The first step in queen-rearing is to pro-
vide queen-cups. Many times, when an
apiarist is going thru his yard he can cut
out embryo cell cups. These can be utilized
at some future time for the purpose of
grafting. But such cells are not generally
found in large numbers, and after they are
gathered, are exceedingly frail, irregular
in shape, and will not bear much handling.

HOW TO MAKE DOOLITTLE CELL CUPS.

Mr. Doolittle was among the first who
conceived the idea of making artificial cell
cups that should not only be regular in
form but of such construction as to stand
any reasonable amount of handling. Con-
trary to what one might expect, such ceUs
are just as readily accepted by the bees as
those they make in the good old-fashioned
way; and, what is of considerable impor-
tance, they can be made in any quantity by
one of ordinary intelligence.

Mr. Doolittle took a wooden rake-tooth,
and whittled and sandpapered the point so
that it was similar in size and shape to the
bottom of the ordinary queen-cell. Prepar-
atory to forming the cells Mr. Doolittle had
a little pan of beeswax, kept hot by means
of a lamp ; also a cup of water. Taking one
of these cell-forming sticks he dipped it

into water, after which he plunged it about
9-16 of an inch into the melted wax. He
then lifted it up and twirled it at an angle
(waxed end lower) in his fingei^s. When cool
he dipped it again, but not quite so deep,
and twirled it as before. He proceeded thus
until the cup was dipped seven or eight
times, but each time dipping it less deep,
within 1-32 inch of the previous dipping.
The main thing is to secure a cup having a
thick heavy bottom, but which will have a
thin and delicate knife edge at the open
top, or at that point where the bees are
supposed to begin where man left oft work.
After the last dipping is cooled, a slight
pressure of the thumb loosens the cell cup
slightly. It is then dipped once more, and
before cooling it is attached to a comb or
stick designed to receive it.

GRATTIXG CELLS.

A small particle of royal jelly is inserted
in every queen-cell. The amount in each
should be about equivalent in bulk to a
double-B shot, said Mr. Doolittle. But we
have found that a much less quantity will
answer. Out of an ordinary queen-cell well
supplied with royal jelly one can get
enough to supply 20 cups. This royal jelly
should come from some queen-cell nearly
ready to seal, as that will contain the most.
It should be stirred to bring all to about
the same consistency, after which it may
be dipped out of the cells by means of a
stick whittled like an ordinary ear-spoon,
or a toothpick.

The next operation is to take a frame of
young larvfe just hatched from the eggs
of the best breeding queen. Each little
grub should be lifted up with the aforesaid
ear-spoon, and gently laid on the royal
food previously prepared in one of the ceU
cups. A larva should be given to every
one of the cell cups in this manner, and
when aU are supplied they are to be put
into the cell-building colony, to be ex-
plained later.*

BEARING QUEENS IN LARGE
NUMBERS.

Thus far the original Doolittle system
of rearing queens has been considered;
and where one desires only a few for his
own use he may find this method more con-

* This work should be done in an atmosphere of 80°

614

QUEEN-REARING

venient than the one now to be described.
But if he has any number to rear he should
earrj^ out the following- plan. The method
of preparing the colonies for cell-building
will be the same.

Instead of dipping the cells one by one
with a stick, or dipping several sticks at

A B

Cross-section of wooden cell-holder ; cell cup partially
pushed into place.

once, compressed cell cups are made on a
plan originally devised by E. L. Pratt.
With a suitable die, cells more nearly per-
fect than can possibly be dipped by the
slow process already described are punched

Manner of inserting cell cups in cell-holders.

out at the rate of 2,000 an hour. These are
furnished by dealers, and, generally speak-
ing, it would be better to buy cell cups than
to attempt to make them by the dipping
process.

To facilitate general handling, the modi-
fied Doolittle system calls for wooden cell-

holders, which may, under certain circum-
stances, be used as direct ceU cups.

These are cylindrical pieces of wood, %
inch in diameter, % inch long. A suitable
drill bores out one end of the right size to
receive one of the compressed cell cups.
These wooden cell-holders can likewise be
purchased by the thousand.

Cell-holder with cell in place.

The compressed cups are forced into the
hole in the cell-holders by means of a little
plunger-stick. When enough of them have
been prepared, and secured to a cell-bar
by being pressed against the under side of
the cell-bar, which is covered with a thin
coat of wax, they are ready to be grafted.
This process is much the same as that al-
ready described in the Doolittle method, ex-
cept that a much smaller quantity of royal

Hoffman frame with removable bars for cell-holders.

jelly is used, and special tools are provided
for the purpose, these being obtained of
the dealers. Sufficient royal jelly is gath-
ered up from a series of cells, and the same
is stirred with a special jelly-spoon. A
spoonful is then held in the left hand, while
the right hand uses the grafting-tool to
take a speck of the royal jelly, about the
size of the head of a pin. This is then
placed in the bottom of one of the com-
pressed cups. Other cups are treated in
the same way until the whole series of cells
is provisioned.

QUEEN-REARING

615

The next operation is to take a comb of
very young larvae, just hatched, from a
breeding queen. In an atmosphere not
cooler than 75 or 80 degrees (the warmer
the better) a young larva is scooped or

G, fully completed cell from holder ; H, partially built
cell torn away to get at the royal jelly.

lifted up out of a worker-cell with the flat-
tened end of the grafting-tool, and depos-
ited in the royal jelly of one of the com-
pressed cups. This is repeated until all the
cups are grafted. This royal jelly serves a
double purpose. It affords a downy bed,
so to speak, in which to lay the larva, and

Supplying cells with royal jelly.

at the same time provides food until the
bees can give it a fresh supply. Despite
the claim that royal jelly is not necessary
one will get more cells accepted by using it.

GETTING CELLS ACCEPTED AND BUILT OUT.

The average beginner will probably suc-
ceed best by giving grafted cells to a queen-
less strong colony. In about two days after
making it queenless a bar of 15 cells (not
more) inserted in a frame may be given.
If no honey is coming in from natural
sources, the colony should be fed in a man-
ner to be explained. When conditions are
right, nearly every cell, if not every one of
them, will be accepted. By " accepted " is
meant that the bees have begun work on

them, and have added their own royal jelly.
After being accepted they are given to the
upper story of a strong colony, with an
excluder between the two stories, to be
completed.

The question might be raised right here,
" Why not make these upper stories start
as well as complete the cells'?" For the
simjDle reason that they will not start work
of this sort except under the most favorable
conditions; and the average queen-breeder
has decided it does not pay to try to make
the attempt. There should be one colony
to start the cells and another to complete
them after they are accepted in another
colony.

After the first batch of 15 grafted cups
have been accepted and removed, another
batch of 15 may be given, and so on the
process can be repeated. But such cell-
starting colonies should not be kept for
such purpose more than three weeks, on
account of the danger of laying workers.
See Laying Workers.

Lifting a larva out of a worker-cell.

In eight days after giving the first batch
of grafted cells, it will be necessary to go
over the combs very carefully and destroy
any natural cells of their own ; for if these
are left in the hive the bees will do no work
on the second batch of cells. In the mean
time a virgin would hatch and trouble hap-
pen. Even after the fii'st batch of natural
cells are cut out, it is advisable to go over
the combs again in eight days, because a

616

QUEEN-REARING

colony like this may steal an egg or two
from some other colonj^

Another excellent cell-building colony
outside of the swarming season is one hav-
ing a queen which it is trying to super-
sede. One or more such colonies will be
found in a large apiary, but as a general
rule the queen is hardly good enough to
use as a breeder. Having found such a col-
ony, begin giving it daily feeds at once,
this being a requisite for the best results in
cell-building with any colony, either with a
queen or without one. This supersedure
cell-building colony will not only draw out
and complete one set of cups but several
sets in succession ; but it is best not to give
any one such colony more than a dozen or
a dozen and a half prepared cups at a time.
Allow it to finish up one batch, and then, if
necessary, give it another.

To one of our supersedure colonies, as
we call them, we gave one batch of Doolit-
tle cups after another until they had com-
pleted over 300 fine cells; but we were
careful to take away each lot before any
could hatch, of course, for a young virgin
would very soon make havoc of the other
cells unhatched, and besides would get the
colony out of the notion of trying to super-
sede the old queen.

Just how far supersedure bees will con-
tinue to build out batches of cell cups one
after another is not known, but if they are
fed half a pint of syrup daily they appear
to be willing to keep up the work indefi-
nitely, in the hope that they will some day
be able to rear a virgin that will supplant
the old queen that appears to be failing.

THE FORCED-CELL-STARTING COLONY.

There is still another plan used by queen-
breeders to get cells accepted or started in
a more wholesale way; and that is, make
up a forced-cell-starting colony. This is
done by making a strong colony queenless
and broodless. The combs are taken out
one by one, and shaken in front of the
entrance. When combs are cleaned of bees
it w^ill be very easy to see any eggs. Combs
liaving honey only are set back in the hive,
and with them two division-board feeders.
One is placed on each side and half filled
with syrup; and an hour or two after the
bees have been made queenless and brood-

less they will set up a roar; for without
any brood or any possibility of producing
it, they are in dire distress, and in just the
right condition, psychologically, to rush
upon grafted cups that may be given them.
The nurse bees are already supplied with
pap; and with no young brood of any
kind to feed they have royal jelly in any
quantity to give the cups. A colony in this
condition may be given 100 cells on two
frames, which are placed in the center of
the colony in places previously left vacant.
If everything has been done right, nearly
every one of the cells will be accepted ; but
the attempt should not be made to make
such a colony start a second batch. When
the cells are accepted they are taken out
and placed in an upper story of a cell-
building (or, rather, cell-completing) col-
ony next to be described.

While queenless bees will complete any
cells given them, yet such cells will not be
as good as those built under the swarming
or supersedure impulse. Therefore for a
cell-completing colony a two-story colony
with an excluder between the stories is pre-
pared. The lower hive contains the queen,
but the brood is lifted into the upper story.
The queen and bees below will begin rear-
ing more brood. If no honey flow is on, it
is important to feed, because otherwise
these cell-builders will tear down the work
so nicely started in the other hive.

Under Feeding is described the Board-
man feeder for slow feeding. After one
feed is given another must be given the
next day. If a day is skipped in feeding,
the colony begins to feel that the honey
flow has stopped, and apparently comes to
the conclusion that there will be no neces-
sity for continuing the work of cell-build-
ing. When feeding stops, it will often
destroy work nicely under way.

If feeding continues such cell-builders
will take care of and build out about 15
cells at a time. When the first batch is
sealed, another batch of accepted cells may
be given, and so on the process may be con-
tinued thruout the season — provided, hoAV-
ever, the colony is kept up to the swarming-
pitch by continuous feeding.

In about 15 days brood is again lifted
from the lower to the upper hive and the
combs from which brood has hatched above
are pat below. Brood must be kept above to
keep cell-building going on.

QUEEN-REARING

617

Fully completed queen-cells built on wooden cell-cups here described.

The cells are now ready to be placed in
nursery cages. This, it will be seen, is
practically a modified Alley cage. A sur-
plus of cells often occurs in queen-rearing
— that is to say, a lack of queenless nuclei
or colonies to take them. One should ar-
range to have more cells than he will prob-
ably be able to use, to provide for bad
weather, when cells will be destroyed or
young hatched virgins will be missing. At
such a time, if one has extra cells or virgins
that he can take out of a nursery, he can
quickly make good the loss.

The nursery cage here shown has a large
opening at the top to receive the wooden
cell cup ; the small hole in the lower right-
hand corner is filled with queen-cage candy
to supply the young miss after she hatches.
Twenty-four of these cages, supplied with
cells that are capped over, can be put in a
nursery-frame having holders which may
be tilted on an angle so that any one cage
can be easily removed from a holder with-
out disturbing the rest. There are three of
these holders in each frame, pivoted at both
ends as shown. When the nursery-frame
has been filled with cages, each containing
a capped cell, it should be put down in the
center of a strong colony.

While various artificial-heat incubators
using kerosene lamps have been devised,
experience has shown a majority of breed-
ers that nothing is quite so good as a
strong cluster of bees. What is still more,
when the young virgins hatch, some of the
bees will be inclined to feed them thru the
wire cloth, providing a stimulus that they

NURSERY CAGES.

The illustration shows a batch of cells
taken from one of these cell-builders. In
large queen-breeding establishments there

A nursery frame.

will be a dozen or more cell-building colo-
nies kept constantly at work ; but the ordi-
nary beekeeper who desires a few queens
of his own will not need to keep more than
one such colony more than a few days.

618

QtiEEN-REARlNa

cannot receive from the queen candy in the
cage. After the virgins have hatched they
should be transferred to Miller cages, and
introduced as soon after hatching as possi-
ble. The younger the virgin, the more suc-
cessful will be her introduction. After she
becomes four or five days old, even if she
be accepted by the bees they are likely to
mistreat her so that her usefulness there-
after will be greatly impaired. While it is
possible to introduce these virgins to full-
sized colonies it is not practicable except
by the smoke or distress method described
under Introducing. It is much easier to
introduce to baby nuclei.

DUAL PLAN OF INTEODUCING VIRGIN QUEENS^
FOR EXTENSIVE BREEDERS.

It sometimes happens that a breeder will
have a great surplus of cells, or more
virgins than he has queenless nuclei or
colonies. In such cases it has been found
practicable to introduce two queens at a
time. First a virgin, the younger the bet-
ter, is introduced in a Miller cage to a baby
nucleus. After two or three days she should
be released ; in about four days more, being
seven days from the time of caging the first
queen, another virgin may be caged among
the same bees ; but the candy of the second
cage thru which the bees liberate the queen
must be covered with a little strip of tin or
the bees will liberate her prematurely. In
two days more the first virgin will be mated,
and within two or three days will begin to
lay if the weather is favorable, when she is
removed and sent out to fill an order. The
strip of tin covering the candy of the sec-

ond cage is opened to let the bees release
virgin No. 2, and, having already acquired
the colony odor, she will usually be ac-
cepted iQ less than a day's time. In about
seven days from the time she was caged, a
third c|ueen, if there is still a surplus of
virgins, may be put into the nucleus while
No. 2 is taking her mating-flight, and so
the progress may continue so long as there
is a surplus of virgins.

This is really high-pressure queen-rear-
ing, and should be practiced only when
there is a surplus of virgins, or when there
are rush orders for cheap queens — cheap
queens, because the queens introduced on
the dual plan may or may not be the equal
of those introduced in the regular way
where a single queen is introduced at a
time and is confined in a cage not more
than a couple of days. If the virgin is
very young, just hatched, and the nucleus
has been queenless a couple of days, she
can be let loose quietly over the top of the
frames without any caging ; but care should
be taken not to allow her to touch the
hands, for the scent of the human body
sometimes causes the bees to attack and
kill her.

INTRODUCING QUEEN-CELLS INSTEAD OF
VIRGINS,

Some queen-breeders prefer to give ripe
queen- cells to their nuclei direct, claiming
that too many of the virgins that they in-
troduce being from one to four and
five days old are lost. It is true, the aver-
age beginner will succeed better with cells
than with virgins ; but if cells be given the

'Wi 0t A

After the battle. By accident a batch of cells were left for a day or so too long in a cell-building colony.
The first virgin that hatched, true to her nature, waged an unfair war upon her helpless sisters still in their
cradles. Every cell was ruthlessly torn open, and the little white queen inside killed. A virgin queen will
not stand for" competition. This inborn instinct of hatred against a rival does not end with youth. Two
laying queens — old enough to knew better — will usually fight if placed together even in strange and unnatural
surroundings. Place two queens under a drinking glass in the hot sun. If they could reason, we might
expect them to forget their hatred of each other in view of their common predicament of being confined
away from the care of nurse bees. But the powerful instinct of hatred is so strong that they will usually
fight — fight until one or the other is stabbbed by that poisoned weapon that is never used except against a rival.

QUEEN-REARING

619

nuclei should be made strong in bees. In
some cases it will be necessary to use West
queen-cell protectors to keep the bees from
gnawing- holes into them.

The long spiral cage is designed to slip
under the queen-cell protector, and when

AVest queen-cell protector.

the young queen hatches out she will pass
into the long cage, where she can be held
secure from bees or other virgins in the
colony that might kill her.

MATING HIVES.

Before securing a large lot of nice cells
in the cages already shown and described,
there should be in readiness a quantity of
mating hives or nucleus boxes. As already
explained, one can use one or two full-
sized Langstroth frames and put them in a
three-frame box or hive, or in a full-sized
hive, by using a division-board to reduce
the space; or, better still, he can take an
eight-frame hive body and divide it oft into
three equal compartments by inserting two
tight-fitting division-boards lengthwise that
will reach clear from the bottom up to the
cover, and then close the holes of the hive
rabbets. Each compartment will then be
just wide enough to take two full-sized
Langstroth frames. The under side of this
hive should have a wire-cloth bottom, for
reasons to be given later. The two outside
compartments should each have an en-
trance, one on each side of the hive along
the center. The center compartment should
have one at the rear of the hive body.
These entrances should be made with a
half -inch bit, and should have a cleat nailed
just below, forming a narrow doorstep.

When complete it will be an ordinary
eight-frame hive body with wire-cloth bot-
tom, having three two-frame divisions with
an entrance on each side and one in the
rear. Each of these compartments is to
receive two frames of brood and bees, after
which the whole is set over a strong colony
of bees. The heat passing from the bees
beneath will keep the three clusters above
perfectly warm, no matter if the weather

Fig-. 1. — Twin mating-box.

should be a little cool. Queens or cells
may be given to each one of these nuclei,
and queens will be mated from the upper
story in the regular way. Where the cli-
mate is a little uncertain and the season
short, there is nothing better than this
divided-off upper story.

BABY NUCLEI;, AND HOW TO MATE QUEENS IN
LARGE NUMBERS.

Where one desires to secure the largest
number of queens possible from a given
force of bees, twin-mating nuclei on a
much smaller scale are to be preferred.

The illustration shows one the author
uses. It is just right so that each one of
its two compartments will take two frames
of such size that three of them will just fit

620

QUEEN-REARING

the inside of a regular Langstroth frame,
the division being made on vertical lines.
The baby hive itself is on the same general
principle as a full-sized one, having rabbets
at the ends to support the frame projec-

Twin-nuclei frame.

tions. A division-board thru the center
lengthwise, % inch thick, divides the hive
off into two bee-tight compartments. Tacked
to this board is a square of enamel cloth

which, when spread, covers both sides. In
order that the little frames may hang in the
rabbets and yet at the same time be .fitted
inside the full-sized Langstroth frame, pro-
jections or supports are made of metal, and
so constructed that they can slide forward
to form a projection, or be shoved back
out of the way.

Early in the season these little frames
are filled with full sheets of foundation;
or, from a lot of old defective combs can
be cut pieces which can be fitted in these
third-sized nucleus-frames. When filled
with comb or foundation three of them are
inserted in a common Langstroth frame,
which may be put down in the center of a
good colony. Where preferred a colony
may be supplied exclusively with these
three-in-one frames. When filled with brood
or honey they can be given to the baby
hives after being taken out of the large
frame. The metal projections are shoved
outward, as shown at F and A. They are
then ready to hang in the nucleus-box;
but before this is done each division of the

Fig. 2. — Scooping the bees with a small dipper into baby nuclei.

QUEEN-REARING

621

twin box should be supplied with about
half a pint of bees. While the bees may be
taken from the same yard in which the
mating-boxes are to be stationed, it is
strongly advised to procure them from an
outyard; or, if one does not have one, to
purchase three or four colonies of black or
hybrid bees from some farmer. All their
drones must first be captured with per-
forated zinc.

FORMING BABY NUCLEI.

A regular hive body that has a wire-cloth
screen bottom and a removable wire-cloth
screen top is prepared. Into this box some
ten or twelve pounds of bees are shaken
from some other yard. These may come
from four or five colonies, but generally
from a dozen or more hives. This box of
bees is then taken to the queen-rearing
yard, where the nuclei are to be formed.
Four of the twin baby hives are first placed
upon a little light stand, each filled with
empty combs ready to receive the bees,
entrances closed, and ventilators opened.
The hive body containing the shaken bees
is then placed conveniently near. They are
wet down with a spray, then given a jar so
as to get the bees down in a mass in the
bottom. With a little tin dipper are scooped
up approximately four ounces of bees,
which comprise from 1,000 to 1,200 indi-
viduals. As the bees have been previously
wet down they can not fly very readily, and
can therefore be scooped up a la Pratt and
dumped in one of the compartments as
shown in Fig. 2. An attendant stands
ready w^th a number of virgin queens. He
removes one of the frames of one compart-
ment, and, while the apiarist is scooping up
a dipperful or two of bees and dumping
them in the space made vacant by the re-
moval of the frame, he drops in a virgin
queen just dipped in water. He now puts
in the removed frame and folds back the
enamel cloth. The operation is repeated in
the other compartment of the box, and so
on the process is continued until all of the
twin m.ating-boxes are filled with bees and
virgin queens. The baby hives are then set
to one side for about 48 hours, when they
are placed on their permanent stands for
the summer. Their entrances are opened
at night. The next morning, as the bees
come out they will mark their location and
begin housekeeping with their baby queen.

After the baby nuclei are in full opera-
tion ripe queen-cells in place of virgins are
given. The two frames are spread a little
apart when the cell is placed in position.

At the time of forming these baby nuclei,
a thick syrup of about 2^2 parts of sugar
to one of water is poured into the feeder
compartment at one side. At other times,
if it is a little cool it is given at night, hot,
when it will all be taken up before morn-
ing. This feeding may be required off and
on during the season. In some years the
baby nuclei will gather enough to supply
their own needs. At other times they will
require a little help.

These little twin nuclei serve only the
purpose of mating. No cells are reared in
them, and the comparatively small number
of bees in each compartment makes it easy
to find a laying queen or virgin if present.
If in doubt as to whether the nucleus has a
virgin, another cell is given; and even
should the virgin come back from her flight
she will take care of that cell by gnawing
a hole in its side and killing its occupant.
Should she be lost in one of those flights
the cell will provide another virgin, which
will come on in due course of time. It is
better to have a surplus of cells than to
lose time.

These baby nuclei have been carefully
tested in one of the author's yards, and
have given good results ; but one needs to
remember a few things in handling them or
he may become disgusted with the whole
plan.

1. If the force becomes a little weak, a
frame of hatching brood should be given,
but not eggs or larvae ; or if this cannot be
had, after the last queen is taken out a few
more bees may be dumped in from a strong
colony of the main yard. While some of
these will go back, many will remain.

2. After the young queens begin to lay
they should be taken out almost immedi-
ately, otherwise they will fill the two small
combs with eggs and lead off a little swarm
if there is a honey flow on. If not con-
venient to take the queen out at once, the
perforated zinc slide should be shoved
around to shut her in.

3. It is preferable to make up these little
nuclei with bees from some outyard.

4. Neither side of the nucleus box should
be allowed to become empty of bees. The
combined heat of the two clusters brings

622

QUEENS

Find the queen.

about a better state of contentment. Where
there is only one compartment of bees in a
mating-box they cannot do as well as when
there are two.

QUEENS. — The most important person-
age in the hive is the queen, or mother-bee.
She is called the mother-bee because she is,
in reality, the mother of all the bees in the
hive.

Structurally she is the same as the worker
bee. The same egg that will produce a
worker will also produce a queen. While
a worker will lay eggs only under stress of
abnormal conditions, and these only drone
eggs (see Laying Workers), the queen
bee, after she has met a drone (or male
bee), will lay two kinds of eggs — worker
and drone. While the worker bees have all
the organs of the queen, those organs are
undeveloped. The workers instead of be-
ing neuters are all females but incapable of
reproducing more females. The queen is

the only true female. So far from being a
ruler or sovereign she is little more than an
egg-laying machine subject to the caprices
of her sisters.

When a colony is deprived of its queen,
the bees set to work and raise another so
long as they have any worker larvee or
eggs in the hive from which to do it. This
is the rule; but there are some exceptions
— so few, however, that it is safe to assume
that a queen of some kind is present in the
hive whenever they refuse to start queen-
cells from larvae of a proper age.

UNDERSIZED OF IMPERFECTLY DEVELOPED
QUEENS.

Some laying queens are small* and un-
usually dark in color, and yet become fer-
tilized. They lay eggs for a little while

* Small queens are not necessarily inferior. One
of the most marvelous egg-producers I ever saw was a
" bantam " from Golden stock. She could run thru
perforated zinc and back again, before ti "^^orkgr could
get started thru. — A. C. Miller.

QUEENS

623

(from a week to several months), but never
prove profitable. Sometimes they will not
lay at all, but remain in a colony all thru
the season, neither doing any good nor per-
mitting any other queen to be either intro-
duced or reared. A wingless queen, or one
with bad wings, will prevent another from
being introduced. The remedy is to hunt
them out and remove them. Where they
are so nearly like a worker bee as to make
it hard to distinguish them, they can often
be detected by the peculiar behavior of the
bees toward them. See woodcut below. In
the fall, after the queen has ceased laying.

The queen and her retinue.

she will usually look small and insignificant
even tho she be an extra good one. But if
it is during the laying season, when all fer-
tile queens are laying, and the queen looks
small, she should be removed, and another
put- in her place. It doesn't pay to keep
am'thing but the very best stock. The loss
in honey would pay for several of the best
queens.

DEVELOPMENT OF BABY QUEENS.

HOW A WORKER-EGG IS MADE TO PRODUCE A
QUEEX.

This is a question that puzzles novices
about as much as any question they can
ask. To answer it let the following experi-
ment be ti'ied when the bees tell their own
story : Gret a frame of eggs, and put it into
a colony having no queen. The tiny eggs
wiU hatch into larvge as before ; but about
as soon as they begin to hatch, there will
be found a few of the cells supplied with a
greater profusion of milky food than oth-
ers. Later these ceUs will begin to be en-
larged, and soon at the expense of the ad-
joining ones. These are queen-cells, and
they are something like the cup of an acorn

in shape, and usually occupy about the
space of three ordinary ceUs. In the cuts
Avill be seen ceUs in different stages of
gro^vth. See Queex-eearixg.

There are some queer things about queen-
cells, as will be noticed. After the cell is
sealed, the bees put a great excess of wax
on it, make a long tapering point, and
corrugate the sides something like a thim-
ble, as shown at C. This corrugation, or
roughness, when closely examined, will be
seen to be honeycomb, or, rather, an imper-
fect representation of honeycomb on a very
smaU scale.

It is very handy to be able to tell when
any queen-cells will be likely to hatch ; and
the bees are very accommodating in this
respect also ; for, about the day before the
ciueen hatches, or maybe two days, they
proceed to tear down this peak of wax on
the tip of the cell, leaving only a thin cov-
ering. Xo one knows why unless they are
anxious to get a peep at their new mother.
It has been said they do it that she may be
better able to pierce the capping; but
sometimes they omit the proceeding entire-
ly, and apparently she has no difficulty iu

Queen-cells. — After Cheshire.

cutting the cap off. If the cell is built on
new comb, or on a sheet of foundation, and
be held up before a strong light at about
the fifteenth day, or a little later, the queen
can be seen moving about in the cell. Aft-
erward, by listening carefully, she can be
heard gnawing her way out. Pretty soon
the points of her sharp and powerful man-
dibles will be seen protruding, as she bites
out a narrow liae. Since she turns her
body in a circle while doing this, she cuts
out a circle so true that it often looks as H

624

QUEENS

marked by a pair of compasses. The sub-
stance of which the cell is made is tough
and leathery, and, therefore, before she
gets clear around her circle, the piece
springs out in response to her pushing, and
opens just about as the lid of a coffeepot
would if a kitten should happen to be in-
side crowding against the lid. Queens may
often be seen pushing the door open and
looking out, with as much apparent curi-
osity as a child exhibits when it first creeps
to the door on a summer morning; often,
after taking this look, they will back down
into their cradles, . and stay some time.
This is especially the case when other
queens are hatching, and there is a strife
as to who shall be sovereign.

It will now be in order to consider the
strange substance, royal jelly, on which
the baby queens are fed while in the cell.

The milky food before described, which
is given to the young larvae, and which is
supposed to be a mixture of pollen and
honey partially digested, is very similar, if
not identical, in composition with the royal
jelly. Bees are not the only examples in
the animal kingdom where the food is
taken into the stomach by the parent, and,
after partial digestion, regurgitated for the
use of the offspring. Pigeons feed their
young precisely in this way until they are
able to digest their food for themselves.
It has been stated that bees use a coarser
food for the worker larvae, after they are a
few days old, and also for the drone larvae
during the whole of their larval state. By
" coarser food " is meant a food not so
perfectly digested ; in fact, drones are said
to be fed on a mixture of pollen and honey,
in a state nearly natural. It has also been
said, that queens receive the very finest,
most perfectly digested, and concentrated
food that they can prepare. This we can
readily believe, for the royal jelly has a
very rich taste — something between cream,
quince jelly, and honey — with a slightly
tart and a rank, strong, milky flavor that is
quite sickening if much be taken.

WHAT DOES THE QUEEN DO WHILE SEALED
UP?

The author has opened cells at every
stage after they were sealed until they
were ready to hatch. One day after being
sealed they are simply ordinary larvae

altho rather larger than worker larvae of
the same age; after two or three days, a
head begins gradually to be "mapped out,"
and, later, some legs are seen folded up;
last of all, a pair of delicate wings come
from somewhere. (See Development of
Bees.) Two days before hatching we have
taken them out of the cell, and had them
mature into perfect queens, by keeping
them in a warm place. We have also taken
them out of the cell before they were ma-
ture, held the white, still, corpse-like form
in the hand while we admired it as long as
we chose, then put it back, waxed up the
cell by warming a bit of wax in the fingers,

Natural-built queen-cells, life size. — Photographed by
W. Z. Hutchinsov.

and had it hatch out three days after, as
nice a queen as any. Mr. Langstroth men-
tions having seen the whole operation by
placing a " thin glass tube, open at both
ends, into the cell, so as to have it inclose
the queen, the bees being allowed to cap it
as usual. This experiment was first made
by Huber. With several such glass queen-
cells the whole operation could be watched
from beginning to end. See Observatory

PIlVES.

WHAT BECOMES OP THE QUEEN AFTER SFTFl
LEAVES THE CELL?

After she pushes open that liiiiged door,
illustrated at C, on previous page, slio
generally begins by poking her head into

QUEENS

625

the cells until she finds one containing un-
sealed honey, from which she takes a sup
that, at least, indicates she likes that kind
of provision.

After she has had her supper she begins
to crawl about, partly to enjoy using the
long strong legs God has given her, and
partly because she knows that it is her
allotted task to tear down the remaining
queen-cells, if such there are. If other
queens have hatched before her, it is one of
her first and foremost duties to look them
up, and either reign supreme or die in the
attempt. When all other cells have been
removed, as they usually are where queens
are wanted for other purposes, she has
nothing to do but to promenade over the
premises, monarch of all she surveys. If
she ever sits down to take a rest, or takes a
rest in any other position, during the first
week of her life, we have never been able
to discover it.

But suppose she does find another cell —
what then? She sometimes runs around
awhile; sometimes the bees tear it down,
and sometimes she tears it down herself,
with the same strong mandibles that she
used to cut her way out of the cell at first.
She usually makes the opening in the side
of the cell, as shown at E in the woodcut
on page 623.

It is said that the queen immediately
stings her helpless immature sister to make
a sure thing of her destruction, but of this
we are not certain, for we never have
caught her in the act. We have seen spots
in the side of the queen that looked as if
she had been stung; we have also rescued
cells and put them into a wire-cage nursery
after they had been torn open, and had
them mature into nice queens. As these
immature queens are very soft, the workers
will soon pick them out of the cell, piece by
piece, and wt have sometimes placed them
in the nursery and had them mature, minus
a wing, or leg, or whatever portion the
mischievous worker had pulled away. From
many observations the queen generally tears
a hole in the cell, or bites into it in such a
way that the workers tear it all down,
much in the way they do any mutilated or
broken piece of comb. See page 618.

When queen-cells have been cut out, all the
larvae that are in any way injured are at
once thrown out, and none but the perfect
cells preserved. Bees never fuss with crip-

ples, nor try to nurse up a bee that is
wounded or maimed. They have just the
same feeling for their fellows that a loco-
motive might be expected to have for a
man whom it had run over. They battle
against anything that threatens the extinc-
tion of the colony, it is true. There are no
signs of their caring for one of their num-
ber, or even having compassion on their
helpless brood when it is wounded and suf-
fering.

When a queen hatches, the remaining cells
are very soon torn down, as a general thing,
but there are many exceptions. Where two
queens hatch out at about the same time
they also generally attempt to kill each
other; but both are not killed. This prob-
ably results from the fact that they can
sting their rivals only in one certain way;
and the one that, by strength or accident,
gets the lucky position in the combat is
sure to come off victorious. This explains
how a very inferior virgin queen, that has
entered the hive by accident, may some-
times supplant an old laying queen. Two
queens, when thus thrown together, gener-
ally fight very soon, but this does not al-
w^ays happen. Several eases are on record
where they have lived in peace and har-
mony for months, even when hatched at
about the same time, and it is quite com-
mon to find a young queen helping her
mother in the egg-laying duties of the hive,
especially when the mother is two or three
years old. If the season is good, and the
hive populous, they may divide up their
forces, and we have after-swarming. See

AfTER-SV^ ARMING.

Sometimes the queen will pay no atten-
tion to the remaining cells, but will let
them hatch out, and then their " little dif-
ferences" are adjusted afterward, either by
swarming or by the usual "hand-to-hand"
conflict "until death." We once looked for
a queen, and, not finding her, concluded
she was lost. Another cell was inserted,
and in due time hatched out. We were
much surprised to find this new queen lay-
ing when only one day old; but a little
further looking revealed two, both on the
same comb. Many losses in introducing
queens have resulted from two queens be-
ing in the bive, the owner being sure his
hive was queenless — because he had re-
moved one. See Introducing,

626

QUEENS

queens' voices.

Queens have two kinds of voices, or calls,
either one of which they may emit on cer-
tain occasions. It is almost impossible, on
the printed page, to describe these sounds.
One of them is a sort of z-e-e-p, z-e-e-p,
zeep, zeep. Some call it piping, others
teeting. Whatever it is, it consists of a
prolonged tone, or a long zeep followed by
several much shorter, each tone shorter
than the preceding one. This piping is
made when the queen is out of the cell,
either virgin or laying, but usually by a
young one. The older ones are generally
too dignified, or too something, to give
forth any such loud squealing; but they
will squeal, and lustily, too, sometimes,

Natural queen-cells at different stages. — The capped cell on
the left has been detached from the comb, and is ready to give
to a colony ; cell in the center, five or six days old, has been
shaved down to show the queen larva just before it is ready to
stretch out lengthwise of the cell ; cell on the right shows the
mouth of a cell just before capping.

when the bees ball them and grab them by
the legs and wings.

The other note that queen bees are known
to give forth is what is called quahlzing,
for that more nearly describes the actual
sound than any other combination of let-
ters that can be put together. It is emitted
only by a young queen in the cell, before
she is hatched, and is made in answer to
the piping or zeep, zeep, of one of the vir-
gins that has already hatched, and is try-
ing perhaps to proclaim aloud her sover-
eignty. The quahk will be heard, then, only
when there are queen- cells in the hive.

While a young queen is being intro-
duced she frequently utters a note of

alarm, a zeep, zeep, etc. The bees are
almost always stirred by these notes, and
they will often run after her and cling
around her like a baU, when they would
have paid no attention to her had she not
uttered this well-known note.

Queens, when placed near together in
cages, will often call and answer each other,
in tones that we have supposed might be
challenges to mortal combat.

Some queens received one summer from
the South called so loudly when placed on
the table that they could be heard the entire
length of a long room. One voice would be
on a high, shrill key and another a deep
bass, while others were intermediate. On
watching closely a tremulous movement of
the wings was noticed while the queen was
uttering the note, and one might
infer from this that the sound is
produced by the wings, but this
is probably not the case. Some
one reported having heard a
queen squeal, both of whose
wings had been entirely clipped
off.

VIRGIN QUEENS.

The newly hatched queen is
tenned a virgin because she -has
not met a drone and to distin-
guish her from queens that have
been fertilized and are laying.
Virgin queens, when first hatch-
ed, are sometimes nearly as large
as a fertile queen, but they grad-
ually decrease in size, until when
three or four days old they often
look so small and insignificant
that a novice is disgusted with
appearance, and, if hasty, pro-
For the first week

their

nounces them useless
of their lives they crawl about much as an
ordinary young worker does, and it is often
very difficult, if not almost impossible, to
find them, unless an amount of time is
taken that is more than a busy apiarist can
well afford to spare. It is a waste of time
to look for them. It is better to insert a
frame having some unsealed larvae just
hatched from the egg; then if no cells are
started, one can decide the queen is there
without looking further. This plan answers
a threefold purpose : It enables one to tell
at a glance whether the queen is in the hive
all right or not; for as soon as she is lost

QUEENS

627

they will start more queen-cells on it; it
also enables the bees to raise another queen
in case the former queen is lost by any
accident on her wedding-flight, which is
frequently the case; and, lastly, it serves

; as a sort of nucleus to hold the bees to-
gether and to keep them from going out

I with the queen on her wedding-trip, which
they are much disposed to do, if in a small
nucleus containing no brood. (See Baby
Nuclei under Queen-reaeing.) Unsealed
brood in a hive is a great safeguard against
accidents of all sorts, and some say a young
queen has been started to laying by simply
giving the bees some eggs and unsealed
brood. Whether it caused her to rouse up
and take her wedding-flight, or whether
she had taken it, but was for some reason
idle, can not be determined.

AGE AT TVHICH VIRGIN QUEENS TAKE THEIR
WEDDING-FLIGHT.

Some fix the wedding-flight from two to
ten days after birth. It is probably sel-
dom before the fifth day. Some difference,
doubtless, arises from the fact that queens
often stay in the cell a day or two after
they are strong enough to leave it. Some-
times a queen will be found walking about
the combs when she is so young as to be
I almost white. Beginners will sometimes
I rejoice at their beautiful 3'ellow queens,
! saying that they are yellow all over, with-
out a bit of black on them; but when
looked at again, they will be found to be
I as dark as the generality of queens. At
j other times when they come out of the cell
] they will look, both in color and size, as if
! they might be three or four days old. The
' queens generally begin to crawl about the
entrance of the hive, possibly looking out
now and then, when 5 or 6 days old. The
next day, supposing, of course, it is fine
1 weather, they will generally go out and try
' their wings a little. These flights are usu-
ally taken in the warmest part of the after-
noon. There is no prettier or more inter-
j esting sight to the apiarist than the flrst
flight of a queen. She runs this way and
that, somewhat as does a young bee, only
apparently much more excited at the pros-
pect of soaring aloft in the soft summer
air. Finally she tremblingly spreads those
silky wings, and with a graceful movement
that we can not remember to have seen

equaled anywhere in the whole scope of
animated nature, she swings from her feet,
while her long body sways pendulously as
she hovers about the entrance of the hive.
A worker-bee hovers also about the en-
trance and carefully observes its location
when trying its wings for the first time;
but she, seeming to feel instinctively that
she is of more value to the colony than
many, many workers, with the most scru-
pulous exactness notes every minute point
and feature of the exterior of her abode,
often alighting and taking wing again and
again, to make sure she knows all about it.

Soon she ventures to circle a little way
from home, always verging back soon, but
being gone longer and longer each time.
She sometimes goes back into the hive sat-
isfied, ^without going out of sight at all ;
but in this case she will be sure to take a
longer flight next day or a half -hour later
in the same day. During these seasons she
seems to be so intent on the idea she has in
her head that she forgets all about sur-
rounding things, and, instead of being
frightened as usual at opening the hive, she
will pay no attention; but if the comb she
is on is lifted up she will take her flight
from that as well as from anywhere else.
We have caught them in the hand at such
times, without their being frightened; and
as soon as they were allowed to go, they
were off as if nothing had happened.

After the queen is satisfled that she will
know the place, she ventures out boldly:
and from the fact of her circling right up
in the air, it was once supposed that ferti-
lization took place above the ken of human
eyesight. This has been shown to be a mis-
take. See Drones.

After a successful flight she returns with
the organs of the drone remaining attached
to her body. (See Drones.) This is a
white substance, and is frequently so large
as to be plainly seen while she is on the
wing. A queen is usually gone half an
hour, but we have seen them return ferti-
lized after an absence of not more than 10
or 15 minutes, and there have been reported
instances where she has been gone not more
than three minutes. This accomplished, she
goes quietly into the hive. The bees are
much inclined to chase after her, and they
sometimes pull at the protruding substance
as if they would drag it away. That they
do so, is pretty well proven.

628

QUEENS

Until recently it was generally believed
that the queen met the drone only once,
notwithstanding- the fact that Francis Ru-
ber, in his book, "New Observations," pub-
lished in 1814, made the statement that
queens might or might not take more than
one wedding-flight before beginning to lay.
But this seems to have been overlooked un-
til 1904, when considerable proof was ad-
duced to show that the same queen before
laying (not after) may not only take sev-
eral wedding-flights, but come back on dif-
ferent occasions with sure evidence of hav-
ing met a drone.

While it seems to be pretty well proved
that the queen may take more than one
marriage-flight prior to her laying, it is
very much doubted whether she ever takes
a second flight to meet the drone af4er lay-
ing. It is true that some facts seem to
point that way; but when we consider the
great number of spermatozoa that she re-
ceives on her wedding-flight it hardly seems
likely that a flight is taken later. Accord-
ing to Cheshire, the spermatozoa are ex-
truded from the spermatheca in detach-
ments, only a part of them being effective
in the fertilization of eggs. He estimates
that about 4,000,000 spennatozoa are re-
ceived at the fertilization of the queen. A
good queen might, perhaps, lay two hun-
dred thousand eggs in a season. If only
one-fourth (or 1,000,000), of the spermato-
zoa were effective, the queen could still re-
main fertile for five years if she laid an
average of 200,000 eggs per year. There-
fore, unless a much greater number of
spermatozoa are lost, there could be no
necessity for a later fertilization.

For further particulars on this subject
of mating, see Drones.

The 3d or the 4th day after a successful
mating one will, as a general rule, find the
queen depositing eggs. The average age at
which queens begin laying is about nine
days ; we generally wait ten days from the
date of hatching, and are then pretty sure
of finding them ready to send off. Between
impregnation and the time the first egg is
laid a remarkable change takes place.

After the queen has been out and ferti-
lized, her appearance is much the same as
before. She runs and hides when the hive
is opened, and looks so small and insignifi-
cant that one would not think of calling
her a fertile queen. A few hours before

the first egg is laid, however, her body in-
creases remarkably in size, and, if an Ital-
ian, becomes lighter in color, and, instead
of running about as before, she walks slow-
ly and sedately. She seems to have given
up all her youthful freaks, and comes
down to the sober business of life in sup-
plying the cells with eggs.

HOW OLD A QUEEN MAY BE AND STILL
BECOME FERTILIZED.

As before stated, queens usually begin
to lay when 8 or 10 days old, on the
average ; but during a spell of bad weather,
or when drones are scarce, they may fail to
lay until three weeks old. The longest period
we have ever known to elapse between the
birth of a queen and her laying worker-
eggs was 25 days. All queens that do not
lay at the age of 20 days should be de-
stroyed, when the season, flow of honey,
and flight of drones, are right. There is one
important exception to this. Many times
queens will not lay in the fall at all, unless
a flow of honey is produced either by nat-
ural or artificial means. Queens introduced
in the fall often ^vill not lay until the ensu-
ing spring, unless the colony is fed regu-
larly every day for a week or ten days.
Likewise young queens that are fertilized
late in the season will often show no indi-
cations of being fertilized until the colony
is fed, A lot of young queens that we
thought were fertilized but that did not lay
were once wintered over, just to try the
experiment ; and altho they went into win-
ter quarters looking very small, like virgin
queens, nearly all proved fine layers in the
spring.

DRONE-LAYING QUEENS.

If a queen is not fertilized in two weeks
from the time she hatches, she will some-
times commence laying without being ferti-
lized at all. She is then what is called a
drone-laying queen. Usually her eggs are
not depositerl in the regular order of a fer-
tile queen, neither are there as many of
them; by these marks one is able to guess
that she may not be all right, and so keep
her until some of the brood is capped,
when the extra height of the cappings, as
is explained under Drones and Brood^
shows. At times, however, the eggs are

QUEENS

629

deposited so regularly that one is deceived,
and the queen may be sold for a fertile
queen, when she is only a worthless drone-
layer; but this can be determined after the

Queen laj'ing, surrounding bees turned toward her.

brood is capped. Such a case occurs, per-
haps, once in a thousand. Whether these
drones reared from drone-layers are just

Willis queen-clipping device, and how used.

as good to furnish drones as those reared
from a fertile queen, is a point not fully

decided; but if the queen lays the eggs in
drone comb, and the drones are large, fine,
and healthy, they are probably all right.
Drones reared from fertile workers, and
drones reared in worker-cells, as those from
drone-laying queens sometimes are, should
not be used.

How to find queens, see Manipttlation
OF CoLOXiES;, subhead "How to Manipulate
Hoffman Frames," also "How to Handle
Unspaced Frames."

SHALL QUEEKS^ WINGS BE CLIPPED"?

The majority of honey-producers prac-
tice what is known as clipping; that is,
two wings on one side are cropped off,
leaving merely the stumps of what were
once wings. The object, of course, is to
prevent swarms from going off by making
it impossible for the queen to follow. See
Bee Behavior^ also Sw.ipmi^n^g.

There are very few who believe or pro-
fess to believe that clipping is injurious to
the queen. The fact that queens after be-
ing clipped seem to do good service for two
or three years, and sometimes four, and the
further fact that such queens do as well as
those not clipped, would seem to show that
no detrimental results follow.

The easiest way to clip a queen.
HOW TO CLIP A QUEEX^S WINGS.

There are several ways of accomplishing
this. One plan is to grasp the queen by
the wings with the right hand, in the usual
manner. With the thumb and forefinger

630

QUEENS

of left hand, take hold of her waist, or
thorax, as shown at the bottom of the
previous page. In this way she can be held
very securely and safely, leaving her legs
as well as her wings entirely free. With a
pair of slender-pointed embroidery scissors
(or any kind of scissors if these are not

be injured if handled roughly. Some pre-
fer, after picking up the queens, to grasp
her by the legs; but this is liable to pull
one or more legs off unless done just right,
and therefore the first-mentioned plan is
recommended.

Before any one of these plans is at-

Greiner's method of clipping without handling the queen.

obtainable) clip off the thin part of one
wing, as shown in the cut, being careful
not to cut too close. This accomplished,
drop her gently between two frames of
brood ; but in no case let her fall more
than an inch; for a queen during the
height of the egg-laying season is liable to

tempted, if one has had no experience he
should first practice on drones. If these
are not to be fomid, worker bees should be
picked up by the wings until one becomes
reasonably expert; but a worker should
not be put between the thumb and finger
of the other hand, as one will run a good

i

QUEENS

631

Close view of eggs. Notice the cell in the lower left-hand corner contains two eggs, while that at the right-hand

corner has a larva.

chance of being stung. For this part of
the work drones should be procured. Then,
when one can do both operations well, he
can try a queen. Even then we advise the
attempt on one of not much value, as it is
a nice piece of work to do it well.

Sometimes in an outyard, when a pair of
scissors is not to be had, a sharp blade of a
pocketknife can be used. This is passed
under the wing in such a way as to cause
it to bear directly upon the edge of the
blade. The thumb is now pressed down
upon the wing over the blade, and then
drawn back and forth seesaw fashion, per-
haps two or three times. If the knife is
sharp, the wing will be severed with two or
three strokes. If it is dull, the queen
should be laid on her back, still holding her
between the thumb and finger of the left
hand so that her wing will bear directly
upon a hive-cover or any other piece of
board or wood. The edge of the knife
should be brought to bear upon the wing,
when a slight pressure will cause the blade
to pass thru it.

During these operations care should be
taken to handle a queen only by the wings
or the thorax. This way avoids all danger
of hurting her. One should be careful not
to press the abdomen of any queen.

HOW QUEENS LAY TWO KINDS OF EGGS.

That queens lay two kinds of eggs no
one now is inclined to dispute, since the
experiments with the microscope have de-
cided the matter so clearly, as given under
Drones. Suppose a young queen goes out
to meet the drones so late in the fall or so
early in the spring that there are none;
what is the consequence? Sometimes she
will never lay at all; but frequently she
commences to lay when three or four weeks
old, and her eggs produce only drones. In
fact, she can produce no other eggs, having
never been fertilized. How shall such queens
be distinguished from fertile ones 1

No one can decide positively concerning
them, until their brood is ready to seal up ;
then one can know by the round, raised
cappings of the brood, like bullets laid on
a board, as explained under Drones. (See
Brood^ particularly large illustration of
worker and drone brood.) One can give a
pretty good guess by noticing the way in
which the queen lays the eggs ; if they are
few and scattering, and sometimes, or of-
ten, in drone-cells, coupled with the fact
that she did not commence laying until two
weeks or more old, she should be replaced.
A young queen, if properly fertilized,
never, or very rarely, lays an egg in a

632

QUEENS

drone-cell; and when she commences to
lay, she fills cell after cell in regular order,
as men plant hills of corn; her work also
has a neat and finished appearance that
says at once to the expert, " She is all
right."

In rare cases a young queen begins with
all, or nearly all, drone eggs, but, after a
while, lays entirely worker eggs as. regu-
larly as one could wish.* It is not known
why this is; perhaps she has not yet got
used to the "machinery." Again, any queen
is liable any day of her life to begin laying
drone eggs altogether, or in part. A nice
young laying queen, taken from a hive, and
shipped to a distance, may prove to be a
drone-layer shortly after or immediately
after she is received. Such things are not
very common, but they do occur. Out of
three or four hundred colonies one may
find one drone-laj^er, on an average, each
spring. During the summer, perhaps one
more will be found. It may be that the
queen was not fertilized sufficiently, and
that the supply of spermatozoa gave out
while she was in full vigor, thus reducing
her to the condition of a virgin queen.
Microscopic examination has shown an en-
tire absence of spermatozoa in at least one
or two instances where queens of this kind
were killed and dissected. Similar experi-
ments given by Dzierzon show that the
spermatozoa may be injured beyond recov-
ery by chilling the queen, and yet the queen
herself be resuscitated. Hardship and be-
ing shipped long distances may produce
the same result.

Queens not only turn suddenly to drone-
layers, but they sometimes produce about
an equal number of each kind of eggs. In
all these cases, where the queen lays drone
eggs when she evidently intended to lay
worker eggs, they are in worker-cells; at
the same time the number of eggs laid
usually rapidly decreases. The bees, as
well as queen, evidently begin to think that
something is wrong; queen-cells are soon
started, and after the young queen is hatched
she becomes fertile, and begins to help her
mother.

* It has been suggested that this phenomenon may
be accounted for by the fact that fertile workers were
in the hive before the young queen began to lay ; and
the drone eggs are not from the queen but the fertile
workers, and that, when the queen begins, she lays
worker eggs at the very start, while the fertile workers'
are destroyed, and hence the drone eggs disappear.
This is possible.

Very early in the spring, late in the fall,
or at any time when forage is not abun-
dant, a queen will pass right by drone-cells,
taking no notice of them. We have often
tried to get eggs in drone-ceUs by feeding,
but conclude that the queen knows what an
egg will produce, and just how to have
every egg laid in a drone-cell produce a
drone. Possibly the workers have some-
thing to do with this matter, but no one
knows by what means they signify to the
queen that some eggs in drone-cells, or even
queen-cells, would be desirable. There seems
to be a constant understanding in the hive
as to what is going to be done next, and
consequently there is no clashing. In our
apiary there seems to be, in strong stocks,
a kind of understanding that eggs shall be
laid in drone-ceUs about the last of March,
and we have drones, therefore, some time
in April, ready for the first queens that
may, by any accident, make their appear-
ance. Those who insist that there is only
one kind of eggs can satisfy themselves
very easily by taking a larva hatched from a
worker-egg and placing it in the bottom
of a queen-cell. In due time this will de-
velop into a queen. On the other hand, if
a larva from a drone-egg in placed in a
queen-cell no queen results.

When bees get ready to swarm they
build shallow queen-cells, in which the queen
then lays a worker-egg. Altho we know
that bees have skill to remove both eggs
and larvae, having several times known
them to take eggs and brood to an old dry
comb when no queen was present in the
hive, still we believe that the queen, and
not the workers, places the eggs in the
queen-cells. To be sure we never saw a
queen lay an egg in a queen-cell, still we
are satisfied that she does it, from the way
it is put in. Like the rest of the eggs, it is
fastened to the center of the bottom of the
cell by one of its ends, and, when first de-
posited, it is covered with a sort of gluti-
nous substance that makes it stick firmly
where it first touches.

Occasionally a queen is found that will
never lay at all; again, queens that laid
eggs which never hatched into larvae have
been several times reported.

After having related some of the faults
and imperfections of queens, it should be
stated for their credit that, when once

QUEENS

633

properly installed in a good strong colony,
they are about as safe property as any-
thing, because, in the great majority of
cases, they live and thrive for years. While
a worker lives only a few months, queens
often live three or four years. One that
was imported from Italy furnished us brood
and eggs for queen-rearing for four sum-
mers. We then sold her for $2.00, and she
died in being sent less than 50 miles. She
was very large and heavy, and, probably,
being so old could not cling to the sides of
the cage like a younger one.

LOSS OF QUEEN.

It is a very important matter to be able
to know at once when a queen is lost. Dur-
ing the months of May and June in the
States east of the Mississippi and north of
the Ohio the loss of a queen from the hive
a single day will make quite a marked dif-
ference in the honey crop. If it be as-
sumed that the number of eggs a queen can
lay in a day is 3,000, by taking her away a
single day there might be just that number
of bees short during a yield of honey. To
put it very moderately, a quart of bees
might be taken out of the hive by simply
caging the queen for a single day. Begin-
ners should remember this, for their un-
timely, or, rather, inconsiderate tinkering,
just before the flow of honey comes, often
cuts short their income to a very consider-
able degree. Whatever is done, it is very
important not to drop the queens off the
combs when they are handled at this time
of the year, nor should we needlessly inter-
rupt the queen in her work by changing
the combs about so as to expose the brood
or upset the little household matters of the
bees.

With a little practice one will be able to
detect a queenless hive simply by the way
the bees behave themselves in the hive and
on the outside. When they stand around
on the alighting-board in a listless sort of
wa3^, with no bees going in with pollen,
when other colonies are thus engaged, it is
well to open the hive and take a look at
them. If eggs and worker-brood are found
one may be sure a queen is there; but if
not, proceed at once to see if there is not a
queen of some kind in the hive, that does
not lay. If one is not found they should
be given a frame of eggs to see if they

build queen-cells. Incipient ones should
be found in about twelve hours if the bees
have been some little time queenless. If
these are found a queen should be given.
If no queen is to be had, they may be
allowed to raise one, if the colony has bees
enough. If it has not, they should be
united with some other stock.

THE CRY OF DISTRESS FROM A QUEENLESS
COLONY.

Mention has been made that a queenless
colony will reveal its condition by the be-
havior of the bees in the hive. They will
set up a peculiar cry — that is to say, all
thru the hive they will be buzzing as if in
distress, and they surely are, because they
have no queen. As soon as a hive of this
kind is opened they will begin this cry of
distress. Sometimes only a part of the
bees will be involved, and at other times
apparently every bee in the colony. This
buzzing of the wings is so marked that the
practiced beekeeper recognizes it as an in-
dication that a colony may be queenless;
and if he finds no eggs nor young brood at
a time of the year when both 'should be
present, he is quite sure that the hive has
no queen. If he finds queen-cells, all doubt
will be removed. Sometimes a colony that
is not queenless will set up a buzzing as if
they were without a mother. It is then
evident that the show of distress is not
because they have no queen but because of
the disturbance. Too much smoke, for ex-
ample, with most colonies and a little smoke
with some colonies will cause them to make
this sign of distress. It must, therefore, be
regarded as not an infallible sign of queen-
lessness.

ODOR OF A LAYING QUEEN.

After bees have been some time queen-
less they usually become, if no fertile or
laying workers make their appearance (see
Laying Workers), very eager for the
presence of a queen; and we can in no
way describe this eager behavior, if we may
so term it, so well as to describe another
way of testing a colony that is thought to
be queenless. Take a cage or box contain-
ing a laying queen and hold either the cage
or simply the cover of it over the bees, or
hold it in such a way as to let one comer

634

QUINBY

touch the frames. If queenless, the first
that catch the scent of the piece of wood on
which the queen has been, will begin to
move their wings in token of rejoicing, and
soon nearly the whole colony will be hang-
ing to the cage or cover. When they be^
have in this manner we have never had any
trouble in letting the queen right out at
once. Such cases are generally where a
colony is found without brood in the spring.

There is something very peculiar about
the scent of a laying queen. After having
had a queen on the fingers, bees will often
follow and gather about the hand. They
will often hover for hours about the spot
where the queen has alighted for even an
instant, and, sometimes, for a day or two
afterward. Where clipped queens get down
into the grass or weeds or crawl sometimes
a considerable distance from the hive, they
may often be found by watching the bees
that were crawling about along the path
she had taken. When cages containing
queens are being carried away bees will
often come and alight on the cage, making
that peculiar shaking of the wings which
indicates their joy on finding the queen.

QUEENS^ STINGS.

There is something rather strange in the
fact that a queen very rarely uses her sting,
even under the greatest provocation possi-
ble, unless it is toward a rival queen. In
fact, she may be pinched or pulled limb
from limb, without even showing any symp-
toms of protruding the sting at all; yet as
soon as she is put in a cage or under a
tumbler with another queen, the fatal sting
is almost sure to be used at once. There
seems to be a most wise provision in this;
for if the queen used her sting on every
provocation as does the worker, the pros-
perity of the colony would be almost con-
stantly endangered.

It was just stated that a queen very
rarely uses her sting; but it is the excep-
tion that proves the rule. The following
will explain :

One very young virgin queen that stung me
was well developed and later proved to be a
good queen for business. The other virgin,
also very young, that stung me was from a
good-looking cell, and I suppose was all right.
As it was so much easier to crush her than to
endure her continued stinging till I could get
her out of my clothing, she was killed without

knowing positively what kind of a queen she |f
would have proven herself to be.

Ceres, Calif. W. A. H. Gilstrap.

CAUTION IN REGARD TO DECIDrNG A STOCK
TO BE QUEENLESS.

As a rule it may be said that absence of
brood or eggs is a pretty sure indication of
queenlessness ; but it should be borne in
mind that all colonies, as a rule, in the
Eastern and Northern States, are without
eggs and brood in the fall and early winter
months, or, in fact, at any time when there
is a considerable dearth of pasturage. At
such seasons, beginners are more apt to
think their colonies are queenless, because
the queens are much smaller than when
they are laying profusely, and therefore
are not as easily found. In weak colonies
queens often cease laying during the whole
of the winter months. They will not lay
much when their colonies are in the cellar
except during the last month in the cellar.
In California and the semi-tropical States
of the South queens may lay every month
of the year.

For further particulars regarding queens,
see Drones^ Queen-rearing^ and Bee Be-
havior.

QUEENS, HOW TO FIND.— See Ma-
nipulation OP Colonies^ subhead, " How
to Manipulate Hoffman Frames ; " ; also
" How to Handle Unspaced Frames."

QUINBY.* — Moses Quinby was born on
April 16, 1810. During his boyhood his
family removed to Coxsackie, Greene Co.,
New York.

In 1828, at the age of 18, he earned his
first mone}^, working in a sawmill, and with
it purchased his first swarm of bees and
began the 25 years of study and experiment
which prepared him for the writing of his
book, published in 1853. In 1832 he mar-
ried Miss Martha Powell Norbury, also of
English extraction, and, like Mr. Quinby, a
Quaker. They were married at the Nor-
bury homestead. From this time till his
removal to the Mohawk Valley he lived at
the home. There was a mill on the place,
and he earned the support of his family in
these early years running the turning-lathe
and doing cabinet work, many specimens of

* Written by his son-in-law, L. C. Root.

QUINBY

635

household furniture made by him being
now the valued possessions of his grand-
daughters. Here also he made his hives
and the first honey-boxes.

I have reason to believe that at this
period there were more bees kept in this
section than in any other part of the
United States. For years after Mr. Quin-
hj's death I have been to this location to
buy bees to replenish my home apiaries.
On a recent visit I saw small apiaries,
many of them using the form of hive Mr.
Quinby had recommended.

He says he " commenced without any
knowledge of the business to assist him,
save a few dii-ections about hiving, smok-
ing them with sulphur, etc." Beekeeping
was considered a matter of luck. His
friends and neighbors on all sides discour-
aged him. One wise old man predicted
failure for him because he pottered with
them too much, boring holes in the top of
the hives and disturbing them. All of this
advice only stimulated him to greater ac-
tion. He prefixed to the word " luck " a
big and underlined it.

Here he spent 25 years experimenting
and wi'iting, with a deteiTnination to place
beekeeping on the same successful financial
basis with other branches of agriculture.
All his experiments during this period were
made with bees in box hives, there being no
better ones at that time.

His fii-st move to avoid destruction of
the bees in securing the honey was by bor-
ing holes in the top of the hives, for he
found that the bees would fill large boxes
put over the hive. These were the fore-
runner of the super and section.

Another menace to success in beekeeping
was foul brood. Rereading the chapter in
his first book, in the light of modern sci-
ence of contagious diseases and bacteriology^,
shows it to be a marvel of careful observa-
tion and accurate reasoning that would do
credit to the present day. The principles
of his treatment of the scourge can never
be changed. These and many other facts
Mr. Quinby found had never been pub-
lished; so, being by nature philanthropic,
and having an unselfish desire to help oth-
ers in a practical way by sharing his knowl-
edge, he wrote this accumulated experience
of 25 years into his " Mysteries of Bee-
keeping Explained, being a complete analy-
sis of the whole subject," as the title-page

quaintly states. As I rereaa the book I
realize how fully up to date it was for
1853, and how fundamentally correct were
his statements and deductions on many
points. It bears evidence of being entirely
the author's own work. He started with no
knowledge of the subject, but with an in-
quii'ing and open mind; had no help from
others, and only theoretical information
from the limited literature" on the subject
of bees.

The keynotes of its success appear to me
to be the scientific attitude of its author,
unusual at that period — the clearness and
plainness of its style, and the effort to help

Moses Quinby.

and instruct the reader rather than impress
him with the accomplishments of the wi^iter.

We do not know just when he was able
to make beekeeping his sole business and
the support of his family ; but he certainly
did so after his removal to St. Johnsville,
Montgomerj^ County, Xew York, in 1853,
the year his fii'st book was published. Dur-
ing the next ten years he owned the largest
number of colonies at any time during his
business career. He began to send large
amounts of honey to the New York market,
even while still using the box hive. There
being only a moderate demand at that time
he nearly glutted the market. This was.
indeed, the beginning of the reconstruction

636

QUINBY

period in beekeeping. In 1856 Mr. Quin-
by's attention was called to Mr. Langstroth's
invention of a movable-comb hive. He saw
its advantages, and at once adopted it in a
modified form. Then followed the introduc-
tion of Italian bees, honey-extractor, comb
foundation, single sections for comb honey,
and his own invention of the bee-smoker.
These were indeed gratifying days to Mr.
Quinby. Who was there in all of the bee-
keeping world so well prepared as he from
the standpoint of practical experience to
meet the needs of this wonderful forward
movement

Mr. Quinby's non-swarming standing-
frame hive enabled him to accomplish large

The room where Mr. Quinby wrote the 1853 edition of his book

frame was arranged to revolve, and with
the gearing of the fanning mill it was set
in motion. The gratification with which
Mr. Quinby saw the honey thrown from the
first combs cannot well be described. He
soon made an extractor in more workable
form, which was afterward perfected by
A. I. Root, and known as the Novice ex-
tractor.

Mr. Quinby realized that, tho fearless
himself, people were deterred from keeping
bees by fear of being stung. Smoke had
been used in various crude ways; but he
knew that, if it could be easily and con-
veniently adapted, it would be a great
boon, especially to the amateur. His in-
vention of the bee-
smoker did this, being
so arranged with up-
right bellows and fire-
tube as to burn stand-
ing upright, but to go f
out when placed on the
side, and to be easily
manipulated with one
hand. The principle
of it has never been im-
proved upon.

New York State, I
where Mr". Quinby's
influence was most in
evidence, became the
largest honey-produc-
ing center in the world.
One of the first articles
he ever wrote on bees

results under his management. Much might
be said in regard to Mr. Quinby's prefer-
ring the larger frame. Marked success can
be secured only by extremely populous
swarms. I have proved the larger frames
very advantageous to that end.*

I shall never forget the enthusiasm which
was caused at our home when the words
"centrifugal force for removing honey from
the combs" were received in the report of
the invention of Major de Hruschka of
Vienna. An old fanning mill, which had
been used for cleaning grain, was at once
taken apart, the fans removed, and wire
cloth stretched around its four sides. A
larger box was made, inside of which this

* See Frames, Self-spacing, for a description of his
self-spacing frame ; and Hives, subhead " The Da-
dant Hive," for a description of the merits of the
large hive and frame.

for publication was for a Philadelphia pa-
per, expressing doubts as to the possibility
of a writer having secured a gain of 20
pounds of honey from a swarm in two
weeks. In these later days he had seen
that amount gathered in two days, and 500
pounds of extracted honey taken from one
colony in a season. Mr. Quinby sent in
these days anywhere from 5,000 to 30,000
pounds of honey to the New York market
annually.

While essentially a scientist and teacher,
his first object was to enable others as well
as himself to make beekeeping a commer-
cial success by knowing how to gather in
quantity this useful, natural food-stuff and
delicacy. As Mr. Quinby became well known
from his books and articles in agricultural
papers, his home was quite a center for
those seeking the information he so gladly

638

QUINBY

imparted. Mr. Quinby was never so happy
as when passing on his knowledge and ex-
perience to others. Few people who were
not personally acquainted with him can
realize how devoted he was to his question-
ers, whether in person or by mail or thru
the press. From the start to the last even-
ing of his earth life he never proved a
principle in bee culture the benefit of
which he did not give to the public. Two
hours before he passed away he was at his
desk, where he left an unfinished article.

The late Captain J. E. Hetherington was
one of his most energetic pupils. It is still
a joy to me to recall his enthusiasm during
his frequent visits to Mr. Quinby's home,
and the eager way in which he asked ques-
tions and received answers. He soon be-
came one of the large bee-owners, first of
box hives, but, as improvements followed,
always up to date. Of these early visitors,
almost the only one living is P. H. Elwood,
of Starkville, New York, then as now the
intelligent, thoughtful worker and genial
friend.

In 1865 Mr. Quinby published a revised
edition of his book, and from the tone of
the preface it is gratifying to see his pleas-
ure in the success and popularity of this
first edition.

In March, 1870, the Northeastern Bee-
keepers' Association was organized at Al-
bany, with Mr. Quinby as its first presi-
dent, an office he held for five years, declin-

ing re-election at the meeting preceding his
death. He was elected, president of the
North American Beekeepers' Association, at
Cleveland, in 1871, and served one year.

Thus with modest honors and much sat-
isfaction in his work and in the fruit-
growing on his place, a happy home life
and wide outside interests in the anti-slavery
cause, temperance work, and all good and
progressive endeavors, the years went by.
Death came suddenly on the night of May
27, 1875, and a life of usefulness was over.

I am writing this article with the extreme
desire to show Mr. Quinby's devotion to his
chosen calling. It would be impossible for
any one who did not come in daily contact
with him in his manipulation of bees, in
the beekeepers' conventions, and, most of
all, in his home, to have a full appreciation
of how completely his work filled his
thoughts. How well I remember the em-
phasis he gave the words when he once said
to me, "I want it distinctly understood that
I cannot afford to spend my time making
money ! "

He gave forty-seven years of constant
application in honest effort to place bee-
keeping on a firm business basis. I am
somewhat acquainted with the history of
the beekeeping of the past, and I feel jus-
tified in pointing with pride to these 47
years of devotion which should warrant
the name of " Father of practical commer-
cial beekeeping in America."

R

RACES OF BEES. — This book deals
particularly with Italians, the common
black bees of this country, and the crosses
between the two, because they are used
almost exclusively. The crosses are often
given the name " hybrids ; " and as the
name has been generally adopted, it is re-
tained. For particulars regarding* these
bees the reader is referred to Hybrids.
The Italians are spoken of specifically,
also, under the heading of Italiaxs^, else-
where in this work.

BLACK OR GERMAN BEES.

Black bees are so common in nearly every
vicinity that very little description is neces-
sary. As the name indicates, they are black.
One variety in the South is of a brownish
black; another distinctly black, and, if
an\i;hing, a trifle smaller.-

The black bees are more inclined to rob
than the pure Italians, are not as good
workers, but are equal when nectar is
abundant, or when there is dark honey like
that from buckwheat to be gathered. They
are much more nervous; and when a hive
of them is opened they run like a flock of
sheep from one corner of the hive to an-
other, boiling over in confusion, hanging
in clusters from one corner of the frame as
it is held up, and finally faUing off in
bunches to the ground, where they continue
a wUd scramble in every direction, proba-
bly crawling up one's trousers-leg, if the
opportunity offers. Black queens are much
harder to find, their bees are not so gentle,
and, worse than all, they have a disagree-
able fashion during robbing time of fol-
lowing the apiarist about from hive to hive
in a most tantalizing manner. This habit
of poising on the wing in a threatening
manner before one's eye is extremely an-
noying, and some bees will keep it up for a
day at a time. When angry bees trouble in
this way, one should work in another part of
the apiary or stop work entirely for a time.
If the trouble continues, he should requeen
vdth queens of a more gentle strain.

Comb honey from .the blacks is a little
whiter, if anj-thing, than that made by
pure Italians, because the capping is raised
up, leaving a slight air-gap between it and
the surface of the honey in the cell. But
this difference in the whiteness of capping
is so vevj slight as compared with that on
comb honey made by the Italians that it
really cuts no figure in the market. The
blacks are also much easier to shake off the
combs than pure Italians, which can hardly
be shaken off, and some prefer blacks or
hybrids, when extracting, for that reason
alone.

Blacks, when their hives are moved a
short distance, will find their entrances
much more readily than Italians. In fact,
we have been enabled to move our black
colonies all over the apiary, and yet we
have discovered time and time again that
the returning bees will nose around every
hive until they find their own, when they
wiU enter as tho they had always lived
there. On the other hand, Italians cannot
be moved in this way. Many of them will
be found on the ground on the old loca-
tion, and die, only a few of them, com-
paratively, finding homes in other nearby
hives. See Movi]S"G Bees.

]\Iany believe that blacks are more per-
sistent than the Italians in that they wlQ
stand unfavorable weather conditions bet-
ter than Italians; but it has been proven
over and over again that they will not re-
sist brood diseases as do the yellow bees.
Indeed, they rapidly succumb under the
ravages of European foul brood where
some strains of Italians will seem to be
almost immune to it. Practically all Ital-
ians wiQ resist brood disease of both Euro-
pean and American foul brood better than
the average strain of black or hybrid bees.
See Foul Brood.

CARNIOLANS.

The Carniolans, evidently a variety of
black bees, which they very much resemble,
were introduced into this country in 1884.

640

RACES OF BEES

They are very gentle, but we have found
them no more so than Italians. As stated,
they resemble blacks, and might easily be
mistaken for them; but there is a differ-
ence. They are larger, and their abdomens
are of a more bluish cast, the fuzzy rings
being very distinct. They are gentler, and
do not, like the blacks, boil over in confu-
sion when the hive is- opened. They have
not the fixity of character of the Italians
— colonies of the same race differing quite
widely. The general verdict is, that they
are excessive swarmers, and this trait alone
makes them very undesirable for comb-
honey production, altho some like them for
the production of extracted honey. Their
close resemblance to black bees makes it
difficult to detect the crosses of the two
races. This fact, coupled with their great

Worker.

swarming propensity, will largely prevent
their meeting with general favor.

But the Carniolans have one good trait
in their favor, and that is, they deposit as
little propolis as any bees ever known.
Some colonies that we had, actually depos-
ited almost none. In the production of
comb honey this is quite an important
item. See Hybeids of Carniolans and
Cyprians.

caucasians.

This is a race that looks very much like
Carniolans and the common black bee of
this country, but it resembles the latter
more than the former. So close is the gen-
eral resemblance that even experts in some
cases have been unable to distinguish them.
But there is a vast difference in their gen-
eral habits and temperament.

The claim has been made that Caucasians
are the gentlest bees known ; and this claim,
in part, at least, has been established, altho
they are no more so than some good strains
of pure Italians. Beemen are not agreed,
however, as to their honey-gathering quali-
ties. Some consider them very inferior
whil& others believe they are equal to any
race in this respect. All admit that they
are bad propolizers, sticking large chunks
of gum in all parts of the hive — a trait
that becomes more manifest as cold weather
comes on. In this one respect they differ
radically from Carniolans.

The most serious objection to them is
their propensity to swarm. It is even more
pronounced than with the Carniolans. In
our apiaries we have been unable to con-
trol them by the ordinary methods that

Drone.

have worked successfully with Italian bees.
We had so much trouble with their swarm-
ing that we finally abandoned them alto-
gether. Some others, however, and among
them J. J. Wilder of Cordele, Ga., say they
have had no trouble from them in this re-
spect, any more than from ordinary Ital-
ians. Whether Mr. Wilder's experience is
due to the fact that he has a different
strain of Caucasians, or whether it is due
to environment, we are unable to say.

BANAT BEES.

%

These are named from a district of Hun-
gary from which they were imported. They
much resemble the Carniolans in appear-
ance and habit but with less inclination to
swarm. They are gentle, and impart this
trait to their offspring when crossed with
Italians. Even after several generations this

Queen.

RACES OF BEES

641

character is iu evidence. The queens are
dark tan color, are no more prolific than
good Italians, but they build up the colo-
nies more rapidh- in the spring. They are
worthy a more extended trial both in their
purity and in their crosses.

TUNISIANS.

This black race, natives of ISTorth Africa,
are sometimes called "Funics." They have
been tested to some extent in this country,
but so far have not been able to establish
anj' claim in their favor that would entitle
them to consideration on the part of Amer-
ican beekeepers. They are cross, and so
inclined to smear everything with a red
bee glue that they are entirely unsuited for
the production of comb honey. They are
no better honey-gatherers than gentler
races.

ECtYPTIAXS.

The Egyptian bee is reputed the most
beautiful species of Apis. It has been
named Apis fasiata by entomologists; has
been cultivated for thousands of years by
the Egyptians, and was probably the first
species used by mankind for domestic pur-
poses.

In the time of the ancient historian
Herodotus, apiaries were transported up
and down the Nile so as to keep pace with
the seasons in Upper and Lower Egypt.
This practice is continued at the present
day to a limited extent. Inscriptions on
tombs show the practice in use 4,000 years
ago, at least, and that the honeybee was
highly reverenced by the people of that
age.

The Egyptian bee is so much smaller
than the Italian that the two do not
hybridize very weU; on the contrary, the
queen, if compelled to mate with a Euro-
pean drone, frequently dies soon after fer-
tilization. It is probably, however, the
mother-species of the Cyprian, Holy-Land,
and Grecian bees. It is a fast, excellent
^vorker, but reputed to possess an irritable
temper tho kept domesticated for thou-
sands of years. Possibly in a climate sim-
ilar to that of Egypt it would exhibit a
better temper than in Northern Europe. It
could hardly be otherwise.

In color Egyptians are almost identical
Avith Italians, but in addition have a coat
21

of white hairs, which adds to their appear-
ance. There are varieties, or races, of the
same species in countries next to Lower
Egypt. One feature of these bees would
please Americans, namely, their ability to
keep themselves pure and uncontaminated
with other races. There is a similar species
in Senegal known as Apis Adansonii, of
which we know but little.

ALBINOS.

Albinos are either "sports" from Ital-
ians, or, what is more generally the case, a
cross between Holy-Lands and Italians.
After testing them in oui^ own apiary we
find them little different from common
Italians. The fringe, or down, that ap-
pears on the rings of the abdomen of
young bees is a trifle whiter than usual,
yet no one would observe it unless atten-
tion is called to it. The queens are vei-y
yeUow, while the workers, as honey-gath-
erers, are decidedly inferior, even in the
second generation; and when light-colored
bees or queens are selected for several
successive generations, unless care is used,
a weaker progeny lacking ability as honej'-
gatherers and endurance will be developed.

EASTERN RACES OF BEES.

Cyprians, Holy-Lands, or Syrians, are
mentioned elsewhere under head of Ital-
ians. Of other Eastern races Frank Ben-
ton, formerly Apicultural Expert of the
United States Department of Agriculture,
A\TL'ote a special bulletin, from which the
following extracts are made :

THE COAtilON EAST-INDIAN HOXEYBEE.

{Apis indica, Fab.)

The common bee of Southern Asia is kept
in very limited numbers and with a small
degree of profit in earthen jars and sections
of hollow trees in portions of the British and
Dutch East Indies. Thev are also found
wild, and build when in this state in hollow
trees and in rock clefts. Their combs are
composed of hexagonal wax cells, and are
arranged parallel to each other like those of
A. mellifica, but the worker brood-cells are
smaller than those of our ordinary bees, show-
ing 36 to the square inch of surface instead of
29 ; while the comb where worker-brood is
reared, instead of having, like that of A. mel-
lifica. a thickness of seven-eighths inch, is but
five-eighths inch thick. (Fig, 1.)

642

RACES OF BEES

The workers. — The bodies of these, three-
eigiiths inch long wlien empty, measure about
one-half inch when dilated with honey. The
thorax is covered with brownish hair, and the
shield or crescent between the Avings is large
and yellow. The abdomen is yellow under-
neath. Above it presents a ringed appear-
ance, the anterior part of each segment being
orange yellow, while the posterior part shows
bands of brown of greater or less width, and
is covered with whitish-brown hairs; the tip

Fio.

1. — Worker-cells of Common East Indian Honey-
bee {Apis indica), natural size.

is black. They are nimble on foot and on the
wing, and active gatherers.

The queens. — The queens are large in pro-
portion to their workers, and are quite pro-
lific; color, leather or dark copper.

The drones. — These are only slightly larger
than the workers; color, a jet-like blue-black,
without yelloAv, their strong wings showing
changing hues like those of wasps.

Manipulations with colonies of these bees
are easy to perform if smoke be used; and,

Fig. 2. — Worker-cells of Common East Indian Honey-
bee (Apis indicd), one-third natural size.

tho they are more excitable than our com-
mon hive bees this peculiarity does not in-
duce excessive stinging, but seems rather to
proceed from fear. The sting is also less
severe.

Under the rude methods thus far employed
in the management of this bee no great yields
of honey are obtained, some 10 or 12 pounds
having been the most reported from a single
hive. It is quite probable these little bees
would yield more if imported into this coun-
try, since they could no doubt visit many small
flowers not frequented by the hive bees we
now have, and whose nectar is, therefore,
wasted; but very likely they might not with-
stand the severe winters of the North unless
furnished with such extra protection as would
be afforded by quite warm cellars or special
repositories.

Of the smallest honeybees in the world
the same writer says :

THE TINY EAST-INDIAN HONEYBEE.

{Ayis florea, Fab.)

This bee, also a native of East India, is
the smallest known species of the genus. It
builds in the open air, attaching a single
comb to a twig of a shrub or small tree.
This comb is only about the size of a man's

Fig. 3. — Worker-cells of the tiny East Indian Honey-
bee (Apis fiorea), natural size.

hand, and is exceedingly delicate, there be-
ing on each side 100 worker-cells to the
square inch of surface (Figs. 2 and 3). The
workers, more slender than house flies, tho
longer-bodied, are blue-black in color, with
the anterior third of the abdomen bright or-
ange. Colonies of these bees accumulate so
little surplus honey as to give no hope that
their cultivation would be profitable.

GIANT BEES OP INDIA.

{Apis dorsata, Fab.)

A few years ago much was said regard-
ing the East Indian " giant " honeybees,
Apis dorsata, and the possibilities of hav-
ing them imported and domesticated in this
country. Mr. Benton, having been in their
native land, describes them.

This large bee, which might not inappro-
priately be styled the Giant East-Indian bee,
has its home in the far East — both on the
continent of Asia and the adjacent island.
There are probably several varieties of this
species, more or less marked, and very likely
Apis zonata, Guer., of the Philippine Islands,

RASPBERRY

643

reported to be even larger than Apis dorsnta,
will prove on further investigation to be only
a variety of the latter. All the varieties of
these bees build huge combs of very pure wax
— often 5 to 6 feet in length and 3 to 4 feet
in width, which they attach to overhanging
ledges of rocks or to large limbs of lofty trees
in the primitive forest jungles. When at-
tached to the limbs of trees they are built
singly, and present much the same appearance
as those of the tiny East-Indian bee, shown
in the accompanying figure (Fig. 3). The
Giant bee, however, quite in contradistinction
to the other species of apis mentioned here,
does not construct larger cells in which to rear
drones, these and the workers being produced
in cells of the same size. Of these bees — long
regarded as a myth by beekeepers of America
and Europe — strange stories have been told.
It has been stated that they build their combs
horizontally after the manner of paper-mak-
ing wasps; that they are so given to wander-
ing as to make it impossible to keep them in
hives, and that their ferocity renders them ob-
jects greatly to be dreaded. The first real in-
formation regarding these points was given by
the author. He visited India in 1880-81 fof
the purpose of obtaining colonies of Apis
dorsata. These were procured in the jungles
by cutting the combs from their original at-
tachments, and it was thus ascertained (as
might have been expected in the case of any
species of apis), that their combs are always
built perpendicularly; also that colonies
placed in frame hives and permitted to fly
freely did not desert these habitations, and
that, far from being ferocious, these colonies
were easily handled by proper precautions,
without even the use of smoke. It was also
proved by the quantity of honey and wax
present that they are good gatherers. The
execution at that time of the plan to bring
these bees to the United States was prevented
only by severe illness contracted in India.

These large bees would doubtless be able
to get honey from flowers whose nectaries
are located out of reach of ordinary .bees,
notably those of the red clover, now visited
chiefly by bumblebees, and which it is
thought the East Indian bee might pollinate
and cause to produce seed more abundantly.
Even if not further utilizable, they might
prove an important factor in the production,
thruout the Southern States, of large quanti-
ties of excellent beeswax, now such an expen-
sive article.

At one time a few in this country were
advocating" tlie importation of Apis dor-
sata into this country for tihe reason claimed
that these bees would be able to get honey
from red clover and other flowers with
deep tubes. It is doubtful, however, whether
they would be able to adapt themselves to
this climate. In California there is too
great a change of temperature from night
to day, and in Florida and our other

Southern States the climate is not hot
enough. The impression prevails that they
are too much like bumblebees to be of any
commercial value. For the last 20 years
there has been very little said about them.

RASPBERRY {Rubus idaeus L., variety
aculeatissimus) . — Where the raspberry is
cultivated on a large scale for market it is
an important honey plant. Bees work on
the flow^ers closely, and the honey is of the
finest quality. Langstroth says of rasp-
berry honey : "In flavor it is superior to
that from white clover, while its delicate
comb almost melts in the mouth. When it
is in blossom, bees hold even white clover
in light esteem. Its drooping blossoms
protect the honey from moisture, and bees
work upon it when the weather is so wet
the}^ can obtain nothing from the upright
blossoms of the white clover." The rasp-
berry begins to fl.ower just after fruit
bloom, and just before clover, so that
large fields of it are a great acquisition
indeed. The red varieties (especially the
Cuthbert) are said to furnish the most
honey.

WILD EASPBEERY IN NORTHERN MICHIGAN.

More than one-half of northern Michi-
gan was once covered with white and Nor-
way pine. Nearly all of this in recent
years has been cut off for lumber. During
the first dry season after the cutting, fire
burns over this stump land, and two or
three years later it is covered with willow-
herb. .From these pine barrens raspberry
bushes are either entirely absent, or they
are short, stunted, and scattering., and of
little value as honey-producers. It is upon
tracts from which hard-wood timber has
been lumbered that one must look for a lux-
uriant growth of raspberry. After the
once magnificent forest of beech, maple,
and elm has been removed there speedily
springs up a vigorous growth of wild red
raspberry, which completely covers the
ground, and which, says Hutchinson, is
simply incomparable as a honey-producer.
It never fails to yield nectar even in cold,
rainy weather. If such land is not burned
over, the rich loam, mulched with brush,
produces large thrifty bushes, which yield
great crops of this celebrated honey for

644

RECORD-KEEPING OF HIVES

several years. But the rapidly growing
young trees and underbrush soon smother
the raspberries and the beekeeper is forced
to seek a new location. If, however, the
land is occasionally burned over, the aver-
age yield of honey is less, but the bee pas-
turage lasts much longer. Thus one finds,
says Townsend, the raspberry district al-
ways changing, and the shrub not a per-
manent source of nectar in one locality
like clover. As new areas are lumbered off

Raspberry.

" new pastures are offered to new comers."
Most of the good locations are today occu-
pied. There is only one way, says Hutch-
inson, to find a desirable location, and that
is to hunt for it.

The fiowers begin to yield nectar from
the first to the middle of June, according
to the weather.

Connoisseurs have pronounced the honey
superior tp any other table honey in the
world, for it partakes somewhat of the ex-
quisite flavor of the berry itself, with all
the added qualities that are so much prized
in clover. The berries will not bear ship-
ping, and must be used soon after being
picked.

RATS. — Rats may do a great deal of
damage in a honey-house. There are some
old fellows clever enough to avoid traps
and poison. The only thing to do with
such is to shoot them by watching when
they congregate about five o'clock in the
afternoon in and about the out-buildings.
A 32-caliber Flobert rifle with shot cart-
ridges, or, better, a taxidermist's 44-caliber
shotgun, will do good execution.

One of the best traps that was ever
made is the old-fashioned rabbit-trap with
grain spread on the bottom of the box,
The trigger to close the trap should extend
down to the grain. The rats in eating will
l)ump against the trigger and set it off,
when they are imprisoned alive, after which
they can be drowned.

Poison can be given in the form of
dough made of one-flfth part of barium
carbonate, or barytes, and four-fifths meal.
This poison has no odor nor taste; and it
is better than strychnine because its action
is slower, giving the rats a chance to get
off the premises before they die.

RECORD-KEEPING OF HIVES.— Al-
most every apiarist has a plan of his own,
whereby he can record the condition of the
hive at the time of its examination, so that,
without depending on memor3^, he may tell
at a glance what its condition was when
last examined.

Many of the large honey-producers. Dr.
Miller among them, have what they call a
record-book. This book has a page for each
colony, the number of the page correspond-
ing with the number of the colony. The '
book should be small and compact, just
about right to carry in the' hip-pocket, and
securely bound. It should always be car-
ried when at work among the bees. On
each page is supposed to be a record of
each colony's doings within a year — when
it became queenless, when it had ceils or
brood, when it swarmed, and, toward win-
ter, the strength and quantity of stores it
had when last examined.

There is an advantage in the book meth- a
od, as the book can be consulted in the
house, and the work mapped out before-
hand for the day. If the record-book be
for an out-apiary, the work can be planned
while riding to the yard; and, upon ar-
rival, the plans formulated can be exe-
cuted. It is thus possible to know in ad-

RECORD-KEEPING OF HIVES

645 -

vanee just where to get cells to give to
queenless colonies ; just which colonies will
be likely to have laying queens; which
ones may cast swarms, and which ones
will be likely to need more room in the
way of sections or surplus combs.

There is one objection to the record-
book, however. It is liable to be lost, or to
be left out in the rain; and if the book is
lost, the whole knowledge of the apiary,
except so far as the apiarist can remember,
is gone. Another thing, only one can use
the book at a time.

Others prefer card indexes. Each hive
in the apiary will have a number, and
corresponding to that number will be a
card. Boxes of these card indexes can
usually be obtained at the stationer's or at
the bookstores at a moderate price. The
advantage of such index is that, when some
particular card for some hive is full, it can
be replaced by another card bearing the
same number or added data. But the most
important advantage is that one can look
thru his index at home; and when he
comes across a card, the corresponding hive
of which requires some particular atten-
tion, he can remove that card entirely from
the index. In like manner he can remove
the cards of all other colonies of the yard
requiring special attention. These cards
can then be slipped into the hip-pockets
and carried to an outyard or handed to an
assistant with proper instructions; and
after the hives have received the requisite
attention, the necessary record can be at-
tached. On returning home the cards can
be put back.

Where there is a series of outyards, one
should have one index for each yard. As
there will seldom be more than 200 colonies
to the yard, one can have an index of 200
cards. For example, yard No. 1 will have
cards up to 199; yard No. 2 from 200 to
399; yard No. 3 from 400 to 599, and so
on. If any of the cards should get mis-
laid or get mixed with another index, the
first figure of the number will indicate to
what yard or index it belongs. For ex-
ample, it would be known that card 346
would belong to yard No. 2, or the Jones
yard, as the case might be.

For the purpose of queen-rearing, the
card index is invaluable because it enables
one to keep a complete record of a queen,
even her pedigree for several generations

back. When she is sold, the record can be
made, showing to whom she was sold, so
that, if the purchaser complains that her
bees are not pure, or that the colony is
diseased, the breeder can easily go to the
identical colony from which she came, and
prove or disprove either assertion.

The value of the card index can be ma-
terially increased by the use of colored
cards, to slip into the index here and there
to indicate immediate or early attention to
some particular number. As the apiarist
goes over his records the colored cards will
indicate just where the cards are, referring
to a specific colony. Let us suppose a
case. No. 241 at the time of examination
looked suspicious. The presence of foul
brood is feared. A red card is put right in
front of card 241, for red indicates danger.
Blue, green, and yellow cards may be used
to indicate other conditions such as queen-
lessness, short of stores, failing queen,
about to swarm, etc. If one is making
preparations to feed he will hunt over the
blue cards. Eilher pull the cards back of
them out of the index or note down on a
slip of paper the numbers of the hives that
require feeding.

In this connection it should, perhaps, be
stated that one can purchase, at very small
expense, loose-leaf note-books with an al-
phabetical or numerical index. These books
are so constructed that any particular page
can be removed and another page substi-
tuted or added, on the principle of loose-
leaf ledgers. Such books can be used in
place of a card index. In other words, it
will be a pocket card index that can be
carried to and from the yard; and as such
books are usually bound in leather they
will stand rough usage.

Of course, with any books or card index
it goes without saying that every hive in
the yard should be numbered. These num-
bers may be put on the hive with a
brush, using black paint. But it is pref-
erable to use a detachable number. Such
a number- may be stenciled on a sheet of
tin and the tin tacked on the hive. The
objection to these is the expense. Fortu-
nately there can now be secured of supply
dealers, numbers printed on heavy manila
tags that are afterward soaked in boiling
paraffin so they will stand the weather.
These numbers can then be tacked on the
cover, or on one side or end of the hive.

646

RECORD-KEEPING OF HIVES

As a rule it is better to use the front end
just over the entrance. In the course of
two or three years it may be necessary to
replace the old number with a new and
fresh one. As these card numbers are very
cheap the expense of renewal is small.

RECOED-KEEPING IN OR ON THE HIVE.

There are many beekeepers who think
they cannot afford to fuss with books, card
indexes, nor anything of that sort. Some
of them simply write the record inside of
the cover; but in most cases the form or
make of cover renders this impracticable.

One of the best schemes to accommodate
this class of beekeepers is what may be
called, for want of a better name, wooden
writing tablets. These are made out of
broken sections, IV2 or 2 inches wide, by
4 or 5 inches long. But these, unless
dipped in white lead, will soon weather-
stain so that the lead-pencil record will be
blurred if not entirely obliterated. To coat
a thousand of these, dip in thin white lead,
and lean against something until dry. In
every case after they are painted they will
hold lead-pencil records the entire season.
At the author's yards both the card index
and the wooden tablets coated with white
lead have been used. The tablets are for
a temporary record, which record is later
transferred to the card index. In connec-
tion with the white tablets we use some
painted different colors to indicate differ-
ent conditions of the colony. For instance,
one can stand in one position in the yard,
and at a glance can easily locate one col-
ony having a blue, red, yellow, or green
tablet, each color carrying its own special
meaning.

But these wooden tablets will blow off
the hives, and become lost. This difficulty
is easily overcome by the use of little
spring clips made of brass; and in lieu
of anything better, the ordinary steel super
springs coated with paint make a very
good substitute. Each spring clip should
be fastened down with a staple. The ad-
vantage of these clips is that they not only
hold the tablets fast to the hive, but they
enable one to place the tablet in front or
on top. Where a colony needs attention at
the next visit, a red tablet is placed on top
of the white one bearing the record. If a
colony needs feeding, a blue tablet will be
used; if it is queenless, a ^reen one; and

thus one can use a great variety of colors
to indicate as many conditions of the col-
ony. In most cases a red tablet may be
used to show anything that requires imme-
diate attention. For example, a colony
may be starting to build queen-cells. They
should be cut out, of course. At the next
trip they will need to be cut out again to
forestall swarming.

Spring clips.

Again a red card may indicate a failing
queen, or a poor queen which needs replac-
ing soon ; a colony that is on the verge of
starvation, a colony that has suspicious-
looking brood, that will need another ex-
amination a week hence before its nature
can be fully determined. In like manner
a red card may be used to indicate any con-
ditions that need rectifying at the time of
the next visit.

The spring clips should usually be made
out of brass, and those we use are made of
that material, 24 gauge, inch wide, and
about 4 inches long, bent as shown in the
illustration.

The whole outfit — brass clips, brass sta-
ples, wooden tablets of different colors, etc.,
can be obtained of the dealer. But where
one is a producer of comb honey he will
have many pieces of broken sections, which,
when dipped in white lead, will be equal to
any to be obtained of his dealer.

QUEEN-REGISTER CARDS.

Another system of record-keeping that
is popular with some is what are called
register-cards. The accompanying plan
shows how they are used. To indicate the
date, the pin heads are revolved so as to

REVERSING

647

1 2 3 . 5 6 7 8 9 Q^ecn J^egisteP.

29 O 13 MISSING. BROOD.

28 14

27 15 TESTED. O CELL.

26 16

2.5 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 SELECT Tested. Hatched.
MARCH. LAYING.

OCT. APRIL.

DIRECTIOXS.— Tack the card on a
SEPT, O MAY. conspicuous part of the hive or nu-
cleus; then, ^vith a pair of pliers, force
ATTp TIT'N'P a common pin into the center of each
^u vj. o circle, after which it is bent in such a

manner that the head will press se-
curely on any figure or word.

JULY.

point to the proper place. There is no
writing, and nothing to do except to turn
the pointers to the right place. This was
prefen^ed by W. Z. Hutchinson and others.

RED CLOVER.— See Cloyee.

REVERSING.— This, as the term signi-
fies, is the scheme or plan for inverting, or
turning over, the combs; and this may be
accomplished by inverting the frames indi-
vidually or the whole hive at one operation.
The subject began to be discussed in 1884;
and for three or four years following there
was much said on the subject. Reversible
frames and reversible hives were invented
by the dozen. Some of them were quite
ingenious, while others were clumsy and
impractical.

Taking into consideration the fact that
the bees store their honey immediately over
the brood, and that, as a consequence, their
combs at this point are much better filled
out, certain beekeepers conceived the idea
of turning the combs upside do\vn at fre-
quent intervals. " Why," said they, "when
the combs are reversed, bringing the bot-
tom-bars uppermost, the combs will be
built clear out to the bottom-bars, and the
honey next the top-bar, which is now at
the bottom of the hive, will be carried up
into the supers, just where it is wanted."
This seemed very nice in theory, and even
in practice it seemed to be partially car-
ried out; for tho a good many beekeepers
reported that, when the combs were re-
versed, the bees, rather than have the
honey in the bottom of the combs, near
the entrance, and accessible to robbers,
would uncap it and take it up into the sec-
tions, yet often this honey carried above

was poor and dark in color. Many times
also the bees did not carry the honey above
but allowed it to stay at the bottom of the
hive, so that the only real advantage se-
cured was getting the combs filled actually
to the bottom-bars, now at the top.

A very few claimed that reversing, when
done at the proper time, would destroy
queen-cells, and so control swarming. But
this worked better in theory than in prac-
tice.

The only real and direct advantage of
reversing is in the matter of getting combs
filled out solid in brood-frames. (See ]\Ia-
xiPTJLATiON' OF CoLO^TiES.) When hunt-
ing queens it is much easier to find one
where there is no horizontal space between
the edge of the comb, and the bottom-bar,
and no holes to furnish her hiding-places.
Moreover, having combs filled out solid
gives better fastening to the frame and in-
creases the capacity of the hive just in pro-
portion to the new comb built after revers-
ing. Nearly every frame that is not re-
versed is liable to have a space of % i^ich
or % between the top of the bottom-bar
and the comb; and this is a waste that
ought to be utilized if possible. To a cer-
tain extent this space can be filled in non-
reversing frames by having sheets of foun-
dation reach from frame-bottom to top-
bar, wired in with perpendicular wdres;
but even such combs are never as well filled
as those reversed.

Several good reversible frames have been
proposed; but no one should think of
adopting anj^ of them unless it has some
points of merit outside the one exclusive
feature of reversing. A reversible frame
that is not good for all-around use — easy
to handle — would be very unprofitable.

The Van Dusen reversible frame.

One of the fii-st practical reversing frames
was the Van Deusen, having metal corners
or ears. This was essentially a standing
frame, and could be used just as well one
side up as the other. The frames were
spaced apart by " spacing-ears," and these
veiy ears offered some distinctive advan-
tages in the way of handling the frame.

m

648

ROBBING

This frame was used very largely by the
one-time most extensive beekeeper in the
world, the late Captain J. E. Hethering-
ton ; also by his brother in Michigan. Out-
side of its reversing feature it offered one
very decided advantage; namely, the facil-
ity with which it could be handled like the
leaves of a book. By taking out one or
two frames the rest could be thumbed over
without lifting them out of the hive. Not-
withstanding, it is not now used.

Two other reversible frames are the
Danzenbaker and the Heddon (see Hives;

T)anzenbaker reversible frame.

also Frames^ Self-spacing^ and Ma^tipu-
LATiON OP Colonies), either one of which
can be used as well one side up as the
other; in fact, any closed-end standing
frame, except the Quinby, can be used as a
reversible frame.

The fact that none of these frames nor
any other reversible frames are in use to
any extent would seem to argue that the
advantages of reversing are more theoreti-
cal than actual.

ROBBING.— As the term signifies, "rob-
bing" is an act or series of acts by which
bees pilfer or steal from each other, or
from any source where sweets in the form
of jam, jellies, syrup, or honey, are left
exposed. Like some human beings when
the opportunities are given, bees find it
easier to steal than to work. The passion
for stealing or robbing, if neglected, be-
comes a habit — a habit that is exceedingly
hard to break up.

When bees discover that a large amount
of sweets can be secured without working
for it, they are quick to profit by the
chance; and in the space of a few min-

utes they may start an uproar of excite-
ment. This not only means pillage, but
death to the bees and stings to their
owners.

Paul says that the love of money is the
root of all evil; and similarly the love of
honey on the part of the bees is a root of a
great deal of the evil that takes place in
bee culture. When they find it easier to
help themselves to the results of the honest
toil of others they will enter into the busi-
ness of plundering without scruple.

One of the ABC class has said that he
found a single bee making visits to over
100 clover-heads before it obtained a load
sufficient to carry to its hive. It is proba-
bly true that during a great part of the
season a bee will be absent a full hour, or,
it may be, during unfavorable speUs, as
much as two hours, in obtaining a single
load. The time during which a bee may be
absent is very variable. If the nectar se-
cretion is heavy it will return much quicker
than if it is light. Is it at all strange that
a bee, after having labored thus hard dur-
ing the fore part of the day, should, in the
afternoon, take a notion to see if it could
not make a living in some easier way?
Would it be very much worse than many
types of humanity*? As the bee noses
around to other hives it catches the per-
fume of the clover honey other bees have
gathered, and, by some sort of an opera-
tion in its little head, it figures out that, if
it could abstract some of this, unperceived,
and get it safely into its own hive, it would
be so much the richer. It has no sort of
care whether these other bees die of star-
vation or not. That is none of its concern.

With all their wonderful instincts, we
have never been able to perceive that the
bees of one hive ever have any spark of
solicitude as to the welfare of their neigh-
bors. If, by the loss of a queen, the pop-
ulation of any hive becomes weak, and the
bees too old to defend their stores, the very
moment the fact is discovered by the other
colonies they rush in and overpower the
sentinels, with the most perfect indiffer-
ence, plunder the ruined home of its last
bit of provision, and then rejoice in their
own home, it may be but a yard away,
while their defrauded neighbors are so
weak from starvation as to have fallen to
the bottom of the hive, being only just able
to attempt to crawl feebly out at the en-

ROBBING

649

trance. Had it been some of their own
flock, the case would have been very differ-
'I ent indeed; for the first bees of a starving
i colony will cany food around to its com-
i rades, as soon as it has imbibed enough of
:■ the food furnished to have the strength to
1 stagger to them.

Suppose the bee mentioned above, in
< prowling around in the afternoon or some
other time, should find a colony so weak
,( or so careless that it could slip in unob-
(. served, and get a load from some of the
J, unsealed cells, and get out again. After
I;' it has passed the sentinels outside it usually
'.I runs little danger from the inmates that
f' seem to take it for granted that every bee
jj inside is one of their number. There is
|j danger, tho; for should the robber betray
i| too gi'eat haste in repairing to the combs
[• of honey they often suspect something;
!i so it assumes 'an indifference it is far from
I feeling, and loiters about veiy much as if
i it were at home, and finally, with a very
( well-assumed air of one who thinks he will
I take a lunch, it goes to the cells and com-
i mences to fill up. Very often, when it gets
i pretty well " podded out " with its load,
j some bee approaches, apparently to see if
I all is right. When the robber once gets its
head into a cell, however, it seems to have
lost all sense or reason; and if it is dis-
covered at this stage to be a stranger and
a thief, it is often pounced upon and stung
I with very little ceremony.

How do bees know a stranger from one
of their own number, where there are so
many ? It is said they tell by the sense of
\ smeU; this may be the principal means,
j perhaps, but apparently they depend gi'eat-
ly on the action and behavior of a bee,
much as we do when judging of the respon-
sibility of a man who asks to be trusted.
We can give a very good guess, simply by
his air or manner, or even by the sort of
letter he writes.

If a robber bee is suspected, and a bee
[ approaches for the pui-pose of satisfying
itself, it is a very critical m.oment, and one
becomes intensely interested in watching
the perfonnance. The robber will stand
its ground, if it is an old hand, and permit
itself to be looked over with wonderful in-
difference; but one who has watched such
scenes closely will detect a ceii;ain uneasi-
ness, and a disposition to move slowly to-
ward the entrance, that it may be the bet-

ter able to get out quickly, when it discov-
ers things to be too hot for it inside. If
the bee that first suspects it concludes it is
an interloper, it begins to bite it, and grab
hold of its wings to hold on until others can
come to help. The thief has now two
chances to escape, and sometimes it seems
meditating which to adopt ; one is, to brave
it out until they shall perhaps let it alone,
and then slip out unobserved. The other
is, to break away and trust to its heels and
wings. The latter plan is the one generally
adopted. One that has been many times in
such scrapes will usually get away by an
adroit series of twists, turns, and tiunbles,
even tho three or foui' bees have hold of it
at once. Some of these fellows, by a sud-
den and unexpected dash, will liberate
themselves in a manner that is even won-
derful, and then, as if to show their
audacity, will wheel about and come back
close to the noses of their' captors of a
minute before.

In case the bee secures its load and
makes its way out unobserved, it gets home
very quickly, and, under the influence of
this new passion for easily replenishing
its hive with the coveted sweets, it rushes
out with a vehemence never known under
any other cii'cumstances. Back it goes and
repeats the operation, with several of its
conu'ades at its heels. Does it tell them
where to go?

When a bee comes into the hives in such
unusual haste, podded out with its load in
a way also rather unusual when obtained
from ordinary stores, its comrades at once
notice it, and, either from memory or in-
stinct, they are suddenly seized with the
same kind of passion and excitement.
Those who have had experience at the
gambling-table, or in wild speculations of
other kinds, can understand the fierce and
reckless spirit that stii's these little fellows..
The bees, when thej^ see a comr-ade return
in the way mentioned, seem to know, with-
out any verbal explanation, that the plun-
der is stolen. Anxious to have " a finger
in the pie," they tumble out of the hive,
and look about, and perhaps listen, too, to
find where the spoil is to be had. If they
have, at any former time, been robbing any
particular hive, they will repair at once to
that ; but if it is found well guarded those
used to the business will proceed to exam-
ine everv hive.

650

ROBBING

INTELLIGENCE OF THE HONEYBEE.

One afternoon, the door of the honey-
house being left open, the bees were soon
doing a " land-office " business before the
mischief was stopped by closing the door
until they had clustered on the windows
in the room, which were then opened, and
the process repeated until all were out.
All the rest of the afternoon they were
hovering about the door. Toward night
the}^ gradually disappeared; and when we
went down, about sundown, to try a new
feeder, not a bee was near the door. We
put the feeder in front of a hive where the
bees were clustered out; and as soon as a
few bees had got a taste, and filled them-
selves, they of course went into the hive to
unload. We expected a lot to come out, as
soon as these entered with their precious
loads, but were much astonished to see an
eager crowd come tumbling out as if they
were going to swarm, still more when they
rushed right past the feeder and took
wing for — where do you suppose? the
honey-house door, of course. How should
they reason otherwise, than that it
had again been left open, and that was
where these incomers had found their rich
loads'? On finding it closed, back to the
hive they came, to repeat the maneuvers
over and over.

As another evidence of the wonderful
intelligence and almost reasoning power of
the honeybee, we will give another instance.

Some years ago in September a carload
shipment of honey came in 60-pound cans
so badly damaged that the contents had
leaked out and run thru the floor of the
box car. The railroad company had agreed
to take the car away at half -past ten; and
as the weather was cool the bees had not
discovered it at that time. Unfortunately
the company failed to move the car as
agreed, and we knew nothing of it till we
were apprised something was wrong by the
unusual number of bees swarming around
the windows and doors. We carried a hose
over to the leaky car and washed away the
honey, cleaning it from the gearing, iron-
work, and under side of the car until the
bees were pretty well satisfied there was
nothing more to get, altho they were hang-
ing around in great numbers. To prevent
the bees from getting the honey inside the
car, our boys covered the floor pretty well

with sawdust. About three o'clock the en-
gine came around and pulled the car away.
A little after four, some men who were
loading wheat informed us our bees were
making them a great deal of trouble. We
at once jumped to the conclusion that the
company, instead of taking the car entirely
away, as agreed, had only removed it to
another location in the yard, and that the
sticky car was still enticing our bees. We
saw the sawdust on the floor on which they
were dumping bags of wheat, and concluded
it was the honey-car; but, while we we're
puzzling to account for the fact that the
ironwork under this car showed no trace
of honey or water either, a man called and
pointed tO' another car in still another loca-
tion, just swarming with bees around its
door, inside and out. Then we " caught
on." There was not a particle of honey
in or around either of the -two cars we
were looking at . After the honey-car had
been pulled clear out of town, the bees, not
willing to give up, proceeded to " leave no
stone unturned," and were investigating
every car having an open door that, in
their judgment, might be the one that had
been pulled away. When they found one with
sawdust spread over the floor they naturally
concluded that was the car, and got down
on their hands and knees searching in the
sawdust for honey. The other bees, seeing
them thus employed, naturally concluded
this was the place. Others, having learned
that one box car contained so rich a flnd,
concluded that a search thru all the cars in
the yard might possibly reward them for
their investigation; and it was only in the
cool of the evening that they were willing
to stop digging in that sawdust, and be
convinced there were no' more honey-cars.

It may not be true that bees recognize
colors, but they certainly do take in the
general makeup of objects. They are not
only able to recognize a hive, but they
know a box car at sight; and even if it is
moved to a different location they take in
its general appearance so that they know
pretty well how to flnd it in case of re-
moval. We are not prepared to prove that
they read the letters "Big Four" on the
side of that car, nor that they remembered
there was an enormous figure 4 printed in
white on the red door of the car they
wanted ; but they came pretty close to it.

ROBBING

651

HOW BEES COMMUNICATE.

Of course, bees have particular notes, as
tor joy, sorrow, anger, despair, etc., which
are produced by the wings, usually when
flying ; but probably they are unable to
communicate to each other more than a
single idea. In other words, they have no
faculty of telling their fellows that a lot of
honey is to be had in a feeder at the
entrance, and that it would better be
brought in quickly or other bees may find
it. A bee goes out in the spring, and, by
smelling around the buds, discovers honey
and pollen ; when it comes into the hive
the others see it and start out to hunt up
the source c.f supply in a similar way.

WHEN BEES WILL NOT ROB.

By turning back and reading Anger of
BeeS;, one will get a very good idea of the
causes that start bees to robbing. Read,
also, Bee-huntinG;, Feeding^, and Bee Be-
havior. As a general thing, bees will
never rob so long as plenty of honey is to
be had in the fields. During a bountiful
flow we have tried in vain to get bees to
take any notice of honey left around the
apiary. At such times we can use the ex-
tractor right in the open air, close to the
sides of the hives, if need be. On one occa-
sion we remember leaving a comb of un-
sealed honey on the top of a hive from
morning until noon, and not a bee touched
it. It seems they preferred to go to the
clover fields in the regular way rather than
to take several pounds from the top of a
neighboring hive. We can readily suppose
that they did not have to visit anything
like a hundred blossoms at this time, and
perhaps they secured a load in going to not
more than a dozen.

After the season begins to fail, one must
expect that every colony in the apiary will
be tried. As a rule, any fair colony will
have sentinels posted to guard the entrance
as soon as there is any need of such pre-
caution. The bee that presumes to think
it may enter for plunder will be led off by
" the ear," and this will be repeated until
it learns that there is no chance for rob-
bing at that house. At the close of the
honey harvest precaution should be taken
that there are no weak colonies, especially
if they are queenless, that may be over-

powered, for one such may start the fash-
ion of robbing, and make it much harder to
control. An apiary, like a community,
may get so demoralized that thieving be-
comes a universal mania. " A stitch in
time will save " a great many more than
nine in this case. The space occupied by
the bees also should be in proportion to
their numbers. They should have only as
many combs as they can cover if they are
to defend themselves properly from either
moths or robbers. Colonies without either
queen or brood are not apt to fight for
their stores very vigorously, so it will be
well to see that they have either one or
both, should there be an attack made on
them. It is hardly necessary to repeat
what has been said about Italians being
better able to defend themselves than black
bees. A few Italians will often protect the
hive better than a whole swarm of black
bees.

how to know robber-bees.

It sometimes puzzles beginners exceed-
ingly to know whether the bees that come
out are robbers, or ordinary inmates of
the hive out for a general playspell. There
are times when a playspell looks very much
like robbing. See Playspells of Young
Bees and Drifting.

When the robber-bee approaches a hive,
it has a sly, guilty look, and flies with its
legs spread in a rather unusual way, as if
it wanted to be ready to use its heels as
well as wings if required. It will move
cautiously up to the entrance, and quickly
dodge back as soon as it sees a bee coming
toward it. If it is promptly grabbed on
attempting to go in, never fear. When a
bee goes in and it cannot be determined
whether it is a robber or not, a close watch
should be kept on all the bees coming out.
This is a very sure way of telling when
robbers have got a start, even at its very
commencement. A bee, in going to the
fields, comes out leisurely, and takes wing
with but little trouble, because it has no
load. Its body is also slim, for it has no
honey with it. A bee that has stolen a
load is generally plump and full; and, as
it comes out, it has a hurried and " guilty
look." Most of all, it finds it a little diffi-
cult to take wing, as bees ordinarily do, be-
cause of the weight. In Bee- hunting is

652

ROBBING

related how a bee, laden with thick undi-
luted honey, would stagger under its load
before it could take wing for the final trip
home. The bee, when coming out of the
hive with honey it has very likely just un-
capped, feels instinctively that it will be
quite apt to tumble unless able to take
wing from some elevated position, and
therefore crawls up the side of the hive
before launching out. When first taking
wing it falls a little by the weight of its
load, before its wings are fully under con-
trol, and therefore, instead of starting out
as a bee ordinarily does, it takes a down-
ward curve, coming quite near the ground
before rising safely and surely. With a
little practice one can tell a robber at first
glance by its way of coming out of the
hive and taking wing.

HOW TO TELL WHERE THE ROBBERS BELONG.

If one is a bee-hunter he will probably
line them to their hive without any trouble ;
but if he is not, he can easily find from
which hive they come by sprinkling them
with flour as they come out of the hive
being robbed. Watch should be kept on
the other hives, to see where the floured
bees are going in. If the robbing is eon-
fined to one or two colonies, as is often the
case, they should be put down cellar and
kept there for several days where they can
not incite other colonies. References will
be made to this further on.

HOW TO STOP ROBBING.

As to the best mode of procedure, a good
deal will depend on circumstances. When
bees in the whole apiary are robbing in a
wholesale way from the honey-house, or
from any place where a supply of honey
or syrup is kept, the obvious remedy is to
shut the door of the dwelling to cut off the
supply. If the bees have entered a barrel
thru the bunghole, the chances are, after
the head of the barrel is taken out, that
there will be a peck or more of bees swim-
ming around in the honey. If robbing has
become very bad, drive the bung into the
barrel, and then, after the uproar has
quieted down, remove it and run the honey
thru a strainer.

Bees soon stop robbing when all sweets
within their reach are removed or so pro-

tected that they cannot get at them; but
even then the apiary will be out of balance
for the rest of the day, and more or less
for two or three weeks following, because
the bees will be trying to find where they
can get more sweets.

Sometimes robbing is started by some
one in the neighborhood making sweet
pickles, canning fruit, or doing anything
that causes a strong odor of sweet or sour
during its preparation. The only thing the
beekeeper can do is to have the house
screened; or if the case is very bad, and
the bees keep on " sticking their noses into
other people's business," the entrances of
all the hives should be smoked with tobacco
smoke. Half a dozen puffs of smoke
should be blown into each entrance, one
after the other. In half an hour the dose
should be repeated. This wilU cause the
bees to quiet down until such time as the
canning or the pickle-making is over at the
house where bees are " making themselves
too familiar."

The best treatment for a general robbing
thruout the apiary is prevention. The
screen door and other openings into the
honey-house should be self-closing. Un-
less they are, some one will be almost sure
to forget and leave one of them open. If
the doors are not self-closing, all the honey
or syrup stored in the building should be
put into hives, shipping cases, cans, bar-
rels, or any receptacle where bees can be
kept from helping themselves ; then if per-
chance the door is left open no harm wiU
be done.

ONCE A ROBBER,, ALWAYS A ROBBER.

After bees once get into the fixed habit
of robbing it is a mistake to let them out
again; for no sooner are they out than
they are at their old tricks again. It is
better to confine them, and then after they
have been imprisoned for 24 hours they
may be brushed down into a box from the
screen or from whatever portion of the
building in which they have clustered.
They should then be carried to an outyard.
It is not advisable to let them loose again
in the same yard where they have learned
their bad tricks of stealing. If allowed
their liberty they will be continually prowl-
ing around for days to see where they can
effect an entrance to the honey-house or

ROBBING

653

an unguarded hive. It may be cheaper in
the end to kiU them outright, especially if
there are not more than half a pound of
bees. If there are many more, it may be
desirable to save them; but they should
not he let loose again in the same yard.
If taken to another yard they will cause
no trouble.

ROBBIXG OF XUCLEI OR WEAK COLONIES.

There is another kind of robbing that
is much more common, and which is apt to
perplex the beginner more than an}i;hing
else, and that is the onslaughts that are
often made on weak
oolonies or those that
are disinclined to make
a defense, especially if
queenless. Nuclei with
large entrances are es-
pecially subject to the
attacks of bees from
strong stocks, and may
be cleaned out entii-ely
before the apiarist dis-
covers the mischief. By
that time the whole
apiary will be in a per-
fect uproar. As soon
as the supply of honey
has been exhausted in
the one nucleus the rob-
bers will hover around
aU other entrances, and
on finding one poorly
defended will get in
more bad work. Dur-
ing a dearth of honey
there are always some
bees that make a business of smelling
around, and it is a wise precaution always
to have the entrances of nuclei contracted
to a width where only one or two bees can
pass at a time.

One of the most prolific causes of rob-
bing is a warped cover or an old hive, the
corner of which has split open. All such
makeshifts should be replaced. In an
emergency a handful of mud plastered into
the opening or crack, or some cotton stuifed
in, will go a long way toward preventing
serious trouble later on. During a good
honey flow small cracks large enough for
bees to get thru do no particular harm, but
during a honey-dearth extra precautions

must be taken. Weak colonies especially
cannot defend several entrances, and that
is why poorly fitting covers or leaky hives
must not be tolerated. The robbers seem
to realize that the regular entrance is more
likely to be well guarded, and that is why
they are often seen trj'ing to crawl thru
some unguarded crack.

Let it be supposed that a colony has
been overpowered, and that its own bees
are making no defense, realizing, probably,
that resistance is useless. If anything is
to be done to save the colony, it must be
done quickly. One way is to grasp a hand-
ful of long grass, strew it closely around

ConTenient cage to set ever hive that is being robbed.

the entrance, and then spray or sprinkle a
dipperful of water on it, and scatter more
wet grass over the entrance. A very little
carbolic acid added to the water makes the
spray more offensive to robbers. The in-
vaders wiU not, as a rule, crawl thru the
wet grass to get into the hive, while on the
other hand those that have already entered
the hive will get out and return to their
homes. In the mean time the regular in-
mates of the hive, as soon as they are given
a little assistance, will begin to set up a
defense. The grass should be kept wet for
at least an hour or two, and possibly till
sundown ; but before strewing the grass
the entrance should be contracted so that

654

ROBBING

only one or two bees can pass at a time.
The entrance should never he closed entire-
ly, no matter how bad the bees are robbing.
On a hot day the large number of robbers
in the hive, together with the regular in-
mates, would be almost sure to smother to
death.

Another and a better way to treat colo-
nies or nuclei that are not making a good
defense is to carry them down cellar or put
them in any cool place where they will have
an opportunity to recover themselves, and
where, too, robbers cannot continually keep
up the policy of pestering the life out of
them. In 24 hours the robbers in the yard
^nW have quieted, when the nucleus or
robbed colony can be taken out and set
back on its stand. But at this time the
entrance should be contracted to a space
just wide enough so that only two or three
bees can pass at a time.

A still better plan for the treatment of
a colony that is being overpowered by rob-
bers is to set a wire-cloth cage or tent over
it. This cage need not be larger than will
cover the hive. The illustration shows the
style used by the authors. Three or four
of such cages are kept in the yard ready
for an emergency of this kind.

There is no robbing except when the
regular apiarist is temporarily away and a
new man has been left in charge. Such a
man or boy will sometimes let robbing get
well under way, not knowing that trouble
is brewing. In very short order it will be
apparent that the colony or the nucleus is
not making a defense. Sometimes even a
strong colony will be taken by surprise,
and before it is aware of what is happen-
ing the robbers will be piling into the hive
at a furious rate. At other times there are
not enough bees in a nucleus to make a
respectable defense. Such colonies or nu-
clei need help, and that right speedily. If
one has a wire cage, he can set it over the
hive, and that immediately stops any more
robbers from getting in. As soon as the
marauders in the hive fill up, they will
rush out of the entrance pell-mell; but
instead of going back to their own hive
they are imprisoned in the cage. In the
mean time there will be a big horde of
robbers outside of the cage. Raise the
cage up for three or four seconds, when all
the outside robbers will pounce on the en-
trance. Right here the reader may think

this a mistake. The scheme is to catch
every robber that has been carrying on the
business of stealing for the last few m.in-
utes or half -hour, so as they return from
their hive we lift their cage at intervals
and let them in. The bees that have been
imprisoned will cling to the top of the
cage, even tho it be lifted for the moment.
In the mean time their number will be re-
inforced by more robbers coming out of
the hive. In the space of about thirty
minutes, if the robbing has not been going
on too long, every robber will be in the top

Folding bee-tent ready for use.

Tent folded.

of the cage, and there they will stay. It is
a serious mistake to let such bees loose
again, for they will immediately go back
to their hives and return io attack the col-
ony that has been overpowered.

Toward night the cage is lifted off the
hive and set down carefully till the next
day, when the bees will be found clustered
up in the top of the . cage, perhaps in one
corner. After using a little smoke they
are scooped off with a dipper and dumped
into a box. They are then carried to an
outyard, where everything will be strange
to them, and given to a colony that needs
a few more bees, the precaution being
taken, however, to cage the queen, as the
new bees might kill her.

ROBBING

655

Some good beekeepers doubt whether it
is best to let these robbers loose after they
have once been trapped. Where there are
very many of them it would be too bad to
destroy them. If onlj^ a few they should be
killed.

robber-cages; how to make.

This consists of a light framework of
%-square stuff held together at the inter-
sections by means of three-cornered blocks.
The whole is then covered with wire cloth,
and across the top a strip is nailed to pro-
vide a handle so the cage may be lifted up
with one hand. It is advisable to have in
addition one or two larger cages — ^big
enough to take in a man while he is operat-
ing over the hive. These cages may be of
various sizes, but they should be light
enough so that one can carry them around
easily and squat over a hive to be manipu-
lated. The larger cages should be made in
the same way as the small cages, of
%-square stuff braced at the intersections
by three-cornered blocks. Cross-rails on
each side two feet from the bottom serve as
convenient handles, so that the man on the
inside can pick up the cage and walk from
one hive to another. The use of cheese
cloth is quite as effective as wire cloth for
these large cages, and much cheaper; nor
is it necessary in most eases to have the top

Open top robber cage,

covered. The average robber that is sup-
posed to make trouble will hover along on
a level about the top of the hive that is be-
ing operated. It does not have sense enough
to rise up and dive down over the top. At
the same time bees that belong to the hive
that is being manipulated will easily escape.
On the other hand, the cages that have tops
will cage the bees so they will be bumping
around the head of the operator. Unless
they are actual robbers, it is better to let
them loose ; and as soon as the operator has
left the hive they will go into their own
entrance.

For raising queens these topless cages
are very convenient when the robbing sea-
son is on. The queen-breeder, while he is
on the inside of one of these cages, can
work over a hive as long as he pleases,
secure from robbers. If he uses the cage
continually, robbers will seldom get a taste
of honey; and therefore there will be little
or no trouble.

ROBBER-TRAPS.

Their purpose is to catch the hardened
" old sinners " — bees that are professionals
in the art of robbing, and which are of but
little practical value for the purpose of
getting honey honestly from the fields.
These bees should be caught and killed.
While some protest has been raised on the
ground that they might be made over into
a colony, yet the kind of " old sinners " re-
ferred to are useless for any purpose. In
a queen-rearing yard the sooner they are
out of the way the better for all concerned.
As long as they are allowed to prey on
their honest neighbors they will continue to
make work in the yard disagreeable by
keeping every colony stirred up and more
or less cross, despoil baby nuclei, and make
trouble generally. But this is not all. They
incite other bees to rob. The force of ex-
ample is very potent among bees as well as
human beings.

While one does not need to use traps
continuously, they are required on occa-
sions ; for if a few bees once get started to
robbing they will day after day pounce on
the combs every time a hive is opened, and
render life miserable for their owner and
for the baby nuclei. Time and time again
in our yards we have restored everything
to absolute order and quiet by the use of

656

ROBBING

the trap. It works like magic; and after'
the rascals are caught, one will be sur-
prised to note how few bees can make such
an uproar as is evidenced by the number in
the trap. Their intrinsic value is practical-
ly nothing, even if they were good honest
bees. To let them loose would only invite
more trouble. The amount of honey that
they might gather if they could be " re-
formed" would be a very insignificant item.
But the amount of damage that they can do
in interfering with queen-rearing operations
is no small item.

It has been suggested that, if a robber-
trap will catch robbers, it will also catch
honest bees, and why destroy good prop-
erty? There is no need for catching any-
thing but the hardened old sinners — those
are hopeless beyond redemption. As ex-
plained, it is not necessary to run the trap
continuously thruout the season — perhaps
one or two days in a whole year, and not
even then if no robbers show up.

How is one to avoid catching honest
bees? Easy enough. The traps are put in
operation only when the prowling thieves
are around. They are constantly on the
alert, skilled as they are in the art of steal-
ing and finding any exposed sweets; that
is to say, they are ever following one about,
while the honest bees are in the field or hive.

After one has been working in the yard
a few days let it be assumed that robbers
have accumulated. It is not wise to let
them continue on with their nosing into
other people's business till they make work
in the yard exceedingly disagreeable, and
the colonies that are being worked, cross.
Before they become very numerous, two or
three robber-traps are put into operation;
and in an hour absolute peace is restored.

The value of the traps depends on the
fact that it stops a would-be bad case of
robbing he fore it has progressed to any
extent. A little syrup (and a very little)
is put into one or two traps. The robbers,
because hunting for sweets, are caught
long before any honest bees think of look-
ing for them.

CONSTRUCTION OF ROBBER-TRAPS.

An ordinary hive, two wire screens such
as are employed for moving bees, a super-
cover, and a wire-cloth-cone bee-escape,
make up the complete outfit. (The ordi-
nary Porter spring escapes for this pur-

pose have not been found to be as satisfac-
tory as the wire-cloth cones.) Just over
the entrance of the hive against the inside
of the hive front is tacked the wire-cloth
cone. This cone is made by cutting and
folding a piece of wire cloth in the form of
a triangle., The large end fits over the
entrance, while the other end, gradually
tapering to a small orifice (about % inch
square), reaches nearly to the top of the
hive, or within an inch of the rabbet on
which the frames rest; it is then secured
by double-pointed tacks as shown in the
illustration. As an additional precaution
it is desirable to have a smaller wire cone of

f

i

Fig. 1.— Wire-cloth-cone bee-escape on the inside of
robber-traps. Note that the large end of the cone
communicates with the regular entrances of the hive.
Robbers pass in at the entrance up thru the cone into
the hive and are caught.

the same construction under the larger one.
Where there is only one cone the bees are
liable to go back thru the cone.

One of these traps is placed at a conven-
ient location in the yard, when one of the
wire screens for moving bees is laid on top.
With a brush a little diluted honey (honey
is better than syrup) is smeared over the
•wire cloth toward the back of the screen.
This film of honey is spread over an area
of about two inches wide by the width of
the screen. Another sgreen is placed on

ROBBING

657

Fig. 2. — Outside detail of the robber-trap. A double screen is used, and honey is painted on the inner
screen. Robbers are attracted b}" the odor of the honey. As they can not reach it from the outer screen they
enter the hive and are trapped.

top of this, and over the whole is placed a
super-cover, as at the left in Fig. 2. It will
be noticed that this super-cover is set back
about two inches, leaving a portion of the
wire cloth — the part smeared with honey —
exposed where the bees can get a smell of
it, but not touch it, because the upper
screen keeps them from it.

A robber-bee, if a "hardened sinner"' or
a professional, when it smells honey in this
way will immediately begin to " investi-
gate." It will hover around the wire cloth
(not covered by the super-cover) for a
minute or two, and then, like a duck to
water, it will make a dart for the entrance.
There are no guards there to stop it ; it
rushes in pellmeU, crawls up thru the two
wire-cloth cones shown in the previous illus-
tration, and out thru the apex, when it is a
prisoner. It may take a sip of honey, and
when it gets its fill it will go toward the
light at the point where the super-cover is
slid backward, and there it will soon woriy
itself to death. The chances are only one
in a thousand that it will ever get back
thru the wire-cloth cones and escape from
the trap. After the trap catches all the
criminally inclined bees, and the small
amount of diluted honey on the inner wii-e
cloth is used up, it will be found that the
robber-trap automatically goes out of com-
mission. The old robbers are all caught;
and as there is no more honey to attract
honest bees, none will be caught.

The question may arise, " Is the robber-
trap of any use to the honey-producer?"

Xot to the same extent that it is useful in a
queen-rearing yard ; but during a period of
extracting there are times when it might be
used to good advantage, especially if some
careless employee should happen to leave
the door of the honej-house open or allow
a colony to be robbed to death.

As has already been pointed out. if
robbers can be caught at the veiy start
they will be found to be mainly from one
hive, and a little later from two or three.
TVhen they are going well they will attract
other bees by theii' uproar; but if robber-
bees be floured, and followed back to their
hives, it vrill be seen that the gTeat bulk of
them go to only two or thi'ee hives.

HOW THE ROBBER-TRAP CAX BE MADE TO
CURE THE ROBBIXG XUISAXCE.

It often happens that a colony win be
nearly conquered by robbei-s, and it may be
a fairly good-sized colony. The thing to do
then is to take it off its stand and put a
robber-trap in its place, when, presto ! the
thieves will be imprisoned. In the mean-
time the attacked colony is taken down
ceUar where a window has been left open.
The maraudei^ that don't belong there will
pass outward thm the Tvdndow, which then
should be closed. In very short order the
robber-trap on the stand of the hive that
was being robbed will have collected all the
robbers. When everything becomes quiet
in the yard, put the trapped bees do^^vn
cellar and keep them there for some days

658

ROBBING

as already directed. If confined more than
two days they will have to be fed.

The robbed colony, after its despoilers
are caught, may now be put back on its
stand, when the entrance should be con-
tracted to about the space that one bee can
pass at a time. The bees in the trap down
cellar can not of course molest it; and,
during the time that they are held in con-
finement, the robbed colony will have recov-
ered itself, and with its contracted entrance
will be able to put up a very stiff defense
in case another onslaught is made.

EXCHANGING PLACES WITH THE BOBBING
AND ROBBED COLONIES.

Trying to people our house-apiary in the
fall, when it was first built, we had trouble
with one certain colony. In fact, when
robbing was going on anywhere it was sure
to be these hybrids that were at the bottom
of the mischief. After trying every plan
recommended, and still finding these fel-
lows would persist in pushing into every
new colony started, the idea occurred that,
on the principle that it takes a rogue to
catch a rogue, it would be well to try to see
how these would repel other robbers. The
greater part of the combs were taken from
the robbers, bees and all, carried into the
house-apiary, and put into the hive which
had been robbed. The effect was instan-
taneous. Every laden robber-bee that went
home with its load, on finding the queen
and brood gone from the old stand at once
showed the utmost consternation, while the
passion for robbing was instantly changed
to grief and moaning for the lost home.
The Aveak colonj^ which they had been rob-
bing, and which had only a queen-cell, was
carried to them, and they soon took up with
it and went to work. The robbers newly
domiciled in the house-apiary repelled all
invaders with such energy and determina-
tion that the rest seemed to abandon the
idea which they, doubtless, had previously
formed; viz., that the house-apiary was a
monster hive but ill garrisoned, so we had
vei^' little trouble afterward. Before they
were transposed, as mentioned, we had seri-
ious thoughts of destroying their queen, sim-
ply because they were such pests; but the
year afterward, this colony gave in the
house-apiary over 100 lbs, of comb honey.

now TO KNOW WHEN A HIVE IS PUTTING
UP A GOOD DEFENSE.

The half-tone shown below is a good
illustration of how a powerful colony will
deploy its sentinels or guards during the
time when other colonies near by are being
robbed. This colony is prepared for any
kind of an onslaught; for the minute that
a robber hovers over the entrance it is
promptly met . in mid air by one of the
sentinels. They immediately clutch in a
rough-and-tumble fight, drop to the ground,

A colonv that is ready to fneet any kind of onslaught ,
fron-. robbers. Jiobbers had hovered around the en-
trance. The result was, the guards were out in good
force to repel the attack.

roll over and over, and lucky is the robber
if it gets away without having its hair or
legs pretty vigorously pulled. Such " a
warm reception " will discourage any
would-be robber from tackling that colony
again. The entrance is rather wide open
and the colony is strong enough to put up
a defense and a vigorous one at that. If
the colony were not so strong it would be
proper to contract the entrance as shown
elsewhere under Entrances to Hives and
Wintering.

working with bees by lantern light

WHEN robbers ARE TROUBLESOME
DURING THE DAY.

Some years ago, when the conditions hap-
pened to be such that most of the colonies
were not much more than two- or three-
frame nuclei, it was .n<^cessa.ry to build

ROBBING

659

them up by means of stimnlative feeding.
No lione}^ had been coming in, and the bees
were very troublesome about robbing. The
moment the hive was opened, robbers
would pounce down on the combs. Feed-
ing by day was quite out of the question.
It was finally decided to try going thru the
colonies by lantern light ; and, quite to our
surprise, it was found possible to examine
hive after hive, and get a pretty accurate
idea of their condition. Of course, no rob-
bers would bother at such a time. The bees
were given some weak syrup at the time of
the examination, and by morning it would
be all taken up. By working a few nights
in this way by lantern light the whole
apiary was built up without any trouble
from robbers, and by late fall there was a
lot of fine colonies well supplied with stores
and young bees.

The only difficulty one will experience
will be the disposition on the part of a few
bees to fly out toward the light. Some of
them will buzz around against the lantern-
globe. But the trouble from this source is
not very gTeat. Other bees will have a
tendency to crawl up one's sleeve or his
clothing. To prevent this the ordinaiy
fingerless gloves as described under Gloves
should be worn.

HOW TO REMOVE THE ROBBIXG TEXDEKCY
BY OUTDOOR FEEDIXG.

When honey is coming in there is no
robbing; but as the nectar supply stops,
bees begin to pry around to find what they
can steal. At such times, when hives are
opened for examination robbers will be
about, and if the combs are exposed very
much by such handling they will pounce
upon the hive and combs in great numbers,
and then attack the entrance after the hive
is closed up. If one is trying to rear
queens the results will be discouraging.
Bees get cross, refuse to start cells (or, if
built out, tear them down), kill off drones,
and destroy drone brood.

The fact that there is no robbing when
honey is coming in suggests the remedy;
viz., feed outdoors a thin syrup of the con-
sistency of raw nectar, See Feeding Out-
doors.

HOW TO FEED OUT UNFINISHED SECTIONS OR
WET EXTRACTING-COMBS.

While these can be scattered out in the
open, it is quite sure to result in fearful
robbing and stinging after the supply is
exhausted. To forestall this, the combs and
sections should be put in hives or supers,
one tiered above another on a regular
bottom-board, and the entrance contracted
so that not more than one or two bees can
pass at a time. To make it wider results in
a scramble and robbing of weak colonies in
the yard. The top of the tier of hives or
supers should, of course, be covered.

These tiered-up hives with smaU en-
trances are much used to clean up scraps
of honey, extracting-combs, and to empty
out partly finished sections. (See Comb
Honey.) This slow robbing also has a
tendency to di'aw off robbers from the nu-
clei and weak colonies and therefore serves
a double purpose.

AVHAT HAPPENS IF ROBBING IS NOT STOPPED.

When robbing is under genuine head-
way, the honey of a strong colony will dis-
appear in from two to twelve hours; the
bees will then starve in the hive, or scatter
about and die. This is not all; when the
passion is fully aroused they will not hes'i-
tate to attack the strongest stocks, and bees
will be stung to death in heaps before the
entrances. This may finaUj^ put a stop to
it, but they may push ahead until every
hive of the apiary is in an uproar. At
such times the robbers wall attack passers-
by in the streets, and even venture an at-
tack on cats, dogs, hens, and turkeys. Like
the American Indians when infuriated at
the sight of blood, every bee seems to have
a demoniacal delight in selling its life while
inflicting aU the toraients it possibly can,
feeling sad only because it can not do any
more mischief.

The worst robbing time seems to be after
the heaviest or main honey flow is over,
when bees become especially crazy if they
get even a smell of honey left carelessly
anywhere near the hives. One who has
never seen such a state of affairs can have
but little idea of the furious way they
sting every thing and ever^^body. The
remedy is to get a good smoker and put
in enough fuel to insure dense smoke;

660

ROCKY MOUNTAIN BEE PLANT

then, using one hand to work the smoker
bellows, with the other, contract the en-
trance of every hive that shows any symp-
toms of being robbed. Shut up every bit
of honey where not a bee can get at it, and
do the work well; for at such times they
will wedge into and get thru cracks that
would make one think inch hoards were
hardly protection enough. Be up betimes
next morning to see that all entrances are
close and small, and that all the hives are
bee-tight. An experienced hand will re-
store peace and quietness in a very short
time to such a demoralized apiary. Black
bees are much worse than Italians, for the
latter will usually hold their stores against
any number of assailants; good, strong,
well-made hives, filled with Italians, with
plenty of brood in each, will be in little
danger of any such " raids," altho we have
seen the wounded and slain piled up in
heaps before robbers would desist and give
up trying to force an entrance. See Anger
OP Bees.

BORROV^ING.

Before closing this subject of robbing
there are a few more points to be men-
tioned. There is a kind of pillaging called
borrowing, where the bees from one hive
will go quietly into another, and carry
away its stores as fast as gathered; but
this usually happens where the robbed stock
is queenless, or has an infertile queen. As
soon as they have eggs and brood, they
begin to realize what the end of such work
will be. This state of affairs seldom goes
on long ; for it either results in downright
robbiQg, or the bees themselves put a stop
to it.

Caution to Beginners. — The first year we
kept bees there was constant fear that they
would get to robbing, as we had read so
much about it. One afternoon in May we
saw a large number of bees passing rapidly
out and m a particular hive, and the more
they were examiaed the more we were per-
suaded that they were being robbed. We
contracted the entrance, but it seemed to
make little difference. We finally closed it
almost entirely, compelling the bees to
squeeze out and in, in a way that must have
been quite uncomfortable, at least. After
awhile they calmed down, and we had only
the ordinary number of bees going out and

in. " There," we thought, " had we not
] ead the books and known how, we might
have lost our bees," and we undoubtedly
felt very wise if we did not look so. On
turning the head, behold, the robbers were
at another colony, and they had to be put
thru the same program; then another and
another; until we concluded a host of rob-
bers had come from somewhere, and made
a raid on the apiary, and that, had we not
been on hand, the whole of them would
have been ruined. We had become very
nervous and fidgety, and, when we found
the whole performance repeated the next
day, we began to think bee culture a very
trying pursuit. Well, in due course of time
we figured out that there was no robbing at
all, but that it was just the young bees
taking their afternoon playspell, for, as we
have already stated, a playspell of young
bees often looks like a case of robbing. See
Playspells op Bees,

ROCKY MOUNTAIN BEE PLANT

{Cleome surrulata Pursh). — This is a beau-
tiful plant for the fiower garden, to say
nothing of the honey it produces. It grows

Rocky Mountain bee plant.

from two to three feet in height, and bears
large clusters of bright pink flowers, as
shown in the cut.

SAGE

661

It grows naturally on tlie Rocky Moun-
tains and in Colorado, where it is said to
furnish large quantities of honey. Altho it
succeeds easily under cultivation we can not
learn that it has ever been a pecuniary suc-
cess in our locality. With this, as with all

other plants, it must be borne in mind that
a fair test would requii'e acres instead of
little patches in the garden.

ROYAL JELLY. — See QuEEi^s; also

QUEEX-EEAEIXG.

SAGtE. — Sage honey, which is widely
known for its delicious flavor in Europe as
well as in America, is a product peculiar to
California. Practically the entire sage re-
gion of this State lies south of a line drawn
from the coast thm San Luis Obispo and
Tehachapi. Sage honey is obtained princi-
pally from the black and white sages, altho
there are several other species which yield
a surplus in certain localities ; but the black
sage, also known as ball, button, and blue
sage, is by far the most important, and ranks
as the chief honey plant of California.

Black Sage {Salvia meUifera Greene)
is so called because after the blooming sea-
son is over the flowers and leaves turn dark
and adhere to the bush until the next sea-
son. It is abundant in southern California
in sunny canyons and on the slopes of the
Coast Ranges and the San Bernardino
Mountains. Richter says that it ascends to
an elevation of 5,000 feet. It is a shrubby
plant with many herbaceous branches, from
three to six feet tall, bearing naiTow leaves
which are green above and woolly beneath.
The flowers are in dense whorls, of which
there are from three to five on each branch
as shown in the illustration. These whorls,
the larger of which are an inch across, are
known as buttons, and diminish in size
toward the tip of the stalk. The flowers
are white, or tinged with violet, two-lipped,
and begin to open fii'st on the outer edge of
the w^horl or cluster of buds, and the plant
continues in bloom until each " button "
has whoUy flowered out. A tiny drop of
nectar can be squeezed from each corolla
tube in the same way as from red clover.

The honey flow lasts from the middle of
March, or the first of April, until about the

fii'st of July. The crop is unreliable every
other year, and a total failure once in three
or four years. Every fifth year a large

A stem of California black sage with blossoms.

crop may be expected, and if the rainfall
has been ample a fail' surplus is sometimes

662

SAGE

A bush of California button sage.

obtained three years in succession. The
black sage does not yield nectar freely un-
less there has been at least ten inches of
rain during the winter, followed by a clear
warm spring. The rainfall varies greatly
in different years, presenting great ex-
tremes; in 1882, Chadwick says that there
was only 2.94 ins., while in 1905 it
amounted to 22.12 inches. Altho the plants
are well adapted to live in semiarid regions,
if there is a long-continued drouth, they
dry up and are valueless to the beekeeper.
The flowers are often injured by the sage
worm, and the foliage by rust. The honey
is water-white, thick and heavy, and does
not granulate.

White Sage {Salvia apiana Jep.) be-
gins to flower during the latter half of
May, and the blooming period lasts from

six to eight weeks. It is very abundant on
the dry plains, or mesa lands, and foothills
of southern California. There are thousands
of acres of this beautiful shrub, and one
may ride thru avenues of it for miles. One
range is described as a mile wide and two
miles long consisting practically of un-
broken white sage. The shrubby plants
are four or five feet tall, the foliage and
stems are light green, and there are numer-
ous flower stalks loaded with short lateral
racemes of bilabiate, white flowers. The
lower flowers on the stems expand flrst.

A flower of the white sage secretes much
less nectar than does one of either the black
or purple sage. In districts where both the
black and white sages were abundant bee-
keepers have estimated that the black
yielded ten pounds of honey to one from
the white species. To produce a vigorous

SAGE

663

stems and blossoms of California white sage.

growth and a profusion of flowers there
must be a sufficient rainfall. The honey is
white and heavy, does not candy ; while the
quality is nearly as fine as that of black
sage. Much of the white-sage honey, so-
called, comes from black sage.

The purple sage {S. leucopliylla) has its
purple flowers clustered in whorls, or "but-
tons" similar to the black sage. This species
is not so abundant as the black and white
sages, and is found chiefly in southern Cal-
ifornia westward of the Coast Ranges.
None of the sages yield nectar more freely.
The honey is water-white, does not crystal-
lize, and its flavor is described as superior
to that of all other sage honeys. The creep-
ing sage {S. sonomensis) , or ramona, cov-
ers the ground with a mat-like growth,
from which arise flowering stems four or
five inches tall bearing light violet flowers.
The species is widely distributed in the
Sierra Nevada and Coast Range, and in
some localities is important. The honey is
like that of the other sages.

Annual sage (^S*. columhariae) , or chia,
is also common on the foothills and
mountains of the Coast Range, and in some
districts yields a surplus. The seeds were
fonnerly used for food, and were also
considered of medicinal value in cases of
fever. The above three species bloom in
April and May.

LAXGSTROTH-'S OPINION OF SAGE HONEY.

The crops of honey secured from black
sage within the past 25 years have been so
immense that fine sage honey is now offered
for sale in almost all the principal cities of
the world, and a nice sample of well-ripened
California honey, whether comb or ex-
tracted, is enough to call forth exclama-
tions of surprise and delight from any one
who thinks enough of something good to
eat, and pleasant to the taste, to commit
himself so far. We well remember the first
taste we had of the mountain-sage honey.
Mr. Langstroth was visiting us at the time,

664

SCALE HIVE

and his exclamations were much like our
own, only that he declared that it was
almost identical in flavor with the famed
honey of Hymettus, of which he had re-
ceived a sample some years before. This
honey of Hymettus, which had been cele-
brated both in poetry and prose for ages
past, is gathered from mountain thyme,
and the botany tells us that thyme and
sage not only belong to the same family,
but are closely related. Therefore it is
nothing strange if Mr. Langstroth was
right in declaring our California honey to
be almost identical in flavor with the honey
of Hymettus. The California sages grow
along the sides of the mountains, and blos-
som successively as the season advances;
that is, the bees first commence work on
them in the valleys, and then gradually fly
higher up, as the blossoms open on the
mountain side, giving them a much longer
season than we have in regions not moun-
tainous.

A peculiarity of this honey is that it is
not inclined to candy, but remains limpid
during the severest winter weather. We
have taken a sample so thick that the tum-
bler containing it might be turned bottom
upward without its running at all, and
placed it out in the snow, in the dead of
winter, and failed to crystallize it.

SAINFOIN {Onobrychis sativa Lam.).
— This excellent farm crop has been grown
for ages in Europe, and at the present day
is raised very extensively, more particular-
ly in England, France, and Belgium, where
it is a standby. The name " sainfoin " lit-
erally means healthy hay, presumably be-
cause it does not bloat stock to which it is
fed. It certainly makes fine hay — possibly
the very best known. It also produces
choice honey in liberal quantities — the
honey almost identical with white-clover
honey. Grown and cultivated very much
as alfalfa is in this country, it has this
difference — it is not suited to a semiarid
country. It has been grown quite success-
fully at the Ottawa, Ontario, experiment
station, and thruout all Ontario. Sainfoin
does not yield as much hay as alfalfa,
being finer in vine, and not so tall. It
commences to bloom shortly after fruit
blossoms fall, and stays in bloom long
enough to allow bees ample time to gather
a crop. The blossoms do not come all

together, but in succession, hence it is not
practical to cut it just before blooming
time, as is now done with alfalfa. It would
seem to be a good crop for those who raise
fine horses and cattle, also jDoultrymen who
feed cut clover. It is not likely it will ever
yield so large a crop as alfalfa, but in
every other respect it is probably superior.

SCALE HIVE. — Many of our most
prominent beekeepers have in their yards
during the season when honey is coming
a sort of barometer of the daily honey flow
or, more exactly, a scale hive. This con-
sists of a hive mounted on ordinary plat-
form spring scales with a dial to indicate
any increase or decrease in the weight of
the colony. As the honey flow begins, it
will be apparent that the hive will gain
slightly in weight. This weight will in-
crease during the day that there is a fair
honey flow and decrease somewhat during
the night owing to evaporation of the
nectar. As the season continues it is very
easy to determine the strength of the honey
flow, what days are best, what conditions
are best for a honey flow, and when the
season nears its close the dial will show a
smaller and smaller increase until no gain
is shown at all.

Eor a scale hive it is advisable to select
a strong colony — one of the very best in the
yard, because a medium or indifferent one
might not show any increase in weight,
while the stronger colony would be able to
record whether any honey at all were com-
ing in. While of course it is understood
that this strong colony would not be a fair
average of all the others in the apiary, it
would indicate, to some extent, what the
nectar secretion was in the field. If, for
example, the best colony would record a
pound or two pounds in a day, it might be
assumed that the poorer or weaker colonies
would show proportionately anywhere from
a half to a full pound of nectar increase in
weight. Still again, our best colony on the
scale might not show more than a quarter
of a pound increase. Correspondingly the
other colonies of the apiary might not
show any gain if they were on the scale.
Therefore, it is important to have the best
colony in the yard.

One might naturally ask why it is im-
portant to have a scale hive. It might be
argued that an expert beekeeper would be

SHIPPING BEES

665

able to determine by the flight of the bees
going into the hives whether a honej^ flow
was on, whether there was a good flow,
whether it was increasing, or whether it
was letting up. Very tiiie, but the actual
record of the best colony in the apiary,
together with the observation of the flight
of the bees at all entrances, gives an ex-
perienced beekeeper a much more accurate
idea of what is going on. In a practical
way, the scale hive enables the apiarist to
determine whether he should put his extra
super on top of those partly filled, or
whether he should place it under. See

CO^LB HOXEY. TO PeODUCE.

Suppose that it is at the beginning of
the honey flow and that the bees have part-
ly filled the first super given. If the scale
hive shows a good record day by day, it
would be advisable to place the next empty
super under the one partly filled. If, on
the other hand, the season is getting toward
its close and the scale shows a gradual
daily decrease, then it would be advisable
to put the extra super on top of the one
partly filled, or perhaps, better stiU, not
put it on at all.

The scale hive is very useful also in
determining how far it is advisable to
continue extracting in the yard. If the
season is drawing toward a close and one
desires to leave enough stores in the hive
for winter, or to take care of brood-rearing,
in anticipation of another honey flow to
foUow in another month or six weeks, then
obviously it is not advisable to extract if
such extracting would leave the hives with-
out any stores, making it necessary later
on to feed sugar syrup.

The scale hive is of value to the honey-
producer by enabling him to determine what
policy to pursue during the season, so that
in producing comb honey he will not have
too many unfinished sections on his hands ;
or, if he is running for extracted, he will
not leave his brood-nests bare of honey, if
he extracts at all from the brood-nest as
some beekeepers do. Again, there are some
producers who, tho they do not extract
from below, desire to have left over for
winter a large number of extracting combs
well filled with sealed honey so that at the
close of the season they can give the bees
the necessary stores by simply giving these
combs. In cool or cold weather they are
invaluable. They save all feeding, and

considerable extra time, besides the cost of
sugar.

The yield per day for a strong colony of
bees may vary all the way from half a
pound to ten or even more pounds.

SCOUTS PRECEDING SWARM.— See

Abscoxdixg SwAR^iis, also Swar:mixg.

SECTIONS.— See CoiiB Honey, Appli-
ances FOR and Hm:s.

SELLING HONEY. — See Bottling
HoxET, Extracted Hoxey, Comb Hoxey,
Shippixg Cases^ and Specialty ix Bees.

SELF-SPACING F R A M E S. — See

Frames; also Frames^ Self-spacixg^ and
Hn^s.

SEPARATORS. — See Comb Hoxey,
Appliances for.

SHADE FOR HIVES.— See Apiaey-.

SHIPPING BEES.— Under Migratory
Beekeepixg mention is made of the advan-
tage of moving bees from one locality to
another to catch the honey flow. The prac-
tice has been extended so that bees are
sometimes moved from one state to another
in carlots. This enables the OAvner to gather
two or three crops of honey; whereas if
he were to remain in one locality he would
secure only one.

Shipping bees in carlots from one place
to another has been practiced more in the
"West and Xorth than in the East ; but some
beekeepers in the Xorthem States, just
before "winter sets in, move their bees to the
extreme South, build them up during the
early winter or spring, catch a crop of
honey, then move them back north to catch
the clover flow.

The publishers of this work have moved
several carloads of bees in this way. In
our first two shipments we succeeded; but
later ones were not as successful, for the
reason that the seasons both south and
north were unfavorable. Unless there is a
fairly good crop of honey to be secured at
both ends of the route the practice of
moving bees in carlots is not a paying one ;
and as the seasons are somewhat uncertain,
the movement of bees from north to south
and from south to north is attended with
considerable risk.

t

666

SHIPPING BEES

Usually the freight alone on a carload
of bees from Florida to Ohio will run
somewhere about $1.00 per colony provided
there are 350 colonies to the car. The
larger the number of colonies, the lower is
the freight relatively. Unfortunately the
railroad companies require that the attend-
ant who goes with the bees pay regular
railroad fare. This ruling is decidedly un-
just, because the attendant in a carload of
horses can go free. The freight rate on the
bees themselves, the loss of some bees and
brood during shipment, railroad fare of
attendant, his time on a basis of twenty
hours a day,* makes the expense of mov-
ing from the extreme South to the North
about $2.00 per colony. If the bees are
moved back to the North there must be
entered a charge of about $4.00 against
each colony. In order to cover this expense
the season will have to be good at both
ends of the route to yield a profit.

In some cases the weather is extremely
hot when the bees are moved. If the tem-
perature ranges around 80 or 90 in the
shade, the loss of bees and brood will be
considerable in spite of the precautionary
measures on the part of the attendant in
spraying the bees with water, as will be
explained further on. This loss may
amount to nearly 50 per cent of the bees
and brood. If colonies are worth, with
the queens, $5.00 each, it will be seen that
in addition to the charge of $2.00 there will
have to be entered another of $2.50.

It sometimes happens that the car is un-
necessarily delayed en route; and every
day of delay means the loss of bees as well
as brood. Ordinarily a car of bees will not
stand more than four or five days of hot
weather.

While the moving of bees from Florida
to some Northern State is attended with
considerable risk, so much so that such
long-distance shipments to and from these
points have been practically discontinued,
it is comparatively easy to move bees from
Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming into Cali-
fornia in the fall or early winter. (See
Migratory Beekeeping.) The distance is
much shorter and one is much more sure of
catching a crop at either end of the route
than he is when he moves a ear to Florida
and back to his own State, in the North.

* He won't get imicli sleep, as he will have to be on
the alert almost night and day.

No one should attempt to move bees in car-
lots anywhere without reading this article
very carefully. If possible he should con-
sult those who have already moved bees
successfully.

Where one desires to move only 100 or
150 miles and the roads are suitable, using
a large traction motor truck with a trailer,
will be cheaper than sending by rail. Even
tho one has to pay at the rate of ten or
fifteen cents a mile, the cost of moving will
be less than moving by rail. Usually a
motor truck with a trailer can be secured
that will move one or two hundred colonies
at a trip. The cost of loading will be very
much less, because when bees are shipped
by rail they must be securely fastened to
take care of the severe end jolts of a
freight train that are heavy enough to jar
every colony loose from its moorings and
let loose the bees. The motor truck, on the
other hand, will be under the direct control
of the owner of the bees. It can start
gradually, and be run slow enough to avoid
jolts over the " thank-you-ma'ams " and
chuck-holes.

HOV^ TO PREPARE A CARLOAD OF BEES FOR
SHIPMENT.

An important requisite in shipping a
load of bees is to get the local agent to
make arrangements all along the line to see
that the bees are moved with all possible
speed. At transfer points it is especially
important to get an order from the operat-
ing lines to have the bees transferred with-
out delay. Arrangements should be made
at least a week or two in advance, as it
takes time for the correspondence to get
over the lines. It is also important that
the rate of freight be deteraiined in ad-
vance.

If there are not more than 250 colonies
to be moved, a small car should be secured,
in order to reduce the minimum weight on
which freight must be paid. Usually the
average gross weight of the hives of bees
will be below minimum freight; therefore
the more bees there are loaded on to a car
the less the relative cost per colony. The
average 36-foot car will take about 350
colonies, piled four tiers high, two rows on
a side, leaving a small alleyway between
the tiers of colonies and an entrance-way
opposite the car doors, for there must be

SHIPPING BEES

667

room for the attendant to place a cot-bed
where he can sleep, when conditions will
permit, either night or day. The minimum
weight on a 36-foot car is 14,000 lbs. The
average shipping weight of a colony is
about 50 lbs., including the crate. . This
will make the gross weight 17,500 lbs., or
3,500 lbs. in excess of the minimum. If
one were to ship only 200 colonies he would

Fig. 1. — Crating on platform ready to load.

have to pay freight on the minimum of
14,000 lbs., and on this basis he would be
paying for 4,000 lbs. of freight, with noth-
ing to show for it. Hence it is important
to load up to the minimum.

Arrangements for se-
curing the car should
be made at least a week
in advance. During
warm weather or when
the weather is not cold,
a cattle-car should be
secured. For fall ship-
ment an ordinary box
car should be selected.
Not all cars furnished
by the railroad com-
pany will be strong and
well built.

Formerly it was
thought necessary to
build a series of shelv-
ing made of 4 x 4's and
2 X 4's to hold the hives
one tier above another, as it was supposed
that some colonies might need individual
treatment en route. But experience shows
that this is impracticable. Moreover, the
arrangement of shelving wastes space, and

makes the loading and unloading very dif-
ficult and expensive.

On our later shipments from north to
south and back we discovered a better plan.
A series of cratings were made of 2 x 4's
and long %-inch strips 4 inches wide. The
cratings were put together in such a way
that the 2 x 4's stood on edge. For cool or
cold weather they might be laid flatways
and thus save a little room. The long
strips were nailed on each side, making in
all a framework 4 inches thick plus two
%-inch strips, or a total of 5% inches.

Figs. 1 and 2 show how the crating is
put together. Each crate should be long
enough to run from the car door to the
end of the car, and wide enough to take
two tiers of hives side by side the narrow
way. The %-inch strips are nailed on each
side at intervals, center to center, equal to
width of hive. The two by fours are
spaced a distance equal to the length of
the hive. A crate is set down on the car
floor to provide bottom ventilation. Two
rows of hives are piled on the crate side by
side, with the front and rear of the hives
pointing to the front and rear of the car.
If everything has been done right the
edges of each hive will rest upon the long
4-inch strip. Every other 2 x 4 in the
crate is made a little longer so that it can

Fig. 2. — One section in the car ready for the hives.

be bolted to an upright 2x4 that binds the
four tiers of hives together. The operation
of loading is as follows :

One crate is placed on the car floor. Two
rows of hives with screens at top and bot-

668

SHIPPING BEES

i

■ <. y^.. ...,..^.^.^,,/..a////^J .^^^^^ , i,r, „ r„ «„m,<« nnf, iir,, i ,-m i mm^

Fig. 3. — Interior of first car of bees from Virginia, May 21, 1915, just before the work of unloading.

torn are loaded on the crate. In hot weather
it is not advisable to try to get along with
only a top screen. Over the first tier is
then placed another crate; on top another
tier of hives until there are four tiers. The
other sides of the car are loaded in pre-
cisely the same way. When all are in
place, the upright 2 x 4's as long as the
height of four tiers are bolted to the pro-
jecting end of the horizontal 2 x 4's in
each crate. Bolts are used because they are
more easily removed than nails and are
stronger. Thus there is a set of two tiers
of hives on each side of the ear with an
alley way between these sets. The two
sets are then braced from each other by
means of ties across the top and bottom.
To stand the end shocks the two sets of
tiers in each end of the car are securely
braced apart by 4 x 4's. These ties or

braces must be at the top and bottom so
that the operator can reach every colony
with a watering pot.

There will be a space in the alley way of
about 14 to 15 inches between the two sets
of tiers lengthwise and a space of the
width of the car between the car doors and
between the ends of the tiers. This latter
space is occupied with tools, cot-bed, bed-
clothing, lanterns, hammer, saw, nails, a
few extra bolts, a brace and bit, and a lit-
tle extra lumber. Usually it is an advan-
tage to carry along a little oil stove to heat
water for coffee or do a little light cooking,
as one gets a little tired of all " cold grub "
on so tedious a journey. It is important
that each of the hives should be screened
top and bottom as explained under Moving
Bees Short Distances. That makes it
necessary to remove covers and bottoms.

SHIPPING BEES

669

These should be piled on top of the tiers of
hives just under the car roof. They should
be secured by means of a rope or wire.

Where a cattle-car is used the crates can
be wired to the frame of the sides of the
car. This helps to hold each tier to itself.

SPRAYING THE BEES TO KEEP THEM COOL.

Mention was made of the fact that the'
operator should have room enough so he
can go back and forth between the hives to
sprinkle them with a watering-pot or force-
pump. It is important to have in each car
at least one or two barrels of water along
with the bed and tools. During hot weather
on a trip of six days bees will use up
several barrels of water en route. When
the car stops and the weather is hot, bees
will be thickly clustered over the wire
cloth ; and to prevent their becoming overr
heated the wire cloth should be sprayed.
Care should be taken not to overdo it, as
the young brood will be chilled. As a gen-
eral thing, unsealed brood, either on ac-
count of too much heat or chilling in bad
weather, will be killed, altho we have
brought shipments thru from the South
with all the brood in good condition; but
the weather was cool, and the hives were
sprayed only when the car was not moving.

The attendant must make up his mind
that a trip with a carload of bees is not a
Pullman ride. He will have to watch the
framework very carefully, especially after
each end shock. Whenever the car stops
he will have to look after the spraying.
When the car has to stand on a side track
for a few hours he may be compelled to
tack some sheeting on the exposed side of
the car to shut out the hot rays of the sun.

While one can get 350 single-story colo-
nies of bees in a 36-foot car, he can load 200
two-story colonies, in the same space. This
saves some crating and time in handling
individual units. Colonies that are very
strong wiU not go thru as well as those that
are lighter. Ordinarily 3 lbs. of bees and
six or seven frames of brood are enough
for a single-story hive. Colonies, however,
may be proportionally stronger in cool or
cold weather.

MOVING BEES IN REFRIGERATOR CARS.

When bees are moved in cool weather,
say along in the fall, a cattle-car of the

kind already described is as good as any-
thing that can be used ; but if it is desired
to move them in hot weather, the cattle-car
can still be used, provided the hives are
placed far enough apart to insure ventila-
tion and the screens are wet down with
water.

Some beekeepers have used very success-
fully, for hot weather, refrigerator cars
packed with ice. The bees are put in the
car in much the same manner as already
described, except that not as much ventila-
tion is required and therefore less space is
needed between the several tiers of hives.
The several rows of hives one on top of the
other, should be securely braced and the
car iced at the starting of the journey. In
this case an attendant does not stay in the
car, but should go along with the train
crew to see that the car is not side-tracked
and that it does not get out of ice.

Difficulty has been experienced in get-
ting ice along the route in a few instances.
Before one attempts to ship in refrigerator
cars he should make sure that he can get
ice along the route when needed. For
short distances no extra ice would be re-
quired.

The idea of using a refrigerator car, of
course, is to reduce the temperature so as
to keep the bees quiet; but the mistake
should not be made of putting on the cov-
ers of the hives supposing that the icing
will be sufficient. The constant moving of
the car keeps the bees stirred up so it is
advisable to use wire screens the same as
when an open cattle-car is used.

The great problem of moving bees,
whether in cattle cars or refrigerator cars,
is to keep them from getting overheated.
There is no trouble during the fall of the
year or during winter. In moving bees
during cold weather a closed box car is
preferable to a cattle-car. In no case
should refrigerator cars be used except
during extremely hot weather when for ex-
ample bees are moved from southern Cali-
fornia in June or July to Idaho, Montana,
or Wyoming to catch the later flow of
honey from alfalfa.

SHIPPING BEES IN CARLOTS V^ITHOUT COMBS.

Under Beginning v^ith Bees^ men-
tion is made of bees being sent by express
without combs. Some experiments have

670

SHIPPING BEES

J^oailing the Ijees on the steauier.

been made showing that, even tho express
rates are considerably higher, a 3-lb. pack-

I

age of beeS; or, rather, a crate of 12 of
them, can be sent by express cheaper than
the equivalent capacity of bees and brood
in the regular hives by freight, and the
time on the road will be very much less.
I>ut during extremely warm weather, such
packages of bees, possibly a dozen or more,
do not go thru in good order. But in early
■spring they can be sent from the South to
build up colonies in the North very nicely.

A large business has developed in ship-
ping bees by express in one-, two-, and
three-pound packages without combs, and
this business is proving to be highly profit-
able. See Beginning with Bees.

SHIPPING BEES BY BOAT.

Where water privileges are available,
bees can often be shipped best by boat,
either up or down river or down bays. In
1914 we shipped bees up the Apalachieola
River. The ordinary flat-bottom boats used
on those shallow rivers answer a very ex-
cellent purpose. The hives are loaded on
the outside platforms; and as there is no
jolt, the indi\'idual hives do not need to be
braced together. Bees on boats like this
can be carried one or two hundred miles
very easily. As the air on water is usually
cooler, there is but very little danger from
suffocation, but they will need to be sprayed
at intervals.

On the boat down the Apalachieola River, between Bainbridge and Randlett's Landing.

SHIPPING CASES FOR COMB HONEY

671

Loading three-frame nuclei on launch preparatory to trip five miles up the river to the Nucleus yard.

For migratory beekeeping small boats
can be used, carrying forty or fifty colonies
at a time for ten or fifteen miles. The
illustrations show bees that we loaded and
moved on the Apalachicola River in 1914.

CASES FOR COMB

is one thing to produce a

SHIPPING
HONEY.— It

fine crop of comb honey with sections nice-
ly filled out, well scraped and gi^aded, and
another thing to deliver that honey to mar-
ket without leakage or breakage. It should
be borne in mind that a section of honey is
exceedingly fragile, much more so than a
bottle containing pickles, syrups, or any
other commodity. For many years back
comb-honey producers have been putting
their nicely built sections in poorly de-
signed cases, and the result has been a
large amount of breakage and leakage.
This loss is usually assessed against the
producer, and sometimes the item alone is
enough to wipe out the entire profit of the
season. When he gets his returns he is so
disgusted that he either quits the business
entirely or produces extracted honey only
thereafter.

If beekeepers would be as careful in
packing their product as the manufacturer

of bottled goods, there would be very little
complaint of broken-down combs or leaky
sections, and the result would be a much
larger consumption of comb honey because
the dealer would then be willing to take it
and push its sale. Unfortunately, there
has been so much ignorance and careless-
ness on the part of comb-honey producers
that many dealers say they will not handle
comb honey again. This is most unfortu-
nate, because the consumers demand comb
honey. Some years there is an over-supply
of extracted and a great deficiency of
honey in the comb. In 1915 and 1916 the
reverse was true.

The old-style shipping cases were made
of light thin stuff having a glass front with
a paper tray in the bottom and cross-cleats
to support the sections of honey. This
case was altogether too light to protect its
fragile contents; and the bottom of the
case, or, rather, the cleats supporting the
sections, were rigid, so that whenever the
case received a bump or jar from any
cause, some sections were liable to be
broken. The patent-medicine men and bot-
tlers of canned goods put up their product
in such a way that each separate bottle will
be cushioned or protected from the ordi-

672

SHIPPING CASES FOR COMB HONEY

nary rough usage that the whole box re-
ceives in the hands of the truck men and
the express handlers, to say nothing of the
damage received when shipped by freight.

The cut shows one of the old-style cases
that provided a rigid or unyielding sup-
port for the sections to rest on; namely,

Old-style shipping case with paper drip pan and no
drip cleats.

the wooden cross-cleats. The next two
illustrations show a much more strongly
built case. It wiU be noticed in the lower
cut that the bottom is padded with ordi-
nary corrugated paper, the same material
that is used by the patent-medicine men in
packing their bottles of medicine. In fact,
the shippers of all bottled goods are using
corrugated paper, not only around the bot-

any of the concussion. Experience has
also demonstrated that it is wiser to use
narrower glass. It shows off the honey to
better advantage, and at the same time
permits of the use of wider cleats and
more nails in the front. When these are
properly nailed, the case is much stronger.

Sometimes cross-partitions of corrugated
paper are used, and at other times cartons
of cheap strawboard, such cartons slipping
around each individual section. If these
are a little larger than the sections, and
especially if a little deeper, they will sus-
tain all the weight that may be placed on
top of the case, leaving the sections which
they contain without any strain upon them.
The cartons have the further advantage
that they can be sold with the individual
sections. In this way the delicate comb is
protected, not only during shipment, but
while in the market basket on the way
from the grocery to the home.

If there is anything that disgusts the
housekeeper, it is a leaky section of honey
that besmears all her other groceries, mak-
ing a broken, sticky mess of everything.
If, therefore, the comb-honey producer
would have the consumer pleased as well
as the large dealer and buyer, he must
make sure that his goods are protected
clear to the consumer.

1

Regular 12-lb. shipping case.

Regular single-tier 24-lb. shipping case.

tie, but in the bottom. This material makes
an excellent cushion, not only under the
sections but at the tops, ends, and sides as
well, so that when the case is dropped or
receives a sudden jar the cushion of the
corrugated paper absorbs a large part, if
not all, of the shock. Comparative tests
show that sections in a case having corru-
gated paper will stand much rougher usage
without breakage than similar sections
placed in a case having rigid cleats across
the bottom that, of course, cannot absorb

The above illustration shows how the
cover-boards are halved together, and how
the glass is let into the strips top and
bottom. (For enlarged detail engraving,
see next page.) The strips should be thoroly
nailed, two nails in each end; in fact, the
case should be well nailed all over. So far
as possible it should be made very rigid, so
that it will not spring nor twist, for if the
case is at all frail the sections are almost
sure to receive damage, particularly so if
corrugated paper and cartons are not used.

SHIPPING CASES FOR COMB HONEY

673

The accompanying illustration shows the
details of what are called saf et}- cases. These
contain the cartons already mentioned, and
also the corrugated paper at the bottom,
top, sides, and ends.

While shipping cases containing cartons
and coiTugated paper and built on scientific
lines cost more, as a matter of course, than
the old-style cases, yet the producer can
well afford to use them, and he will save a
considerable breakage, leakage, and no end
of complaint, and, besides, avoid practical-
ly all trouble with the connnission mer-
chants or the dealei-s who buy the goods.
It generally happens when the comb honey
goes thru in bad order that there is con-
siderable correspondence as to what would
be a proper adjustment. Should the serv-
ices of an attorney be needed, and suit
broughtj still greater expense is incurred.

WHY IT PATS TO USE BETTER SHIPPING'
CASES.

One large buyer of comb honey who buys
honey in car lots made the statement that
his breakage carefully figured up in one
season showed a loss to the producer of not
less than 11 3-10 per cent. If
i the shipments that are made
from aU parts of the country,
in all kinds of shipping cases,
should be taken into considera-
tion, this loss would reach nearer
25 per cent; but call it 20 per
cent. The safety cases with car-
tons and coiTugated paper cost
about 6 or 7 cents more than the
ordinai-y old-style cases that re-
sult in a breakage of about 20
per cent. If the breakage and
leakage amount to about 20 per
cent on the average, and if an
allowance is made for about 50
per cent for salvage on the
broken product, there is still a
loss of anywhere from 35 to 50 cents per
case of honey when the investment of 7 or
8 cents for a better case will save practical-
ly all of it. Let it be assumed that the loss
from leakage and breakage in the ordinary
case is 35 cents per case of 24 sections. On
a crop of 20,000 pounds it would mean a
loss of $300, while the extra cost of using
the safety cases or those equally good
would amount to only about $50.00. Plain-
ly, here would be a saving of about $250.
22

Moreover, the beekeeper using these better
cases would get quick returns, and a satis-
fied customer for another years business.

But there are a large number of bee-
keepers who feel that they cannot even
afford to purchase the cheap factory-made
cases. If the loss should be from 10 to

•24-lb. Safet\

snipping case.

20 per cent with the cheap cases, it may
be figured that the loss would be at least
from 25 to 50 per cent with the ordinary
home-made cases or cases made at planing
mills. The great trouble with the home
product is the poor sawing, inaccuracy,
and theii' miserable appearance. Even if
the honey goes thru safely, the cases look
so cheap and poor that the average buyer
will deduct at least one or two cents per

The coTers are halved at the joints to
keep out ants and other insects.

Xote that the pieces holding the glass
are fastened securely to the ends by two
nails in each.

pound on the honey. The honey may be
ever so nice; but if it is put up in a
roughly made container it -^ill bring a
con-espondingly lower price.

The most serious objection to homemade
cases is their variation in size. Some of
them will be too shallow, and the result
wiU be that when the cover is nailed down
it will break nearly every section in the
case. Another case will be too deep and
too long, with the result that the sections

SKEP

675

will rattle about in the case and break
down nearly as badly. The average
planing-mill man does not undei*stand the
importance of making the case absolutely
accurate. The saws have ver}^ eoai^e teeth
making rough edges, and his gauges ai'e
not accurate. His product will be any-
thing but satisfactoi-y for shipping so ex-
pensive and fragile a product as comb
lioney. When a good factorj^-made case
with cartons and corrugated paper can be
bought for a little more money, it is foUy
to pay a planing-mill man a few cents less
for a case that will bring a loss in break-
age and leakage amounting to 50 per cent
on the honey.

SHIPPIXG CASES MADE OF CORRUGATED
PAPER.

During the last few years some effort
has been made to use shipping cases made

^'arious styles of these cases have been
proposed. The two upper ones shown are
those used by Mr. Crane. Those shown at
the bottom can be purchased at the ordi-
nary- paper-box factories, for putting up
eggs and bottled goods.

The last named provide a double thick-
ness under the bottom and over the top of
the sections, and in the knockdown or flat
take less room. The design also makes a
stronger case.

TThile such cases seem to answer very
well for honey in bottles, it should be re-
membered that a bottle of honey or a bottle
of s^Tup or pickles will stand very much
rougher handling than the ordinary section
of honey. Paper cases can be bought for
less money than the wooden ones, espe-
cially those of the safety kind; but ex-
perience of the last two years has shown
that it would perhaps be wise not to use
too manv of them at the start at least.

Safety carton in the flat. Safety carton ready to receive sections, and how a rubber
band is slipped over section and carton.

out of corrugated paper or strawboard —
the same material that is used in the safety-
cases, to cushion the sections. J. E. Crane
of Middlebury, Yt., has used this kind of
ease for several years, and is well pleased
with them; but some of the large commis-
sion houses and buyers of honey protest
against their use. They claim that they
are not strong enough to stand the rough
handling of the railroad men; that as it
is not practicable to put glass in them, the
fragile contents of the package are not
understood, and, as a result, they receive a
much rougher handling. Again, it has been
claimed that the paper cases will not stand
rain or wet like the wooden cases. If a
single section is broken down, it is liable
to cause the bottom of the case to soak up
with honey, and this weakens the case so
that it is of but little use to protect the
rest of the sections.

They may come into general use in time,
but comb honey is so fragile an article
that a wooden box is none too strong. See
BoTTLixG Hoxey; also Marketing Hoxey.

SIZE OF FRAMES.— See Hr-es.

SKEP.— The term skep is often used
by old-fashioned beekeepers to refer to a
colony of bees in any kind of hive; but
more properly it applies to box hives and
straw skeps — the last named meaning bas-
ket in old English. In England and even
many of the countries on the continent of
Europe, the old straw skep is still used
quite largely, because lumber is expensive
and straw cheap. The bees are allowed to
build the combs just the same as mentioned
under the head of Box Hm:s ; also Hr-es^
EvoLUTiox or. On top of the flat-top
type of skeps, modern supers containino-

676

SMOKE AND SMOKERS

Straw keeps the hives cool in summer and \\arm in winter.

Dutch swar:

iptcting bargains at the bee markLt in Holland.

sections are sometimes used. The making
of straw skeps for cottagers is quite a little
business of itself — requiring a certain de-
gree of skill and industry.

Straw skeps are not used in this country
at the present time; and if it were not for
the familiar pictures of " ye olden times "
Americans would know but little about
them. See Box Hives.

SMARTWEED.— See Heartsease.

SMOKE AND SMOKERS.— One can

drive cattle and horses, and, to some ex-
tent, even pigs, with a whip; but one who
undertakes to drive bees without smoke
will find to his sorrow that all the rest of
the animal kingdom are mild in compari-
son, especially so far as stubbornness and

SMOKE AND SMOKERS

677

fearlessness of consequences are concerned.
One may kill them by thousands or may
even burn them up with fii'e; but the
death agonies of their comrades seem only
to provoke them to new fury, and they
push on to the combat with a relentlessness
which can be compared to nothing better

Bingham smoker.

than a nest of yellow-jackets that have
made up their minds to die, and to make
all the mischief they possibly can before
dying. It is here that the power of smoke
comes in ; and to one who is not conversant

mouth-piece at one end, and a removable
cap with a vent at the other end for the
issuing of smoke. By blowing on the
mouth-piece, smoke can be forced out.
Others, again, have used a tin pan in
which was some burning rotten wood. This
is put on the windward side of the hive so
as to blow smoke over the frames. All of
these, however, were crude makeshifts in
comparison with the improved smokers
Avhich are on the market today.

Moses Quinby (see Quhstbt) has the
credit for fii'st gi™g us a beUoics bee-
smoker. This was a most decided step in
advance over the old methods of introduc-
ing smoke among the bees. In principle
his original smoker did not differ essential-
ly from the Bingham and the L. C. Root,
which were introduced later. It had, how-
ever, one serious defect; and that was, it
would go out, the fire-pot not bemg prop-
erly ventilated to insure a good di-aft.
Some years after, T. F. Bingham of Far-
well. Mich., and L. C. Root, son-in-law of
Quinby, then of Mohawk, X. T., but now
of Stamford, Ct., introduced bee-smokers
to the world on the principle of the origi-
nal Quinby bellows smoker, but with sev-
eral decided improvements. The fii-e-cups,
at the same time, were made rather larger,
with a blast vent near the bottom. Thi'u
this vent a continuous di-aft could be

Three sizes of Root smokers.

with its use, it seems simply astonishing
to see them turn about and retreat in the
most perfect dismay and fright, from the
effects of a puff or two of smoke from a
mere fragment of rotten wood. What could
beekeepers do with bees at tunes, were no
such potent power as smoke known? See
Bee Behavioe; also Axger of Bees.

There have been various devices for get-
ting smoke on to the bees, such as, for
instance, a connnon tin tube having a

maintained, even when the smoker was not
in nse, thus preventing them from going
out like the original Quinby.

Of the two smokers, the L. C. Root was
taken off the market some years ago. The
Bingham is still sold, and is now furnished
in various sizes by dealers.

All the smokers of today employ what is
known as the hot-blast principle — that is,
the blast of air from the beUows is blown
thru the fii^e. This makes a heavy volume

678

SMOKE AND SMOKERS

of smoke — volume enough with the proper
fuel to subdue the worst kind of hybrids.

The improved Root smoker on the same
principle with its new snout is very neat
and substantial. The old-style nozzles were
somewhat top heavy, having a tendency to
tip over or flop open at a most incon-
venient time. The ones here shown are
not only compact in appearance, but will
hold their position on top of the stove
without danger of toppling over, no mat-
ter how roughly used. There is no reason
why the nozzle or snout should be large
and heavy, having a capacity rarely if ever

Details of the Root smoker. — A; — Metal projection
to aid the fingers in holding bellows; B. — Coiled wire
handle; C. — Hook; D. — Lock nuts for legs; E.—
Stamped metal legs ; F. — Flexible hinge.

needed. The hinge is a light skeleton
stamping, yielding just enough to make it
fit nicely on the smoker-barrel, and yet
crowd the creosote out of the way. A very
neat wire-coil handle, which will remain
cool under all circumstances, is riveted se-
curely in place on the back of the snout at
a point that is most convenient for lifting
and shutting the cap. It works so easily
that it is not necessary to bang or pound
the nozzle to open the smoker. The legs
are of skeleton sheet-metal stamping with
a projecting brace which is very strong and
rigid. They are riveted to the stove and
bolted to the bellows-board. No matter
how rough the usage, these bolts and rivets
will not let go. The shield has been omit-
ted as it has been learned by experience
that the cylinder comprising the stove

burns out under the shield, destroying the
actual life of the metal itself. An anti-
spark tube is situated just below this grate,
as shown, and of such construction as to
prevent the suction of sparks into the bel-
lows or out into the air, setting fire to
clothing. The bellows itself is metal-bound
(see A), a featura which is greatly appre-
ciated for several reasons. It serves to in-
crease the life of the bellows, protecting
the leather edges from wear; prevents ab-
solutely the warping of the bellows-boards
themselves, and the binding is of such con-
struction that it forms a very convenient
hold to the bellows-boards while the smoker
is being operated. This feature makes it
possible to reduce the tension of the spring,
permitting of a bellows that will respond
instantlj^ with a good strong blast, and yet
the action is perfectly easy. The hook, C,
is for hanging the smoker on a hive or car-
rying by the little finger when the hands
are full of other stuff. There are three
sizes of these smokers, comprising stoves
4, 3^/4, and 2^2 inches in diameter.

The object of the deflected nozzle on all
three of the leading hot-blast smokers is to
prevent fire dropping. In the old-style
smokers it was necessary in blowing smoke
to tip the barrel almost upside down, or at
such an angle that the fire-embers would
sometimes fall on the brood-frames and the
bees. The new nozzle permits one to use
the smoker almost right side up, and yet a
stream of smoke can be poured on the
combs.

FUEL FOR SMOKERS.

It will be unnecessary to give directions
for using these hot or cold blast smokers,
as printed directions accompany all smok-
ers sent out by each manufacturer; yet it
may be well to allude to the different kinds
of fuel that have been used. Rotten wood
is good, and accessible to all, but it burns
out too rapidly. Mr. Bingham recommends
sound hard wood for his smoker. Dr. Mil-
ler and some others prefer turning-lathe
hardwood shavings, or, if these are not
available, planer shavings. In certain lo-
calities peat can be obtained very cheaply,
and it makes an excellent fuel. Some use
old rags; others old discarded hive-quilts
that are covered with propolis. These last
make a very pungent subduing smoke. In

SMOKE A^^) SMOKERS

679

some parts of the South, dry pine needles
are used.

W. L. Coggshall, one of the most exten-
tive beekeepers in the world, uses a special
fuel made out of old phosphate sacks rolled
around a half-inch stick, tied at regular
intervals, and then chopped into convenient
lengths with a sharp ax. The rolls should,
of course, be of the right diameter and
length to fit inside the smoker used. The
sacking must not be rolled too tightly nor
made too snug a fit, or else it will choke the
draft and put out the smoker. The reader

Choppinsr up rolls of burlap for smoker-fuel. An
old sack 13 rolled i:p, tied at intervals, and then cut
in pieces between the strings.

is, therefore, recommended to make a few
experimental rolls before he makes up a
lot for a season's use.

To facilitate lighting with a match, one
end of the roll is dipped half an inch into
a solution of saltpeter, and allowed to dry.
If a little red lead be sprinkled in the solu-
tion it will be very easy to tell which end of
the roll is for lighting.

A quantity of old sacking, says Mr.
Coggshall, will be suflPicient for one sea-
son's use, and the fuel gives a lasting
smoke without sparks. He further says
that he can take a cold smoker, and in ten
seconds have all the smoke he requires, as
the saltpeter ignites instantly.

When old sacking cannot be obtained,
old carpets or old burlap can doubtless be
used. Even new burlap would not be ex-
pensive, altho Mr. Coggshall says the fab-

ric should be partly rotted to give the best
results. He lays his old phosphate sacks
out in the weather for about three months,
and then rolls them up.

THE BEST S3I0KER FUEL.

The authors have been using greasy
waste in a smoker with gi-eat success. It
requires no treatment with any chemical to
make it light easily, and it is almost impos-
sible to extinguish it after it is once lighted,
even tho it be stamped in the mud. There
is no question but that this is perhaps the
very best smoker fuel, altho in some places
it may be somewhat difficult to obtain. It
furnishes a strong subduing smoke, and is
almost free from creosote. It can usually
be had for the asking at any machine shop
or printing shop, and it may be picked up
along railroads, altho as a rule it would

A tool house for smokers, tools, veils, and fuel. The
fuel is kept in the lower part under the shelf.

take too much time to hunt up greasy
waste in this way. A piece could be found
here and there, but generall}^ not enough
to pay for the trouble. A supply can be

680

SMOKE AND SMOKERS

obtained at any factor}^ to last a whole
season. It gives a strong, pungent smoke ;
does not make a hot fire ; is easily lighted ;
will not go out, even tho the smoker be left
standing for four or five hours at a time.

ABUSES OF A SMOKER.

A good smoker should last a number of
seasons, but it will very quickly cease to be
a good implement if it is not well taken
care of.

One of the most common abuses of a
smoker is to leave it out in the rain. We

It is very seldom the grate becomes so filled up
that it has to be cleaned ; but when this does happen
it is the work of only a moment to insert the point
of a file in one of the holes and lift out the grate,
as here shown. It pays to keep the grates clean.
There are a larger number of holes near the outside
of the grate than in the center, consequently the fuel
burns evenly and does not throw sparks until it is all
consumed.

have seen many smokers left out in all
kinds of weather; and it is needless to say
that the bellows leather soon becomes hard,
and cracks, and the fire-box gets rusty. A
good many beekeepers keep their smokers
in an empty hive and thus avoid the dan-
ger of a costly fire. If the whole hive
should burn, the loss would not be so very
great.

A better plan than this is to build a
small tool house. This need not be over
five or six feet high. There is a substantial
shelf, as shown, on which smokers, hive-
tools, veils, etc., may be kept. It is a good
plan to provide a piece of hea\^ sheet iron
about half an inch above the shelf for the
smokers to stand on, so that there will be

no danger of setting fire to anything. The
fuel is kept below this shelf. There is
room enough usually to hold a supply for

Fig. 5. — How to hold the smoker when raising the
cap. Compress the bellows in order to give the fingers
a firmer hold.

a whole season ; and when it is kept in this
way it is always dry and ready for use.

Fig. 6.- — Tlie convenience of a hook in the back of
the bellows. The smoker is always at hand at a sec-
ond's notice.

We have such small buildings at all our
out-yards, and consider them almost indis-
pensable.

SMOKE AND SMOKERS

681

Another common abuse of the smoker is
to allow creosote to collect at the top until
the cap will not fit down over the fii^e-box.
In a new smoker with the flexible hinge
there is not apt to be so much trouble in
this way, but at the same time it is well to
spend about ten seconds once a week or so

Fig. 7. — Cnrrjing a smoker with the little finger
when the hands are full.

with a screw-driver in cleaning off this
accumulation.

Sometimes beginners in their eagerness
to test new smokers work the bellows so
vigorously as to blow fire from the nozzle,
and before they knew it the fire-box is red-
hot. This means, of course, that the tin
is all burned off, leaving the bare iron to
rust thru in a short time. There is usually
no need of having a hot flame in the fire-
box, for this implies perfect combustion;
while the secret of getting lots of smoke
is to have imperfect combustion. Some-
times this is a fault of the fuel. For this
reason it is best to use fuels that burn
slowly.

While it is impossible to avoid dropping
a smoker once in a while, as a mle bee-
smokers are handled pretty roughly. It
does not take long to learn to use reason-

able care in handling a smoker, whereby it
will last enough longer to pay.

When a fuel is used in which there is a
good deal of pitch it is sometimes difficult
to raise the cap or nozzle after the fire is
out and the metal has become cold. There
are numerous instances in which the cap
has been battered almost out of shape after
being stuck down solid. It is always best
Avhere such fuel is used to raise the cap
when putting the smoker away. If it is
left open there will be no sticking.

The grate will usually keep clean ; but in
some cases when it gets stopped up, insert
the point of a file into one of the holes and
lift it out. It can then be easily cleaned
and replaced.

HOW TO USE A SMOKER.

Perhaps the majority of beekeepers un-
derstand using a smoker without any spe-
cial instructions, but, as a rule, too much

Fig. 8. — Holding a smoker between the knees while
manipulating frames.

smoke is used. It is best to use just as
much as is necessary and not any more. A
beginner so often stupefies the bees that
they become practically demoralized. It is
needless to say that this is a very bad plan.
Very often colony after colony can be
opened without the use of smoke, espe-

682

SOLITARY BEES

eially when the bees are working; but at
the same time it is well to have a smoker
near at hand.

It is not considered good practice to
smoke bees out of comb-honey supers, as
they are frightened at the smell of smoke,
and, in their desire to save honey, uncap
some of the cells and thus spoil the appear-
ance of what might otherwise be fancy
honey.

In looking for a queen, use little or no
smoke, as it is very easy to set the bees

Fig. 9. — Manipulating frames while holding the
smoker between the knees and working the bellows.

running all over the combs, making it next
to impossible to locate the queen. At such
times the frames should be handled slowly
and carefully, the beekeeper doing nothing
to disturb or excite the bees. See last part
of A B C of Beekeeping and Manipula-
tion OP Colonies.

Fig. 5 shows the most natural way of
holding the smoker when the cap is opened.
A better hold is secured with the left hand
if the bellows is compressed as shown.
Take hold of the coiled- wire handle with
the right hand and it wiU be seen that the
cap can be raised very easily without the
least danger of burning the fingers. The
coiled- wire handle remains cool, no matter
how hot the fire is.

SOLAR WAX-EXTRACTOR.— See

Wax_, also Bottling Honey.

SOLITARY BEES.— The bees, or An-
tliophila, according to their economy, may
be divided into two groups, the social bees
which live in communities, as the honey-
bees, bumblebees, and stingless bees; and
the solitary bees, among which each female
builds her own nest and provides alone
for her brood. The social bees are de-
scribed elsewhere in this work.

Up to the present time there have been
recorded in Nort-h America over 2,000 spe-
cies of native bees. This is about one-quar-
ter of the described species in the world,
which are estimated at 8,000. In Europe
there also occur about 2,000 species, 200
are known in England, 440 in Germany,
510 in Hungary, and 413 in Algiers. The
majoritj^ are solitary forms, since the social
families do not include over 500 species.
But the indigenous bees of North America
are as yet only partly known. Immense
tracts still remain unknown, so far as
their bee fauna is concerned. Manitoba,
British Columbia, the whole tier of South-
ern States along the Gulf of Mexico, as
well as many Western States, are as yet
practically unexplored, and will doubtless
afford a rich harvest to the diligent collec-
tor. The number of species found in any
one locality is usually not large, and is
greatly influenced by the climate and soil.
In Maine there are about 200 species, in
Illinois 300, and in New Mexico 500. The
Anthophila may be classified in fourteen or
more families according to the conception
of family adopted by the meUitologist. In
this division the more important characters
employed are the structure of the mouth-
parts, and the pollen-brushes, and the vein-
ing of the wings.

solitary bees and plov^^er pollination.

In their relations to flowers bees may be
divided into two series, the short-tongued
forms and the long-tongued forms. The
long-tongued bees are able to reach the nec-
tar in nearly all flowers except those
adapted to butterflies, moths, and birds,
but they confine their attention chiefly to
bee flowers which have the nectar more or
less concealed, such as the columbines, lark-
spurs, clovers, vetches, many mints and
figworts, thistles, and many other Com-
positae with long corolla tubes. The short-
tongued bees are compelled to visit open.

SOLITARY BEES

683

rotate flowers with the nectar exposed or
only slightly concealed, as the plum, straw-
berry, blackberry, raspberry, pear, apple,
and basswood, or to flowers with very short

Fin. 1. — Primitive bees: 1. Prosopis modesta; a,
female; 5j male. 2. Sprecodes ranunculi; a, female;
h, male. Tongues short, bodies smooth and nearly
hairless, without pollen-brushes. The pollen and nec-
tar are masticated as collected, and the regurgitated
liquid is stored in the cells as food for the larvae.

corolla tubes like the goldenrods. In North
America the more common genera of short-
tongued bees are Prosopis^ Colletes, Sphe-
codes, Halictus, Andrena, and Macropis.

THE SHORT-TONGUED BEES AS FLOWER
VISITORS.

The most primitive bees belong to the
genus Prosopis, and are closely allied to
the sand wasps from which probably they
are derived. Among these small coal-black
bees there are no adaptations for visiting
flowers. Their nearly hairless bodies are
destitute of pollen-brushes, and they have
short, broad, emarginate tongues like the
wasps. Were it not that they feed their
offspring on a paste of pollen and nectar
and consequently visit flowers more fre-
quently, they would be of no more value
than the wasps as pollinators. The semi-
liquid paste stored in their cells consists of
partially digested pollen and nectar, which
has been regurgitated. The bees of this
genus tunnel in the pithy stems of bram-
bles, and naturally are common on the
flowers of blackberries, but they are also
often found on the blossoms of the stone-
crop {Sedum acre), prickly sarsaparilla
(Aralia hispida), goldenrod, mignonette.

and collecting pollen on wild roses. Al-
most equally primitive is the genus Sphe-
codes, except that they have acquired a short
pointed tongue. They are nearly hairless and
are without pollen-brushes, and the food
supply furnished their brood is similar to
that of Prosopis. Great interest attaches
to these two genera since they show the
early stages of bees before they were much
modifled as the result of flower visits, and
doubtless closely resemble ancestral forms
of the honeybee (Fig. 1).

No other genera of the solitary bees are
represented by so many species and indi-
viduals as Halictus and Andrena. They
show a marked advance over the preceding
genera in their adaptations to flowers. The
tongue is longer, the thorax is thickly pu-
bescent, and the hind legs for nearly their
entire length are covered with a dense
scopa of hairs. They carry the pollen dry
and chiefly on the thighs, while the honey-
bees moisten it with honey and pack it on
the tibiae. The ground bees are very im-
portant in wild regions where there are no
honeybees, and before the discovery of
America probably played the chief role in
the pollination of fruit bloom. On warm
days in spring clouds of these bees flll the
air around the bloom of the willows, plum
trees, cherries, blackberries, and at times
nearly all fruit trees and shrubs. Obser-
vations made at the experiment station of
Connecticut showed that in that locality
they were by far the most common visitors
to the apple, pear, quince, gooseberry, cur-
rant, blackberry, and raspberry. For in-
stance, out of 359 Hymenoptera taken on
the sweet cherry 349 belonged to Andrena
and Halictus. But in very large orchards
and in general, honeybees are the most
valuable. The ground bees are also com-
mon on blueberries, cornels. Viburnum,
roses, sumacs, goldenrods, and hundreds of
others (Fig. 2).

All of the genera of short-tongued bees,
thus far described, carry the pollen dry;
but Macropis is the first genus to moisten
it with honey. The brush on the hind tibiae
is long and dense and is often heavily
loaded with damp pollen. A common spe-
cies of this genus is M. ciliata, or the loose-
strife bee, so called because it is usually
found on the flowers of the common loose-
strife {Lysimachia vulgaris), a pollen
flower (Fig. 2).

684

SOLITARY BEES

Fig. 2. — Short-tongued bees. 1. Macropis ciliata; a, female; b, male. 2. Halictus lerouxii ; a, female;
b, male. 3. Halictus hortensis ; a, female; b, male. 4. Agapostemon radiatus ; a, female; b, male. 5. An-
drena crataegi ; a, female; b, male. 6. Andrena erythrogaster ; a, female; b, male. 7. Nomia heteroptei'a,
female. 8. Megacilissa electa, male.

THE LONG-TONGUED SOLITARY BEES AS
FLOWER VISITORS.

The long-tongued bees include all the
social bees as well as many genera of soli-
tary bees. The length of the tongue varies
greatly, the medium length being 6 mm.,
as found in the honeybee, and the extreme
length 21 to 22 mm. in some female bum-
blebees. They restrict their visits chiefly
to bee flowers and thus avoid the competi-
tion of many short-tongued insects and are
likely to find a more ample supply of nec-
tar. The long-tongued solitary bees may
be divided into two series in accordance
with the way they collect and carry pollen.
One series has the pollen-brushes on the
hind legs, and the other on the under side
of the abdomen.

The leaf -cutting hees (Meg achile), the
mason bees {Osmia), and the cotton bees
(Anthidium) have on the under side of the
abdomen a stiff brush of unbranched hairs
inclined backward. When they move over
fovel-topped flower-clusters, like the sun-

flower and many other Compositae, this
abdominal brush sweeps up the pollen
while the bees are at liberty to suck nectar.
They are also well adapted to pollinate
leguminous flowers, as the pea, bean, vetch,
and their allies, where the anthers lie on
the under side of the irregular flowers and
come directly in contact with the abdomi-
nal scopa. The tongue in this group is
usually less than 6 mm. long, and the pol-
len is, of course, always carried in the dry-
state. (Fig. 3.)

A part of the long-tongued bees with
polleniferous scopa on the hind legs carry
the pollen on the femora, or thighs, as
Pannrginus, and the carpenter bees [Xylo-
copa) ; while a part carry it on the hind
tibiiB. The Anthophoridae, or cliff bees,
have a worldwide distribution, and in their
senses and general appearance resemble
bumblebees, but are smaller in size, and
there are no flowers especially adapted to
them. The collecting hairs in some genera
are extremely long, as in' Basypoda, and
great balls of pollen, half the size of the

SOLITARY BEES

685

abdomen, are carried on them. The com-
mon genera Anthophora and Melissodes
visit the same flowers as bumblebees
(Fig. 4).

Many bees with a short term of flight
visit only one or a few allied species of
flowers, which are abundant and in bloom
during the time the bees are on the wing.
Certain vernal species of Andrena visit
only the flowers of the willows, while other
autumnal flying species confine their visits
to the goldenrods and still others to the
asters. There are indeed a number of bees
which obtain their supply of nectar and
pollen exclusively from the Compositae.
These flowers, as in the case of the golden-
rod and thistles, are very common, yield

at a favorable opportunity in the cells of
the nest-builders. The latter are often
called host bees and the former guest bees.

HABITS OF THE NEST-BUILDING BEES.

The genus Prosopis, says Knuth, stands
at the lowest level among bees and belongs
to them only because it feeds its young on
pollen and nectar. The female builds a row
of cells in the hollow stems of blackberry
bushes from which she has excavated the
pith. The cells are lined with a thin coat-
ing of saliva, which hardens into a smooth
cement, and are provisioned v^th a semi-
liquid paste of partially digested nectar
and pollen. An egg is laid in each cell.

Fig. 3. — Long-tong-ued bees with abdominal pollen-brushes. Mason bees: 1. Osmia inandihulxris, female;
'2.. Osmia megacephala, female; 3. Osmia at,iventris ; a. female; b. male. Leaf-cutting- bees: 4. Meqachile
latimanus ; a. female; b, male; 5. Megachile vidua; a, female; b, male;' G. Anthidiuni co'jnatiim, female.

ample food supplies and are easy to visit.
This habit has arisen because of the advan-
tage thus gained by the bees and is called
oligotropism.

HOST BEES AND GUEST BEES.

According to the way in which they pro-
vide for their young, bees may be divided
into nest-builders and brood parasites. The
nest-builders are industrious insects, con-
structing their nests with great care and
skill, and provisioning them with food for
the use of the brood. The brood parasites
on the contrary neither build nests nor
gather stores for their offspring, but in the
case of the solitary bees they lay their eggs

After the tunnel has been closed the
mother bees still linger in the vicinity
(Fig. 1).

The two commonest genera of the short-
tongued bees are Halictus and Andrena.
The species of Halictus, often called
" sweat bees," vary in- size from some of
the smallest bees known to forms as large
as the honeybee. The sexes mate in the
fall, and the females (like the queen bum-
blebees) hibernate during the winter. They
reappear in the spring and dig burrows in
the ground which are flve or six inches in
depth and have several short branches, in
each of which and at the lower end of the
tunnel a cell is built. In each cell a little
ball of beebread, composed of pollen and

686

SOLITARY BEES

honey, about the size of a small pea, is
stored for the use of the larvae. Halictus
does not close the entrances to the cells.
Fabre has apparently shown that the first
generation of several species consists wholly
of females. He is probably right. The eight
or ten sisters, the offspring of one mother,
continue to return to their cells at night
and to share together their old home. Be-
ginning with the cell in which she was
born, each female digs a new group of
cells connected with the main tunnel.
Altho there are then no males in existence,

Andrena is our largest bee genus, and
more than 250 species have been described
in America. Thousands often tunnel in
the same sandy bank of earth until the
ground appears as tho filled with shot-
holes. It is, says Smith, a village or city
of homes. A part of the species are ver-
nal and fly only in the early part of the
season, and a part are autumnal and fly
only in autumn. Each burrow has a num-
ber of short lateral branches. In these
passages and in the enlarged lower end of
the burrow the female stores a small mass

Fig. 4. — Long-tongued bees with pollen-brushes on the hind legs. Anthophoridae : 1. Antho-
phora smithii, male. 2. Anthophora occidentalis, female. 3. Centris apiealis, female. 4. Melis-
sodes atripes ; a, female; b, male. 6. Melissodes dessponsa ; a, female; h, male.

she provisions her 'cells with balls of bee-
bread and lays eggs, which by partheno-
genesis give birth to both males and fe-
males. There are thus two generations
among the Halicti. The autumnal genera-
tion, consisting of both sexes, produces the
following spring only females, which, altho
unable to mate, yet produce by partheno-
genesis both sexes, and in like manner the
cycle is repeated from year to year.
(Fig. 20

of pollen and honey and lays an egg. The
species are closely allied and are called
ground bees. (Fig. 2.)

The mason bees of the genus Osmia vary
greatly in the manner of building their
nests. Some make use of the stumps of
hollow reeds, tubes, or empty snail shells,
while others build their cells in small cav-
ities in stone walls or posts. Several
American species build earthen cells about
half an inch in diameter which, tho rudely

SOLITARY BEES

687

fashioned of mud on the outside, are beau-
tifully polished and glazed within. In
France, according to Fabre, the Sicilian
ChaUcodoma builds its clay eeUs beneath
projecting tiles which in the coui'se of
years cover five or six square yards, and
with their great weight thi'eaten the de-
struction of the roof. (Fig. 3.)

The observations of Fabre show that the
mother Osmia determines the sex of her
offspring and can lay at will either a male
or female egg. The males of Osmia are
much smaller than the females, and their
cells are consequently smaller and contain
a less amount of stores than those of the
latter. When an old nest is used a second

pieces of leaves or flower petals. They do
not dig buiTows for themselves, but make
use of the bun-ows of other bees or of the
straight tunnels of large earth-woiTas. If
the shaft is longer than is needed the ap-
proach from below is blocked by fragments
of leaves piled in irregular order. After
this barrier come five or six pockets or ceUs
composed of elliptical and round sections
of leaves which the female Megachile cuts
out with her mandibles. The sides of the
cell are formed of six or eight oval pieces
in one or two overlapping rows, with the
lower ends bent inward to form the bot-
tom. Any little crevices are covered with
small ovals to render the leaf-pot water-

Fig. 5. — Parasitic bees:
bella; a, female; b, male;

1. Coelioxys rufitarsus: a, female; b, male; 2. yomada
3. Triepeolus donatus; a, female; b, male; 4. Melecta

time female eggs are invariably laid in the
large cells and male eggs in the smaU cells.
Fabre induced a large nmnber of females
to build their ceUs in glass tubes of various
sizes. When the tubes were sufficienth^ large
the bees always laid first a series of female
eggs and then male eggs. By varying the
size of the tubes he succeeded in obtaining
series in which the order of laying was re-
versed and began with males; or in which
the entii'e laying contained only males.
" The egg, as it issues from the ovary, has
not yet a fixed sex. The final impress that
produces the sex is given at the moment of
laying, or a little before."

The leaf-cutting bees of the genus Mega-
chile build their cells of round and oval

tight. The top of the cell is closed by two,
three, or six, or even ten circular pieces
which, by some marvel of geometry, are
the exact size to fit the cell. The sections
of leaves are taken from a great variety
of plants, and no special preference is
manifested for any particular species. The
cells are provisioned with pollen and
honey. (Fig. 3.)

The thimble-shaped cells of the cotton
bees of the genus Anthidiiim are made of
white cottony hairs gathered from various
kinds of thistles, muUeins, and the cotton
rose. Only dried hairs from dead plants
are used since hairs containing sap would
be likely to mildew. The little packets of
cotton, the results of many journeys, are

688

SOLITARY BEES

felted or matted into a layer which forms
the entire cell. So firmly are these little
bags woven together that they may all be
removed without separating. The cotton
bees make use of the tunnels of Antho-
phora, or the holes of earth-worms, or the
stumps of hollow reeds. Other species of
Anthidium employ empty snail shells, and
are called resin bees since they divide the
hollow spiral into cells by partitions of gum
gathered largely from conifers, especially
the juniper. (Fig. 3.) The economy of
the carpenter bees is described under
Xylocopa.

The AnthopJwridae, or cliff bees, are dis-
tributed over the entire globe and are one
of the largest of bee families. The females
of Anthophora drive tunnels six inches or
more in length in the sides of precipitous
cliffs, extensive colonies selecting the same
location. In the chalk pits at Northfleet,
England, there was a colony so large that
in the month of April the countless num-
bers assembled cast a dark flickering
shadow on the ground. The inner walls, of
their ceUs are glazed with a thin cement of
saliva applied with the tongue, which on
hardening becomes impervious to moisture.
An egg is laid on the surface of the stores,
which are in a semi-liquid condition. The
larvge pass the winter in the cells and
change to pupae the following spring.
Common genera are Anthophora, Melisso-
des, and Xenoglossa. (Fig. 4.)

THE PARASITIC SOLITARY BEES.

Notwithstanding that the bees are pro-
verbial for industry beyond any other
group of insects except, perhaps, the ants,
there are many parasitic genera which no
longer gather stores of pollen and nectar,
but rear their brood at the expense of the
nest-building genera. They are variously
called guest bees, brood parasites, inquilines,
or cuckoo bees while their unconscious vic-
tims are known as host bees. The guest
bees are usually allied in structure with
their hosts, and both are probably derived
from the same primitive stock. Thus the
bumblebees (Bomhus) and the false bum-
blebees (Psithyrus) doubtless have a com-
mon ancestry. Common genera of para-
sitic bees are Nomada (parasitic on An-

drena), Coelioxys (parasitic on Mega-
chils), Stelis (parasitic on Anthophora).
(Fig. 5.)

The manner in which a cuckoo bee enters
the nest of her host varies greatly with
different genera. Melecta boldly enters the
burrows of Anthophora, even when the
female is present, and the latter seems
wholly unconscious of the danger. Triepeo-
lus more prudently waits until her host
Colletes has departed for the field before
entering the tunnel. In France, according
to Fabre., Stelis nasuta opens with great
difficulty the hardened cells ofChalicodoma,
sealed with clay cement, lays several eggs
and again closes the opening with a pellet
of clay. The American parasite Stelis sex-
macidata lays her eggs in the nests of Alci-
damea producta, which are found in the
stems of the blackberry or sumac. The
lawful owner Alcidamea lays her egg on
the top of a conical mass of beebread, but
the parasite Stelis places her egg near its
base where it is likely to escape notice.
There may be as many as four cells, each
closed with a felt-like mass of chewed
strawberry leaves.

Graenicher has observed and described
the tragic end of the host larva. The larva
of the parasite is armed with long sharp
mandibles, but those of the host larva are
blunt and bifid and not well adapted either
for defense or attack — so the latter is
doomed from the beginning. When the
two larv£e, while feeding on the beebread,
meet, the parasite seizes the body of the
host larva between its sharp mandibles.
The host larva may struggle a little but
soon succumbs, and after sucking out its
liquid contents the parasite again turns to
the beebread. If there are two larvae of the
parasite Stelis sexmaculata a combat be-
tween them is sure to occur, and the victor
is the larva obtaining the first hold on the
body of the other; but two larvae of Alci-
damea can not injure each other.

The handsomest parasitic bees belong to
the genus Nomada, and Smith calls them
the most beautiful of all the bees found in
Great Britain. They are often called wasp-
bees, because of their gay coloring. They
are dark red in color, often suffused witli
black, and maculated with bright or pale
yellow. Their larvae are often found in th(»
nests of Andrena.

SOURTTOOD

6S9

In the pollination of flowers the para-
sitic bees are of much less importance than
the nest-bnilders. Since they have no oc-
casion to gather pollen, they have largely
lost their pollen-brushes and visit floTvers
only to procure nectar for themselves. A
part of the species restrict their visits
largely to the Compositae which j-ield nec-
tar freely.

SOURWOOD {Oxijdendrum arhoreum
(L.) DC). — Also called sourgum and sor-
rel tree from the acid leaves. A tree gTovr-
ing 60 feet high, belonging to the heath
family (Ericaceae) with very numerous

Sounvood leaf, Sowers, and seed-pods.

small white flowers in racemes. The corolla
is urn-shaped, closely resembling that of
the huckleben-y; pendulous, and contracted
at the mouth so that the ample supply of
nectar is protected both from rain and un-
desirable insects. It grows in rich woods
from Pennsylvania southward to Florida
and Louisiana. In Georgia it flourishes
chiefly in the northern part of the State,
where it blooms in June and July, and is
one of the best honey-producers. The
honey is medium amber in color, and of
excellent quality.

Sourwood is considered a great honey-
bearing tree in some localities, especially
in the South. It is sometimes called sorrel,
and is a fine tree from 40 to 60 feet in
height, and about a foot in diameter; altho
it sometimes reaches 70 feet in height and
a foot and a half thru. The popular name,
sourwood, is derived from the odor and the
peculiar sour taste of the leaves and small

twigs. The tree commences to bloom the
latter part of June, and the harvest from
this source lasts until the middle of July.

It is entii-ely distinct from the black-gmn
and sour-gum, or pepperidge, with which
it has been unwittingly classed by some
writers on honey plants, much to the in-
jaiy of sourwood. The former are honey-
producers to a small extent, but are not
worthy to be compared with sourwood.
which, we are convinced, after liA^ing where
basswood, poplar. clover, bitckwheat.
goldenrod. persimmon, and aster abound,
has not its superior among the honey-
producing plants of America, either in the
amount of yield, or in its beautiful appear-
ance. Basswood is more important only
because of its widely extended growth.
Bee-masters are familiar with the flora
which aboimds where those who have writ-
ten our books on bee culture reside, yet
few are aware of the merits of sourwood,
outside of the regions where it is f oimd.

It abounds in the native forests from
southern Pennsylvania into Georgia and
Mississippi. It seems to be more abundant
along the whole mountainous tract of
country on both sides of the Alleghenies
and the Blue Ridge, reaching, in places,
even as far as the tide-water on one side,
and to central Tennessee on the other. In
many sections where poplar aboimds and
much buckwheat is raised, sourwood is
considered the honey plant, and yields the
largest amount of suiidIus honey. It seems
to flourish best on high, dry soil, and is
often common on poor woodland ridges,
which can be purchased at a nominal
price; tho the forests along the rivers, in
rich cultivated soil, are often beautifully
checkered with the white blossoms in July.
Being a forest tree, it is taU and generally
spare of branches along the trunk, except
when it grows in the edges of fields, where
it yields the gi'eatest amoimt of honey.
The trunk preserves its uniformity of size
for some distance up from the ground.
The wood is white with straight gi'ain.
which splits nicely. It is brittle and quite
fine-gTained. and is used for posts by
cabinet-makers.

The flowers (see engTaving) are produced
on racemes flve or six inches long, Avlr>h
hang in clusters on the ends of the
branches. Many of these flower-bearing
racemes are thrown out from one central

690

SPACING FRAMES

stem, and are all strung with white, bell-
shaped flowers, rich in honey. The flower
is midway in size and appearance between
the whortleberry blossom and the lily of
the valley. Unless there is a failure of the
blossom, the honey yield is sure to be abun-
dant; for, being in the woods with good
roots, the flow is not checked by ordinary
drouths, nor do the rains wash out the
honey from the pendant, cup-shaped flow-
ers. Often have we regaled ourselves, while
riding along the road, by breaking ofl a
bunch of blossoms, shaking out the honey
in the hand, and licking up the delicious
nectar. Each flower, as it dries up, pro-
duces a brown seed-pod about the size of a
large grain of wheat, which separates, when
ripe, into flve parts, and permits the very
fine seed to fall to the earth.

We are inclined to think that the tree
Avould thrive in our more northern lati-
tudes; perhaps anywhere in our land. It
is found abundantly in many parts of the
Allegheny Mountains, where it is very cold,
the thermometer often indicating several
degrees below zero.

SPACING FRAMES.— In nature combs
will be found spaced from 1%, 1%, 1%,
and sometimes up to two inches from cen-
ter to center. Dzierzon, one of the very
first to conceive the idea of a movable
comb, gave 1^/^ as the right distance until
Wyprecht made accurate measurements in
straw hives having straight combs built in
them. Out of 49 measurements, the aver-
age distance was scant 1% inches.. Baron
von Berlepsch, by 40 other measurements,
verified this result. In the United States,
prominent apiarists have found the dis-
tance of natural-built combs averaged IV2
inches from center to center. It has been
observed that, in the center of the brood-
nest, the combs are spaced more closely
than those on the outside, the latter rang-
ing anywhere from 1% to 2 inches to
centers.

It has been urged that nature be fol-
lowed in the spacing of brood-frames. But
it seems a very poor guide, inasmuch as
there is such a diversity of measurements.
The beekeeper should adopt that spacing
which will give him the best results — the
most brood and surplus honey. Quite a
number of beekeepers are using IV2 spac-
ing for their frames, The reason for this

is, principally, because they happened to
start with this spacing. But those who
have given special attention to the mat-
ter, trying both spacings, agree almost uni-
formly that the right distance is 1%, or, if
anything, a trifle scant, and some use quite
successfully 1^-inch spacing. Many, in-
deed, who had self -spacing frames adapted
for 1^2 inches, have gone to the enormous
expense of changing over to the 1%. The
advantages of this latter spacing are so
evident that very few deny that better re-
sults can be obtained with it. Brood comb
is found to be, on an average, % inch
thick; capped brood, one inch thick. On
1% spacing, this will allow % inch be-
tween uncapped combs and % between
combs of capped brood.

The following paragraph is taken from
an article published in Gleanings in Bee
Culture, page 673, Vol. XVIII., written
by Julius Hoffman, inventor of the Hoff-
man frame, and it applies here exactly :

If, for instance, we space the combs from
center to center so as to measure 1% instead
of 1% inches, then we have an empty space
of % inch between two combs of brood in-
stead of 14, as it ought to be; and it will
certainly require more bees to fill and keep
warm a % than a % space. In a % space,
the breeding bees from two combs facing
each other will join with their backs, and
so close up the space between the two brood-
combs; if this space is widened, however, to
%, the bees cannot do this, and more bees
will be required to keep up the needed brood-
ing temperature. What a drawback this
would be in cool spring weather, when our
colonies are still weak in numbers yet breed-
ing most desirable, can readily be under-
stood.

Where wider spacing is adopted, there is
apt to be more honey stored in the combs,
and less of worker (but more drone brood).
Close spacing, on the contrary (1%), tends
to encourage the rearing of more worker
brood, the exclusion of drone brood, and
the storage of less honey below. This is
important.

Under the head of Swarming, subhead
The Dadant System of Swarm Control,"
it Avill be seen that C. P. Dadant be-
lieves that lV2-inch spacing tends to re-
duce swanning, and that the regular 1%-
spacing is too close. On the other hand,
it may be said that the self -spacing Hoff-
man frame adapted to 1% spacing will
gradually, on account of propolis accumu*

SPECIALTY IX BEES

691

lations, increase to 1^2- For further in-
formation on the spacing of frames see
FR.A.AIES, Selp-spacixg ; Hive-makixg;
Hn'ES; HoxETCOiiB,

SPANISH NEEDLES, large-rayed {Bi-
dens aristosa (Michx.) Britton). — This spe-
cies should not be confused with the smalL-
rayed Spanish needles Bidens hipinnata
L. The plant with the showy, large-rayed
heads yields immense quantities of honey
along the low bottom-gi'ounds of the Mis-
sissippi and Illinois Rivers. The following
from Gleanings in Bee Culture, page 162,
Vol, XVI., is from the Hon, J, M. Ham-
baugh, and teUs aU about the plant, and
the immense quantities of honey that are
often produced by it.

Something over a year ago I wrote a letter
for Gleanings, claiming that the honey gath-
ered from this plant is superior to that pro-
duced from other fall flowers,, and that it
should rank among the very best grades, and
command the same price in the markets as
clover and linden honey. My peculiar loca-
tion has, fortunately, placed me in a position
to understand pretty thoroly the nature of
this plant, and the quality of the honey it
produces. Located at the foot of the bluffs
of the Illinois Eiver, there is a broad ex-
panse of low marshy lands to the east and
south, from three to five miles in width.
These lands are subject to overflows from
the river once a year, which usually take place
in early spring. This renders a large portion
of the soil unfit for tilling purposes; and
the consequence is, the Spanish needles have
secured a permanent foothold, almost to the
exclusion of nearly all other plants. Early in
September they begin to open their beautiful
bright-yellow rays, and in a short time whole
districts are aglow, and their dazzling bril-
liancy reminds one of burnished sheets of
gold. It is now, should the weather prove
favorable, that the bees revel in their glory,
and the honey comes piling in; and the
beauty about this kind of honey is, it needs
but little ' ' boiling down, ' ' and the bees no
sooner fill their cells than it is cured and
ready to seal. This is one great advantage,
and saves the bees lots of labor, making the
storage of honey more rapid. I had one col-
ony of bees that stored 63^1 lbs. of honey in
six days; another one, 86 lbs. in nine days,
while 43 producing colonies netted me 2021
lbs. in ten days — an average of 47 lbs. to the
colony. Tho not quite as clear as clover or
linden, the honey has a golden hue, an exqui-
site flavor, and a very fine body, weighing
fully 12 lbs. to the gallon, and, as previously
stated, I can not see why it should not rank
on the market in grade and price with clover
and linden honey.

SPECIALTY IN BEES.— The question
of making beekeeping a side line or hobby
has already been pretty thoroly discussed
under the head of Begixxixg with Bees^
Backlot Beekeepixg, Beekeepixg for
WoMEx, Bees axd Eruit Growing^ Bees
AXD Poultry^ and Farmer Beekeepers.
L'nder this head, "Specialty in Bees," will
be discussed the feasibility of making bees
the sole means of livelihood.

There are farmers who produce potatoes
only. Others grow smaU fruits; still oth-
ers, onions and celery. In the line of pro-
fessions there are physicians who make a
specialty of the eyes, some of the ears, and
others both of the eyes and ears. Others
give theii^ whole time to the treatment of
the lungs or the throat, and others to dis-
eases of the skin. "While it is true that
some beekeepers specialize on queen-rear-
ing and others on extracted honey, the
number who confine theii' attention solely
to the keeping of bees is not large and is
mainly in the West.

Whether one shall keep more bees and
drop all other pursuits will depend on a
good many conditions. First is the ques-
tion of locality; second, the man; third,
the state of his finances.

LOCALITY.

Xo one should attempt to make a li™g
entirely from bees unless he has a locality
that is capable of supporting a large num-
ber of colonies. (See Locality and 0\'er-
STOCKixG.) In some places, probably not
more than twenty-five or fifty colonies
could be maintained to a yard. Two hun-
dred parceled out in five or ten apiaries
two miles apart would increase the expense
of operation. To put a man at each yard
would be out of the question. A horse and
wagon would be too slow, because the
apiarist would thus be one-third of the
time on the road. An automobile truck is
expensive. If one has a locality that will
support five hundi-ed to a thousand colo-
nies in from ten to twenty yards, the gross
earnings would warrant the purchase of an
automobile track and a runabout, perhaps,
for making quick trips. (See Moving
Bees and Out- apiaries.) As a rule, a few
bees as a side line can be kept profitably
almost anywhere ; and therefore if one has
a notion of making beekeeping an exclusive

692

SPECIFIC GRAVITY IN HONEY

business lie should seek some locality where
there is an abundance of flora capable of
furnishing a good table honey that will
bring a good price, and a locality which,
at the same time, is not already occupied
by other beekeepers, thus overstocking.
See Overstocking.

THE QUESTION OF THE MAN.

Some men who do well with a small busi-
ness would make a failure with a large one.
Going into beekeeping extensively not only
requires capital and brains but a large
amount of business ability. With the ele-
ment of business ability comes the question
of experience. Certainly no one should
engage in the bee business in an extensive
w^ay unless he has had a large amount of
practical knowledge of a kind that starts
from the bottom and works upward. (See
Beginning v^ith Bees; also Backlot
Beekeeping.) A large business gradually
built up from a small beginning is much
more sure of success, especially if the man
who made the start is still the presiding
genius of the large business. While one
can sometimes hire a man of successful
experience, it is better for the boss to have
the know how himself; otherwise, if his
man leaves him for any cause he would be
sadly crippled. Moreover, if he knows the
business himself, his help can not impose
on him by pretending to "know it all."

capital.

Capital is another important requisite.
This need not, however, be a serious obsta-
cle if one would be willing to start with a
small beginning and make the bees pay
their own way, as is taught all thru this
work. One will be much more likely to
meet with success if he gradually enlarges
his business, bearing in mind the danger of
trying to expand too fast.

specialist beekeepers; where located.

The number of persons who make bee-
keeping a specialty is constantly increas-
ing; but most of the specialist beekeepers
are located west of the Mississippi. Where
alfalfa is grown extensively there will be
found beekeepers who number their colo-
nies by the thousand. The mountain-sage

districts of California sometimes make spe- i
cialized beekeeping a possibility. As a !
general proposition, however, it may be
stated that where there is one specialist
beekeeper there are a thousand who com- |
bine the business of honey production with
some other profession or business.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF HONEY.— !

Ordinary extracted honey when ready for
the market should run about 12 lbs. to the
gallon at normal temperature. If, how-
ever, it is heated to 135 or 140 Fahr., to
prevent granulation (see Granulation of |
Honey), the specific gravity while at this j
temperature will be about 11 lbs. 10 oz. to 1
the gallon. As the average gallon can will !
not hold 12 lbs. of honey at a temperature !
sufficiently high to prevent granulation, the
consumer will not get a gallon of honey.

There are some honeys that run about
11^2 lbs. to the gallon, but they should
never.be put in sealed cans nor marketed
when as thin as that, as they are almost
sure to sour. They should rather be stored
in open vats or cans in a dry room for a
few weeks, so that the excess of moisture
can escape. Honey exposed in a damp at-
mosphere will take on more moisture. It
is, therefore, important that the artificial
ripening process take place in a warm dry
room, heated artificially if necessary. As
a rule it is not wise to extract honey in the
Eastern States unless three-fourths of all
the cells are capped over; and sometimes
then the honey should be left on the hive
until all the cells are sealed. In the West-
ern States where there is a drier atmos- j
phere, or during extremely hot dry weather
in the East, a larger percentage of un-
sealed cells may be permissible at the time
the combs are extracted; but it is best to
store in open cans for a short time before
shipping. See Honey^ Analysis or.

When honey is not thoroly ripened —
that is to say, when it runs a little short
of 12 lbs. to the gallon, the thinner portion
is apt to rise to the top while the heavier
part will settle to the bottom (see Ex-
tracted Honey). The top will have a ten-
dency to sour, and it will not be long be-
fore the whole mass will be involved. If
the souring or fermenting process has not
gone too far, the honey may be saved by
heating, thus destroying the yeast plant.
But if it has gone too far, nothing can be

SPRING DWINDLING

693

clone but convert it into vinegar. See Vin-
egar.

SPRAYING FRUIT TREES. — See

Fruit Blossoms.

SPRAYING DESTRUCTIVE TO THE
BROOD. — See Fruit Blossoms.

SPREADING BROOD.— As is very well
known, queens are inclined to lay their
eggs in circles in the comb, the circle being
larger in the center combs and smaller in
the outside ones. The whole bulk of eggs
and brood in several combs thus forms
practically a sphere which the bees are
able to cover and keep warm. When the
queen has formed this sphere of brood and
eggs she curtails her egg-laying for the
time being until enough brood is hatched
out to increase the size of the cluster;
when she will gradually enlarge the circles
of brood to keep pace with the enlarged
ball of bees.

Yet the queen very often is overcareful
— that is, she errs on the safe side, so that
when warm weather has fully set in she
sometimes lays fewer eggs than she should
in the judgment of the apiarist, and ac-
cordingly he inserts a frame of empty
comb in the center of the brood-nest. In
this comb the queen may commence laying
at once to unite, as it were, the two halves
of brood. More often she does not. In
that case more harm than good has been
done. If the queen does fill the first one
given she will be likely, if the weather is
not cold, to go into the second comb and fill
it with eggs on both sides; for nice clean
empty cells are very tempting to her. In
a word, this operation of inserting empty
combs in the center of the brood-nest is
called " spreading brood," its object being
to increase the amount of brood, and thus
insure a larger force of workers for the
prospective harvest. While this spreading
of the brood may be done by practical and
experienced beekeepers, because it stimu-
lates the queen to greater egg-laying ac-
tivity, yet when practiced by beginners and
the inexperienced it generally results in
much more harm than good as already
stated. A beginner without previous ex-
perience might, on a warm day in early
spring, think it high time to put empty
comb in the center of the brood-nest. The

queen, we shall say, immediately occupies
it, filling it with eggs. This, of course, re-
quires a large force of nurse-bees to take
care of the young bees and hatching larvae.
A cool spell of weather is almost sure to
come on, with the result that the cluster
of bees is contracted, leaving the brood that
was forced outside, out in the cold, where
it chills and dies. The outside edge of the
cluster, in its effort to take care of this
brood, is likewise chilled, and the colony
suffers a check and setback far worse than
had it been left to its own devices.

Ordinarily the spreading of brood can
be practiced safely only after settled warm
weather has arrived. The beginner who
desires to give extra combs for egg-laying,
especially in early spring, would do well
to put those extra combs at the outside;
but after settled warm weather has come,
when the temperature does not go below 60
degrees Fahrenheit at night at any time,
he may insert a frame of empty comb at
the center of the brood-nest.

It should be borne in mind that the prac-
tice of spreading brood has been largely
abandoned, even by experienced beekeep-
ers. When the queen has plenty of room
somewhere in the brood-nest (and that
"somewhere" should be outside the brood-
cluster), both bees and queen will ordi-
narily rear as much brood as they can
safely and profitably care for.

SPRING DWINDLING.— This is con-
fined to bees outdoors or those just set out
of the cellar, and appears only in spring —
hence the name. It was once supposed to
be a disease ; but it has now been definitely
determined to be only the natural result of
a severe winter on a colony too weak or a
normal one not protected to stand the cold.
Gradually the individual members die off
until the original bunch of bees is reduced
to a few dozens. This decimation may be
due to a low vitality on the part of the
old bees that are inclined to die off any
way before spring, or it may be due to
dysentery. (See Dysentery.) If it is
caused by the first mentioned, it shows that
the colony went into winter quarters with
almost no young bees; that is to say, the
great force representing the colony was
made up of old bees whose length of days
would naturally expire at the beginning of
the spring, even under good or the best

694

SPRING DWINDLING

conditions; when, therefore, the conditions
are not favorable, naturally these old bees
die off much the sooner.

On the other hand, if spring dwindling
is due to dysentery, the condition of the
colony in the fall previous, if it could be
known, would probably show an insufficient
protection, or a cluster too weak in the first
place to stand even an ordinary winter, to
say nothing of one that is exceptionally
cold. Under Dysentery it is shown that
this disease or malady, rather, is the result
of overfeeding. Overfeeding is caused by
an attempt on the part of the bees to keep
themselves warm. A cluster too small, or a
normal cluster in a single-walled hive, in a
cold climate, will overeat; and as the bees
have no opportunity for flight, their intes-
tines become overcharged, resulting finally
in purging, and this purging fouls up the
whole hive. An examination down in the
brood-nest at about this stage in the spring
shows a small weakened cluster, bees un-
easy and somewhat scattered, and combs
emitting an ill-smelling odor of excrement.
The bees have greatly distended abdomens,
showing that they are overloaded with fecal
matter, as explained under Dysentery. A
normal colony should show a compact quiet
cluster of bees.

A good flight in warm weather will en-
able diseased bees to cleanse themselves
and make a new start. In fact, continuous
warm weather is a relief for spring dwin-
dling. But, unfortunately, in many locali-
ties there will come a week or two of warm
weather at which time bees will start
brood-rearing. When a cold spell comes
on, the already greatly attenuated force
attempts to hover its brood, with the result
that both brood and bees die. A change-
able condition of weather, therefore, is
hard on nuclei that are suffering from
spring dwindling.

In this connection, spring dwindling
caused by dysenterj^ may be due to bad
food; but in most cases it is caused by
insufficient housing — that is, a lack of
proper packing. See Spring Manage-
ment.

There is a form of spring dwindling, or
perhaps more properly speaking winter
dwindling, that occurs in semi-tropical cli-
mates, particularly in California. It is
similar to the kind of spring dwindling
that one encounters in the Northern States

of the East. In California, Virginia and
many of the Southern States the bees can
fly every day in the year. The sources that
furnish nectar and pollen not only entice
the old bees out of the hive, some of which
never get back on account of a sudden
chilling of the atmosphere, but they start
breeding. It very often occurs that the
hatching of the young bees does not keep
pace with the old bees dying in the fields,
with the result that the colonies become
weaker and weaker, until a ten-frame col-
ony will get down to about three frames of
bees and little brood about the time that
the first real honey flow comes on. In some
localities, in California the eucalyptus, fur-
nishing both nectar and pollen, is thought
by some to do more harm than good, in
that it starts brood-rearing during mid-
winter and forces the old bees into the
flelds, many never returning as explained.
In most parts of California there is a
severe change of temperature during mid-
winter from the middle hours of the day to
two or three o'clock in the morning before
daylight. These sudden drops in tempera-
ture cause a gi'eat deal of the brood to
chill and at the same time hold back the
queen.

Much of the weather in the semi-tropical
States is similar to spring weather in the
Northern and Eastern States. In general
characteristics the winter dwindling in
these States is almost precisely the same as
spring dwindling, with this difference, that
there is never any dysentery.

There is another kind of winter dwin-
dling that is due to an entire lack of pollen
both in the hives and in the fields. When
that condition occurs, in semi-tropical cli-
mates, the colony will dwindle very rap-
idly even tho there is plenty of honey in
the hive. The remedy, of course, is to lay
aside a set of combs containing pollen,
when pollen is coming in freely, and put
them in the hives during February or
March or earlier if necessary.

REMEDY FOR SPRING DWINDLING.

Sometimes several of the nuclei that have
been reduced by spring dwindling may be
united; but in most cases this does little
or no good. While the combined force of
bees all in one hive look well at the time
of uniting, yet in a few days this large

SIRRING MANAGEMENT

695

force seems to have dimiiiislied very rap-
idly, and, unfortunately, it is no better so
far as strength or appearance is concerned
than any one of the several nuclei that
went to compose it in the &st place.

Probably the best way to unite is on the
Alexander plan, as given under the head of
UxTTixG. If practiced early it will prevent
spring dwindling.

As a further prevention colonies should
be made to rear brood as late in the fall as
jDossible. If there is any fall flow, bees
will rear brood naturally, and the hives
will be filled with a large force of young
bees. If there is no fall flow, stimulation
should be practiced. (See Feeding.) This
stimulative feeding may not start up brood-
rearing if the queens are two or three
years old. As a rule, it does not pay to
keep queens longer than two years; and
many think that they should not be older
than one year. Young queens will lay
readily in the fall if given stimulative
feeding, while old ones may require consid-
erable coaxing. It foUows that one of the
best preventions for spring dwindling is a
young queen in the faU. Such queens will
lay until a large amount of stores is used
up in August and September, in the North-
ern States, and the beekeeper should, there-
fore, see to it that they have sufficient after
they cease brood-rearing. This brings up
another important matter; and that is,
there is nothing better than good sugar
stores for the prevention of spring dwin-
dling or dysentery ; ' and these should by
all means be given in the fall early enough
to be sealed over, rather than in the spring.

For particulars on how to protect the
colonies to avoid spring dwindling, see
Speing MixAGEMEiTT and Wintering.
For the causes that induce dysentery in
colonies that spring dwindle, see Dysen-
tery. For particulars on how to feed in
the fall, see Feeding and Feeders^ sub-
head, " Feeding to Stimulate." For the
consideration of the question of uniting,
see the Alexander method under the head
of Uniting.

SPRING MANAGEMENT. — AU colo-
nies should be gone over very carefully as
soon as bees can fly, to determine their
stores. Unless they have two or three
combs of honey, stores should be taken
from some other colonies that can spare

them. If no hive has a surplus, the needy
should be fed a thick syrup consisting of
two parts of sugar to one of water. See
Feeding, especially those instructions urg-
ing fall rather than spring feeding.

Feeders should be placed on top of the
frames, and covered with packing. It may
turn cold shortly after; and even if the
syrup is left in the feeder, starvation will
be averted, for the bees will cluster around
it and help themselves as they have need.
When the weather is cool or cold the sjiT.p
should be given hot.

If colonies have been well housed and
fed in the fall as they should be, there will
be no occasion for feeduig or equalizing of
stores. Of course, there is liable to be
occasionally a colony which, by reason of
bad stores, may have dysentery. In that
case the front of the hive will be soiled
with dark-brown spots, and there will be a
quantity of dead bees in front of the en-
trance and on the bottom of the hive. Such

Outer case used for spring protection.

a colony, even with the best of nursing,
may die before settled warm weather comes
on. If considerable honeydew has been
gathered during the previous summer, one
is likely to find some spring dwindling and
dysentery in some of the hives. Some
honeydews will make a very fair winter
food; but the majority of them, especially
those gathered from hickory and oak, are
bad. If this is the case as much of it as
possible should be used in brood-rearing in
the summer, and then sugar sj^'up should
be fed.

Some springs the weather will turn
warm very suddenly with no natural pollen
available. The warm weather may last sev-
eral days. During this time brood-rearing
will start up rapidly; and if there is no

696

SPRING MANAGEMENT

pollen in the hives the bees will be huntins:
around in the barns and stables and
chicken-coops for bran or chopped feed.
It is necessary at such times to give artifi-
cial pollen. Trays should be set out in
sunny places, under cover if possible, con-
taining a few quarts of rye or pea flour.

Unless bees can have natural or artificial
pollen when brood-rearing starts, consider-
able brood will be found dead. On seeing
this the beginner is apt to conclude his bees
have some form of bee disease — possibly
foul brood. If the brood dies shortly after
a sudden warming-up spell, during which
there is very little natural pollen in or out
of the hives, the owner of the bees should
await further developments. See Pollen^
subhead, ^' Substitutes for Pollen."

When bees are taken out of the cellar it
may be advisable to put them in double-
walled packed hives. Generally one would
consider that such hives are too expensive
to maintain; but if they enable the bee-
keeper to get a crop of honey they would
be a good investment, because the first cost
should be divided over a period of
years. If one feels that he cannot afford
double-walled hives he can very often use
to advantage newspaper wrappings, as
shown under Wintering.

If the cluster of bees can not fill the
whole hive it should be confined to the
number of combs that it can occupy, after
which layers of newspaper should be folded
over the frames, covering top and sides
down to the bottom-board, when waste pa-
per or leaves may be put in on the two
sides and the spaces filled up.

Another plan is to wrap a newspaper
vertically around a frame of ordinary comb,
and then tie with a string. The newspaper
should be long enough to project beyond
the end-bars on each end, so as to close up
spaces between end-bars and the ends of
the hive. When the wrapped comb is in-
serted the bulging fold at top and bottom
of the comb should close up the space be-
tween the cover and the bottom-board.
This makes a close-fitting serviceable divi-
sion-board at little expense. Additional
layers of paper can now be put over the
top of the frames. It would be advisable,
in addition, to set on top a half-depth or
full-depth super and fiJl this with planer

shavings or leaves. When the frames
wrapped in paper are inserted on each
side of the cluster, combs of honey can be
put on the outside. As soon as the bees
need more room or stores they will eat
away the paper and occupy the whole hive.

The newspaper packing above described
costs nothing except the time employed,
and that certainly would paj^ a big divi-
dend, not only in the colder climates where
bees dwindle in the spring, but in semi-
tropical climates where bees suffer from
chilly weather.

If colonies wintered in the cellar are
very weak it may be advisable to unite be-
fore they are set out. See Uniting.

One difficulty in uniting outdoor bees is
that those moved to a new stand are quite
inclined to go back to the old hive. This
can be overcome to a great extent. (See j
Uniting.) Uniting in the spring is often !
unsatisfactory. Never unite two weak ones,
but add a weak one to a medium, and thus
make it strong. Unless the colony is very
weak take out the surplus of combs that it
does not occupy or use, and crowd the little
cluster on as few frames as it can occupy.
In that case, division-boards should be
moved over, and the frames set over on the
other side. The hive should be warmly
packed, and the entrance contracted down
to one inch wide to prevent robbing and to
conserve heat.

In going over the yard in early spring
one is likely to find, if the bees are win-
tered outdoors, one or more dead colonies.
Their entrances should be shut up bee-tight,
for otherwise on the first warm flight day
they will be robbed out by the other bees,
resulting in a general disturbance of the
whole yard. (See Robbing.) Combs on j
which bees have died may be used later on j
by putting fresh bees on them. Unless
thej^ are very badly soiled with dysentery
so they are fairly smeared over with a
brown excrement, or the stores are very bad,
they can be used again. But hadlj soiled
comb, or otherwise undesirable ones, should j
be put thru the wax-extractor. See Wax; I
also Dysentery.

In early spring it may be necessary to
rake out the dead bees in the entrances of |
some colonies. If a colony is strong it will
usually do its own house-cleaning; but
sometimes the dead accumulate in such

STATISTICS CONCERNING THE BEE AND HONEY BUSINESS 697

numbers as aetuallv to block the entrance.
In all such cases there is danger that the
few survivors may die outright.

Perhaps very weak colonies may be
found with a queen; while there will be
another colony fairly strong without any
queen. In that case it is best to unite
these two, moving the weak colony over to
the strong one. See U2sITixg; also Ixtro-

DUCING.

Some experienced beekeepers can "spread
brood" in early spring; but the beginner
wiU do well not to practice it. See Spread-
ixG Beood.

It sometimes happens that there will be
weak and strong colonies in the same yard.
The latter will be too strong and the weak
too weak. Some have practiced exchang-
ing places with the two colonies. If they
are next adjoining, this can be done very
nicely; but the exchange should never be
made except during wann weather. The
flying bees of the strong colony will then
enter the hive on their old stand where the
weak colony has been placed. This will
build it up while the old colony on the
stand of the weak one will be depleted of
bees. No haiTQ to the brood will be done
if the weather is warm and the entrance
contracted.

This plan is practiced to a considerable
extent by some of our large beekeepers and
particularly by Ira D. Bartlett of Michigan.

STATISTICS CONCERNINa THE
BEE AND HONEY BUSINESS.— It is re-
grettable that there are no accurate figures
concerning the number of beekeepers and
number of colonies of bees in the whole
United States. "While the census reports
beekeeping among other industries of the
country, yet an examination of the figures
for 1900"^ and 1910 show that they should
not be taken too seriously. They may be
accurate for some individual States, but it
is nevertheless a fact that they are very
inaccurate for other States. Attention to
this will be called a little later.

But why should not the census bureau
figures be taken too seriously? In some
States at least it is apparent that the cen-
sus enumerators were much more careful
in gathering their data than in others.
Take a case in point. In 1900 the United
States census figures showed that one of
the States in the Union, namely, North

Carolina, where beekeeping is a compara-
tively neglected industry, was actually re-
porting more bees and more honey than the
great State of California, where it is known
there is more honej^ produced, at least in a
good season, than in almost any other State
in the Union. The explanation of this is
doubtless due to the fact that the census
enumerators for North Carolina were care-
ful to get in their record every beekeeper
and every farm where bees were kept,
while in the more important State of Cali-
fornia, where beekeeping is a large and
flourishing industry, the census enumera-
tors did their work very poorly. Many of
the largest bee ranches in the United States
are located up in the mountains in the sage
districts of California. The enumerators
probably did not get track of these. It
may be said in this connection that many
of the most extensive beekeepers of the
world are located in out-of-the-way dis-
tricts apart from the general public, and
for that reason the enumerators probably
failed to get any record of them. In these
same districts sometimes honey is produced
by carloads. It is apparent that the census
people did not get any record of some of
the largest bee ranches in the world.

Again, it is well to call attention to the
fact that the census for both 1900 and 1910
takes into account only the bees on farms.
There are a very large number of people
who keep bees, that are located in the towns
and cities, and some of these are quite ex-
tensive producers of honey. Attention will
be called to this later.

Another case in point shows that the
United States census is not to be taken
seriously. At one of the principal State
beekeepers' conventions it was found that
approximately three-fourths of the bees
there represented had not been included in
the 1910 census account. A similar condi-
tion has been found in other conventions
so that it is no small wonder that thb
United States census does not adequately
represent the bee and honey industiy m
the United States.

It is to be hoped that ere another ten
3'ears rolls by the United States Census
Bureau will appreciate the importance of
the beekeeping industry and will see to it
that its employees or enumerators in every
State alike take as much pains in getting
data concerning bees and honey as they do

698

STATISTICS CONCERNING THE BEE AND HONEY BUSINESS

of the other large industries in the country.
Unfortunately, the census people appear to
have had the impression that the keeping
of bees is a very small industry, and hardly
worth taking into account. It is time they
knew that there are millions in the business.

Fortunately, the authors are in posses-
sion of data showing the amount of the
beekeepers' supplies sold thruout the
United States, and these data enable us to
form a fairly accurate idea of the relative
importance of the industry. When the
United States census figures are very much
at variance with our data, it is apparent
that there must be some mistake, and this
mistake is due rather to the manner in
which Uncle Sam has secured his figures.

Knowing that the census figures for 1900
were grossly inaccurate, all the manufac-
turers of beekeepers' supplies in the United
States agreed to turn over a record of their
complete output of sections to Dr. C. C.
Miller of Marengo, Illinois. As there would
necessarily be some rivalry between the
various manufacturers, it was agreed on
the part of all that the relative output of
each factory would be kept entirely secret,
and that only the total or gross aggregate
should be given out to the public. The fig-
ares were duly turned over to Dr. Miller,
and he subsequently made public the total
aggregate, showing that there are annually
manufactured in the United States sixty
million section honey-boxes. As these fig-
ures were based upon an average taken
from a period of years, the actual annual
output of sections as here given is fairly
accurate. As each honey-box holds slightly
less than a pound on the average, it is fair
to assume that the actual yearly output of
comb honey in the United States is some-
where around fifty million pounds. So
much for comb honey.

At the time these figures were taken by
Dr. Miller it was generally estimated that
there was three times as much extracted
honey as comb, but at the present time it
would be conservative to say that there is
at least five times as much. If the multiple
of three is used, the total amount of ex-
tracted honey would be one hundred and
fifty million pounds ; or if the multiple of
five is used the total would be two hundred
and fifty million pounds. Take the lower
figure and consider that the actual amount
of extracted honey produced in any one

year is one hundred and fifty million
pounds. To this should be added the fifty
million pounds of comb honey, making a
total of two hundred miUion pounds.

Extracted honey sells anywhere from ten
to twelve cents per pound, and comb any-
where from fifteen to thirty cents per
pound. But let us take the conservative
figure of ten cents as an average price that
honey sells for, both comb and extracted.
This would make twenty million dollars'
worth of honey that is annually produced
in the United States in any single year.
During the period of the Great War when
honey reached 20 and 25 cents per pound
in car lots, the value of the honey would
be nearer fifty millions. As the average
mind cannot comprehend these figures let
these two hundred million pounds of honey
be loaded into freight cars of thirty thou-
sand pounds to a forty-foot car. Let all
these cars be put together into one solid
train and there will be a train fifty miles
long. The average person when he consid-
ers these figures, especially when it is
loaded into freight cars like this, thinks
there must be some mistake, and that it
cannot be possible that any amount of
honey like that was produced in the United
States alone. Even if the United States cen-
sus figures (which we are satisfied take into
account only about half the amount of
honey produced in the United States) be
accepted there will still be as the annual
production ten million dollars' worth of
honej''. Considering the fact that the cen-
sus enumerators skip large areas, and in
many cases omit to take into account the
product from extensive apiaries located in
out-of-the-way districts, as well a^ the
large number of bees located in towns and
cities, it is fair to assume that the figures
of twenty million dollars' worth of honey
annually produced in the United States are
much more accurate than those given us by
the government.

The question arises, how many colonies
of bees are there, and how many beekeepers
in the United States? If the average out-
put per hive each year is somewhere about
twenty pounds, and if the figures of two
hundred million pounds are taken as the
total aggregate production in the United
States, there would be about ten million
colonies of bees. If each beekeeper in the
country has on the average about ten col-

STATISTICS CONCERNING THE BEE AND HONEY BUSINESS

699

onies, there ^Yould then be a million bee-
keepers in the United States. The United
States census shows that there were nearly
six hundi^ed thousand farms reporting bees
in 1910j and seven hundred thousand in
1900, showing a falling-oflE of one hundred
thousand during the ten years. Attention
vnR be called to this later. As these figures
do not take into account the large number
of persons keeping bees in cities and towns,
many of whom produce honey by the car-
load, it is safe to estimate that the total
number of persons keeping bees in the
United States is somewhere around one
million, or the same number arrived at by
the other calculation based on the total
aggregate of honey produced in the countiy.

Thirty or forty years ago, most of the
honey in the United States was produced
east of the Mississippi from clover. In
many parts of this section of the country
the pasture lands have given way to in-
tensive agriculture, and while it is no doubt
true that more clover honey is produced
now east of the Mississippi than during an
earlier time, because there are more bees,
yet it is safe to say that the clover area is
becoming less and less. However, this re-
duction in white clover is being offset to a
great extent by the sowing of alsike . clover
on farms where red clover grows only
sparingly. (See Clo\^e.) In the mean
time, irrigation has opened immense tracts
where alfalfa is being grown, so that at the
present tune most of the honey being pro-
duced in the United States comes from the
country west of the Mississippi. At all
events, the markets are better supplied with
mountain sage and alfalfa than they are
with clover honey. Over against this it
must be taken into consideration that the
great centers of population are east of the
Mississippi, and the probabilities are that
most of the clover honey produced in that
part of the countiy is consumed locally.
In the West the country is much more
sparsely settled; but, on the other hand,
beekeeping is carried on in a much more
extensive way. The result is that the West
produces more than it can consume, and it
is shipped eastward. Even when all these
factors are taken into consideration the
fact remains that the great bulk of the
honey comes from the West. For example,
in a good year California would doubtless
lead off. Indeed, there have actually been

shipped out of that State after a good
season as high as five hundred cars of
honey. This does not take into account the
large consumption of honey within the
State. Texas in a good year would follow
as a close second. Then would come next
in order Colorado, Arizona, Idaho, Nevada,
Montana, Wyoming, and, in general, those
States where alfalfa is grown very largely.
According to the United States census
figures Missouri and Illinois follow very
closely after the two great States of Texas
and California in the matter of honey pro-
duction. This may or may not be true ; but
if Illinois, Missouri, New York, and Penn-
sylvania produce as much honey as is cred-
ited to them by the census, there are certain
other States with conditions practically as
good that should produce almost as much.
But a comparison of the table shows in
most cases that they are away below. If
the census enumerators did their work as"
faithfully in these States where the show-
ing is light, as was done in Illinois, Mis-
souri, New York, and Pennsylvania, it
would show that the poor States mentioned
were much better. But the facts are that
the soil, conditions, climate, and other fac-
tors are about the same in a number of the
States, and there should not be such a dif-
ference as we find between Kansas and
Missouri, for example, or between Minne-
sota and Wisconsin, or Minnesota and Illi-
nois.

In respect to the amount of beeswax an-
nually produced in the United States, the
Bureau of Entomology has estimated that
there is about two million dollars' worth,
or about one-tenth of the value of honey
annually produced in the country. But
beeswax sells anywhere from 30 to 35 cents
per pound, and that is two and a half or
three times as much as honey brings, if we
figure 10 cents as the average price of both
comb and extracted. On this basis, for
every pound of wax produced there would
be from 25 to 30 lbs. of honey; and this
proportion would not be far from correct.
The presumption is that the census enu-
merators were more careful to get the exact
account or the amount of beeswax on hand
at the farms because of its larger relative
value.

A little way back reference is made to
the fact that the United States census for
1910 should not be taken too seriously;

700

STATISTICS CONCERNING THE BEE AND HONEY BUSINESS

but it should be said that it is valuable for
the purpose of comparison. We herewith
present a comparative table of the census
for 1900 and 1910. The student will be
interested in comparing- the figures. For
instance, there has been a marked falling-
off in the number of farms where bees were
reported. That there has been a decrease
in the number of farmer beekeepers there
can be no question. Whether the table
showing the decrease by States is accurate
cannot be proven ; but decrease there sure-
ly has been in the aggregate. This is prob-
ably due to two causes ; viz., 1. To a reduc-
tion in the amount of clover grown, either
because intensive agriculture has crowded
it out, or because soil that once grew clover
luxuriantly has become "clover-sick" — that
is, too acid. Clover is the main dependence
for honey in most of the States east of the

Mississippi and north of the Ohio. It is a
notable fact that clover has not yielded as
it did in the olden days before the lime had
been exhausted from the soil. (See Clo-
ver.) When "bees don't pay" on the
farm, they die off because the farmer won't
feed them. We shall have more to say
about this at a later time. 2. The other
cause for reduction in the number of
farmer 'beekeepers is clearly traceable to
bee disease that has made such rapid
spread. The obvious remedy is to work
for more extensive bee-inspection work,
and, besides, preach the doctrine of putting
lime in the soil. That can be done cheaply,
and make clover grow as before. While
lime can have no effect on bee diseases it
will make clover grow as it did in days of
old.

Attention should be called to the fact

state

Per

Per

Per

Farms

cent

Colonies

cent

cent

reporting

of

reported

of

of

bee

3 m

gam

in

gain

Value in dollars

gain

1910

1900

or loss

1910

1900

or loss

1910 1

1900

or loss

23,911

32,100

—25

5

135,140

205,269

—34.2

213,000

288,000

—26.0

441

489

— 9

8

23,770

18,991

t 25.2

104,000

66,000

t 56.7

19,692

22,182

—11

2

92.731

111,138

t 16.6

200,000

204,000

t 2.1

6,869

6,915

— 0

200,718

129,444

t 55.1

728,000

364,000

tioo.i

3,563

4,518

—21

1

71,434

59,756

t 19.5

809,000

195,000

t 58.5

1,798

2,252

—20

2

9,445

11,438

— 17.4

41,800

40,500

t 3.2

1,119

1,684

—33

6

6,410

10,187

—37.1

13,600

20,244

—32.8

13

7

t 85

7

151

59

tl55.9

790

199

t297.0

4,345

4,521

— 3

9

38,895

39,753

— 2.2

98,500

88,800

t 17.5

23,167

32,246

—28

2

130,549

187,919

—30.5

187,000

248,000

—22.9

2,368

2,387

— 0

8

21,903

19,240

t 18.8

100,000

65,000

t 54.1

29,741

34,932

— 14

9

155,846

179,953

—13.4

487,700

486,200

t 0.3

19,487

28,632

—31

9

80,938

117,148

—30.9

280.500

278,900

—17.4

28,935

28,977

— 0

1

160,025

138,811

t 15.3

• 517,800

443,900

t 16.5

16,869

18,295

— 7

8

73,737

88,594

—16.8

218,600

278,000

—21.4

36,854

44,974

—18

1

152,992

203,820

—24.9

419",000

527,000

—20.4

4,928

6,148

—19

8

29,591

85,231

—16.0

58,200

54,800

t 7.1

1,371

2,496

—45

1

7,592

■10,857

—30.1

30,400

51,500

—21.0

4,186

5,098

—17

9

23.156

28,018

—17.8

61,600

61,000

t 1.0

1,597

1,799

—11

2

7,464

8,381

—10.9

39,700

35,800

t 11.0

16,892

18,122

- 6

8

115,274

100,397

t 14.8

446,500

352,500

t 26.7

9,522

6,078

t 56

7

56,677

45,877

t 28.5

221,800

167,300

t 32.6

16,028

17,990

—10

9

74,350

95,257

—21.9

144,000

159,000

— 9.1

40,110

41,145

2

5

203,569

205,110

— 0.8

585,000

508,000

t 15.0

795

234

t239

7

6,313

1,801

t250.5

32,100

8,100

t294.5

12,538

12,130

t 3

4

45,625

52,143

—12.5

158,000

200,000

—23.5

176

278

—36

7

8,401

5,692

t 47.6

48,500

20,100

tl40.7

1,002

1,288

—22

2

4,644

5,520

—15.9

28,600

24,7001— 4.3

418

410

t 2

0

10,052

6,164

t 63.1

46,800

20,800

tl22.6

1,627

2,327

—30

1

10,484

14,118

—25.7

41,600

89,200

t 6.0

15,279

22,738

—32

9

156,360

187,208

—16.5

647,000

594,000

t 8.9

36,258
79

41,051

—11

7

188,998

244,539

—22.7

387,000

480,000

—10.1

30

tl63

8

495

279

t 77.4

3,086

1,474

tl09.4

23,203

34,458

—32

7

98,241

151,391

—35.1

276,000

403,000

—31.5

4,816

3,438

t 40

1

19,411

20,187

— 3.7

64,800

45,400

t 41.5

8,861

8,895

— 0

4

47,285

55,585

—14.9

150,000

160,000

— 6.4

22,297

28,962

—23

0

124,830

161,670

—22.8

478,000

532,000

—10.0

285

370

—23

0

1,267

1,681

—24.6

6,100

6,800

— 9.7

12,528

16,272

—23

0

75,422

93,958

—19.7

135,000

143,000

— 5.6

1,347

387

1-248

1

6,553

2,063

t217.6

81,600

10,100

t213.1

30,712

38,225

—19

7

144,479

222,788

—36.0

341,000

-487,000

—30.0

37,875

60,043

—36

238,107

392,644

—39.4

675,000

749,000

— 9.9

1,873

3,037

—49

5

26,185

38,818

—22.6

123,600

111,500

t 10.9

1,124

1,878

—40

2
8

10,215

12,836

—20.4

44,300

47,000

— 5.5

22,437

25,774

—12

104,005

139,064
80,870

—25.2

303,000

308,000

— 1.9

5,886

4,435

t 32

7

33,884

t 9.8

127,000

107,000

t 18.8

24,035

25,240

— 4

8

110,673

111,417

— 0.7

388,900

375,600

t 3.5

10,391

10,535

— 1

4

95,638

106,090

9 9

360,500

377,000

— 4.4

579

153

t278

4

4,596

1,020

tssole

20,493

5,322|t285.1

590,907

707,315

3,462,52014,258,239

10,372,978110,179,839

Alabama

Arizona

Arkansas

California 1__

Colorado

Connecticut

Delaware

District of Columbia

Florida

Georgia

Idaho

Illinois

Indiana

Iowa

Kansas

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan

Minnesota

Mississippi

Missouri

Montana

Nebraska

Nevada

New Hampshire

New Mexico

New Jersey

New York

North Carolina

North Dakota

Ohio

Oklahoma

Oregon

Pennsylvania

Rhode Island

South Carolina

South Dakota

Tennessee

Texas

Utah

Vermont

Virginia

Washington

West Virginia

Wisconsin

AVyoming

Grand total

A dash ( — ) before a number indicates a loss ; t shows a gain.

STINGS

701

already mentioned, that these data are for
bees on farms only, and that bees in towns
and cities are not included. The official
designation of a " farm " actually includes
many apiaries in towns ; but, as is well
recognized, most of the large town apiaries
have not been included in the enumeration.

The only States showing any increase in
beekeepers worthy of consideration are
Minnesota, Oklahoma, South Dakota,
Washing-ton, Montana, Wyoming, and
North Dakota — all Western States. The
greatest reported loss is in Utah, where 49.5
per cent decrease is shown in the number
of farms reporting bees. It is worth}' of
mention that the loss in number of famis
reporting bees is usually greater than the
number of colonies, indicating that those
DOW in the business are keeping more bees.
On account of bee diseases already men-
tioned, farms that used to keep bees in a
small way have now been obliged to give
up the business because bee disease will not
allow bees to work for nothing and board
themselves as they used to do in the olden
days. The result is now that there is a
smaller number of beekeepers in the coun-
try, perhaps, but a larger number of colo-
nies of bees. In some of the Western
States there are not a few beekeepers who
count their colonies by the thousand and
who produce honey by the carload.

Taking everything into consideration, the
beekeeping industry is certainly growing.
The bee-supply factories all over the coun-
try show a healthy increase ; and the busi-
ness of selling honey is being organized
and developed now as it never was before.
While there are fewer bee journals in the
United States than there were ten years
ago, yet these bee journals are of a much
higher class with a much larger circulation.
This would indicate a larger interest in
bees, not on the part of everybody, but on
the part of those who are making the busi-
ness more of a study.

STINGLESS BEES.— See Bees, Sting-
less.

STINGrS. — Many persons, doubtless,
would keep bees were it not for the natural
fear of stings; but when theii' habits are
thoroly understood this fear disappears al-
most entirely. The average beekeeper pays
no more attention to a sting or two re-

ceived on his fingers than the mechanic who
bruises his knuckles when a wi-ench slips.
When bees are properly handled the num-
ber of stings can be reduced to a very, low
percentage. Very often one can work all
day among his bees and not receive a siagle
jab; and at other times, if he is a little
careless, or if he takes chances, he may get
a regular onslaught of a dozen at a time.
When, however, one exercises ordinary pre-
caution he win receive only an occasional
sting; and even the effects of that, if he is
quick enough, can be miaimized to such an
extent that it will be difficult for him to
find it an hour afterward. The writer once
worked a whole month without a stiag.

As will be pointed out later, the moment
a sting is received it should be removed
instantlj' — the sooner the better. If it is
left in the wound it will gradually work
itself into the flesh by muscular contract-
tion, discharging the contents of the poison-
sac, and the result will be far more severe
than if it had been removed inunediately,
care being taken, of course, not to squeeze
the poison-sac duiing the operation.

It is always ad^*isable for the beginner
to wear a bee-veil and a pair of gloves at
the start. A good bee-smoker, with the fuel
burniQg weU, should be at hand. The time
selected for handling the bees should be
between 10 o'clock in the mornitig and 4 in
the afternoon of a waiin day. The opera-
tor should never stand in front of the en-
trance— always to one side. A little smoke
should be blown in the entrance. The cover
should next be lifted gently and more
smoke blown between the cover and the
hive before the hive is opened. More par-
ticulars in regard to opening the hive are
given further on under this head; also
under Maxipulatiox of Coloxies,, sub-
head How to Open a Hive ; and in the
last part of the "A B C of Beekeeping.'''

Even after one does receive a sting he
should go about his work as tho nothing
had happened. If he does not allow his
mind to dwell upon the pain he wiU not find
it bad. If a sting is received thru the
clothing or a glove, it will be a mere prick,
and can be instantly removed without get-
ting very much of the effects of the poison.

If one expects to be a beekeeper he
should make up his mind that he can over-
come his natural fear. He should under-
stand that when properly handled, the

702

STINGS

directions being carefully followed out as
to time and conditions, bees will be as gen-
tle as kittens; that even when their hive is
torn to pieces, and their combs scattered
here and there, they will not make a pro-
test. If, however, Mr. Beginner thinks he
knows it all, and proceeds to open up ,a
hive without suitable protection, he may be
severely stung, with the result that he will
conclude beekeeping is an exceedingly haz-
ardous business. On the contrary, it is one
of the safest that one can enter into. The
average young horse or a Jersey cow is
more dangerous than a colony of bees; for
either one of them, unless their habits are
thoroly understood, can cause loss of life.
If one attempts to step into a stall on a
dark night, surprising the horse without
saying " whoa ! " or giving notice of his
presence, he may be kicked clear across the
bam. In the same way, a stranger who
does not know the pranks of a Jersey cow
will be dealt with so severely that he may
conclude that the animal ought to be
slaughtered rather than to be allowed to
live. In the same way street cars, automo-
biles, rowboats, are all sources of danger;
and it would be just as reasonable to avoid
horses, cows, street cars, and automobiles
as it would be to avoid bees because some
people have been stung or even have lost
their lives thru gross carelessness. Any
one of them is safe when properly handled.

Perhaps it may be urged that the pain of
the sting could be endured provided there
were no further swelling or disfigurement
of the features. If one will wear a bee-
veil carefully fitted to his clothing, there
will not be the slightest excuse for having a
swollen eye or a distorted lip. As a matter
of fact, after one has been stung a certain
number of times his system will become
hardened or immune so there will be but
little or no swelling. The average bee-
keeper can be stung on his face or hands a
great many times; and beyond the mere
momentary pain there will be no after-
effects except a slight soreness for a few
hours at the point where the sting was re-
ceived. The number of stings that one
must get before he becomes immune de-
pends somewhat on the individual himself.
A very few never have any swelluig, and
others will become immune after a com-
paratively small number of stings. Usual-

ly in a season's operations one will become
proof against swelling after a sting.

Too much emphasis cannot be placed on
the absolute importance of removing the
sting the moment it is given. This can be
done by quick rubbiag or mashing motion,
and very often one can paiTy or prevent a
sting altogether by smashing the bee or
brushing it off before it can get in its work
The bee, in order to sting, must take time
enough to sink in its claws before it can
force its weapon thru the epidermis of its
foe. At the precise instant that one feels
the claws of a bee sinking into the skin he
should dislodge it if he is in position to do
so. Sometimes when he is holding a frame
with a valuable queen on it he must " stand
and take ; " but even then the frame can be
set down gently and the sting removed.
Usually, if there is just a mere prick of the
skin there will be little or no swelling, and
the pain will be hardly noticeable.

THE PROPER WAY TO REMOVE A STING.

With the blade of a knife, scrape the
sting loose, beiag careful not to break it off
nor to press on the poison-sac. A pressure
on the latter will force the poison into the
wound, making it much worse.

When a knife is not handy, push the
sting out with the thumb or finger nail in
much the same way. It is quite desirable
that the sting be taken out as quickly as
possible, for if the barbs (to be described
further along) once get hold of the flesh,
muscular contraction will rapidly work
the sting deeper and deeper. Sometimes
the sting separates, leaving part (one of
the splinters, so to speak) in the wound.
It has been suggested that care should be
taken to remove every one of these tiny
poiats ; but after trying many times to see
what the effect would be, the author con-
cludes that they do but little harm, and
that the main thing is to remove the part
containing the poison-bag before it has
emptied itself into the wound. When very
busy, or having something in the other hand
to make it inconvenient to remove the sting
with a knife or finger-nail, we have rubbed
the sting out against the clothing, in such a
way as to push the poison-bag off side-
wise; and altho this plan often breaks off
the sting so as to leave splinters in the

STINGS

703

wound, we have found little if any more
trouble from them than usual.

REMEDIES FOR BEE-STT NGS.

Medicines of all kinds are of so little
avail, if of any use at all, that the best way
is to pay no attention to any of them. This
has awakened a great deal of arguing, and
the remedies that have been sent, which the
writers knew were good, because they had
tried them, have been enough to fill this
whole chapter. We have tried a great
many of them, and, for a time, we im-
agined they were of value ; but after giving
them a more extended trial, we have been
forced to conclude that they were entirely
futile. They not only did no good, but if
the dii'ections with the remedy were to mb
it in the wound, they did positive harm.
The friction would diffuse the poison more
rapidly into the circulation, and make a
painful swelling of what would have been
very trifling, if let alone. It should be
borne in mind that the poison is introduced
into the flesh thru a puncture so minute
that the finest cambric needle could by no
manner of means enter where the sting did,
and that the flesh closes over so completely
as to make it practically impossible for
the remedy to penetrate this opening. Even
if there is a remedy that will neutralize the
poison in something the same way that an
alkali neutralizes any regular acid, how is
it possible to get it directly in contact with
the poison? There is no way of doing it
unless resort is had to a surgical operation.
There is no remedy except to remove the
sting immediately, and then let the wound
alone, and going on with the work without
even thinking about it. But, suppose one
gets under the eye a sting that closes up
that very important organ; shall he go on
with his work? That depends. If it
brings on headache or causes great discom-
fort, rest a while, and in the mean time
apply a cold wet cloth until the local fever
is allayed. Sometimes applying a hot and
cold wet cloth alternately brings relief.

Kerosene was suggested as a remedy, and
two of our friends regarded it of such im-
portance that they almost got into a con-
troversy about who was entitled to the
honor of the discovery. After having re-
ceived a very bad sting on the hand, we
went for the oil can and dropped oil on the

spot for some time. As kerosene will re-
move a rusty bolt or screw when nothing
else will avail, and as it seems to have a
wonderful power of penetrating all cracks
and crevices, we began to have faith that
it might follow the sting of the bee, and in
some way neutralize the poison. But the
only result was one of the most painful
and lasting wounds we ever had.

WHAT TO DO WHEX HORSES ARE STUNG A
GREAT NUMBER OF TIMES AT ONCE.

Severe cases of stinging are usually the
result of carelessness, either from allowing
combs to be scattered, causing robbing, or
because a hive has been bumped over by
careless driving, or by some animal allowed
the range of the apiary. There are a num-
ber of cases on record where horses have
been stung to death; and it is hardly safe
to hitch such animals within a few feet of a
hive, nor yet to let them run loose in a
bee-yard, altho a few sheep may be let in
to keep the grass down to advantage.

Chalon Fowls of Oberlin, 0., left a horse
hitched near some hives of what he thought
were gentle Italians; but by some means or
other the animal bumped one of the hives,
irritating the bees, causing them to ' rush
out and sting. The horse, of course, began to
plunge and kick, with the result that he
demolished completely all the hives within
reach. Mr. Fowls said the horse, when he
could get to him, was almost literally cov-
ered with stings. He unhitched and led
him away, and immediately called for a
boiler of hot water. This was brought out
as soon as it could be heated. Cloths and
blankets were immersed in it, almost boil-
ing hot, wrung nearly dry, and laid over
the animal, now writhing in the severest
agony. The moment Mr. Fowls applied the
hot blankets he says the horse quieted
do^Ti. During the escapade he himself was
terribly stung in the face and on the hands ;
and he says that, as soon as the hot cloths
were applied to his face he felt almost in-
stant relief. The cloths were applied to the
horse on every portion that was stung, and
Mr. FoAvls had the satisfaction of knowing
that he could save his horse, which was
soon as well as ever.

During the summer of 1902 at one of our
outyards we had an experience which we
thought at the time would be fatal to both

704

STINGS

man and beast. It came about somewhat
in this way. A neighbor of ours who had a
field of timothy near our yard had allowed
his horse to eat grass within a few feet of
the yard while he went to the further end
of the field to look after some work. In
the mean time the horse had managed to
get over among the bees. The result was,
she knocked over five hives, and was liter-
ally covered with stings when our neighbor
came up. Being a practical beeman as well
as a horseman himself, he rushed into the
fray, freed the horse, and started her for
the barn. The animal was beginning to
swell badly, and it was evident to him that
she would die before relief could be given
by a veterinary, even if called. He accord-
ingly roUed up about a pound of common
table salt in a paper, opened the animal's
mouth, and with the left hand grasped her
tongue, pulling it out as far as he could.
He then with his right hand shoved the salt
clear down her throat, reaching to his
elbow. This done, he quickly closed her
mouth and elevated her head until he saw
the wad of salt go down the gullet. In a
short time the horse showed relief, for the
salt probably neutralized, to some extent,
the effect of the acid poison. It also acted
as a physic ; for when a horse is sick at the
stomach he can not vomit, and it is neces-
sary to give him something at once to keep
the bowels open. In three or four hours
the horse was greatly relieved.

Our neighbor did not apply wet blankets
wrung out of hot water; but the veterinary
who was consulted afterward, said that the
giving of the salt was one of the best things
that could have been done, and added that
he would have wrapped the animal up in a
blanket wrung out of hot water. If to this
water is added a small quantity of am-
monia, all the better.

The moral of this is to keep bee-yards
fenced off so that no stock or horses can
get in. It is also advisable to locate the
apiary a few rods from any line fence or
hitching-post. See Apiary.

WHAT TO DO WHEN A PATIENT SUFFERS
SEVERELY FROM ONE OR MORE STINGS.

It is rare indeed that one sting causes
any more than a local pain. Red blotches
may break out all over the body. In other
cases there may be shortness of breath, a

faintness, some nausea, and a weak heart
action. When the heart is affected it is
very important to keep the patient quiet
and cool, and to get the services of a physi-
cian at once to administer some heart stim-
ulant. If the patient has been stung a
great many times, cloths should be wrung
out of hot water and applied to the body.
Feet and hands should be kept warm, and
the patient, if he has a weak pulse and
difficulty in breathing, should be placed
near an open window, or, better still, out
on the porch where the cool breezes can
strike him. If there is no air stirring, it
would be well for some one to keep up a
vigorous fanning of the face. The body
should be warmly covered and protected
until the doctor arrives. Where electricity
is available an electric fan may be made to
play across the face of the patient.

When one suffers a shock and shows a
weak pulse (and these cases are rare) he
should, after he recovers, carefully refrain
from attempting to do any hard manual
labor for two or three weeks as he will
probably suffer from the shock. He should
avoid becoming overheated, and for a day
or two after being stung he should be very
quiet, keeping as cool as possible. Any
exertion may bring back the old trouble of
weak pulse, and this of course introduces
an element of danger, if not the danger of
leaving a permanent legacy of a bad heart.

Where there is no weak action of the
heart, that is, the pulse seems to be good,
but one suffers from a general fever over
the body with red blotches all over, appli-
cations of cold cloths wrung out of water
sometimes are sufficient to bring relief.
Sometimes hot applications are better still,
and very often it happens that hot and
cold in alternation prove beneficial.

HOW ONE WHO IS SERIOUSLY AFFECTED
BY A SINGLE STING MAY BECOME
COMPARATIVELY IMMUNE TO THE
POISON.

There are some who are so seriously
affected by the bee-sting poison that even
a single sting will cause the body to break
out in red blotches. Only one person in ten
thousand is thus affected. So rare are the
reported cases that the editors of Gleanings
in Bee Culture, a journal with a circulation
of over 20,000, do not hear of them once in

STINGS

705

ten years. But there are quite a niiniber of
others who are less aJffected, but who inform
us that a single sting produces gi'eat dis-
comfort. While there is no danger of loss
of life, the results of a sting are such that
they have been obliged to give up the
delightful pastime of keeping bees, very
much to their regret. We have formerly
ad^dsed all such persons when going among
bees to be veiled and to wear gloves. But
in late 3'ears we have found a better remedy.
It was suggested by the fact that the aver-
age person becomes less and less affected
by the bee-sting poison; and it occuiTed
to us that, inasmuch as the human system
has the power to withstand increasing
doses of many poisons, after the fli'st one^
why should it not be able to make itself
immune to a certain extent against the
virus of a bee-sting ? It is a well-known
fact that opium and morphine fiends are
able to take doses of those drugs in
amounts that would kill ten people who
are not in the habit of taking them. The
same thing is tine of alcohol. It is evident
if one who is very seriously affected by
bee-sting poison would just merely prick
himself with a sting and then brush it off
before it has had time to throw much of
its vims into the wound, the after-effects
would not be very serious; and that if the
dose were repeated some four or five days
afterward, or about the time the effect of
the previous sting had passed away, one
could, by continuing this process, ultimate-
ly apply the dose at more frequent inter-
vals until in time his system would be no
more aft'ected than that of an ordinary
person.

An interesting case came under observa-
tion. A boy, when stung, became so af-
fected that his body would break out in
great red blotches ; his breathing gi-ew dif-
ficult, and his heart began to pound like a
sledge hammer. It was really a question
whether there was not danger of losing his
life. Nevertheless he was veiy desirous of
engaging in beekeeping, and del mined
to work with bees. A live bee was 11 -^ssed
on the back of his hand until it nerely
pierced his skin with the sting. It was
removed immediately ; and since no serious
effect followed another sting prick was ad-
ministered inside of four or five days. This
was continued for some three or four
weeks, when the patient began to have a
23

sort of itching sensation all over his body.
The hypodermic injections of bee-sting
poison were then discontinued. At the end
of a month they were repeated at intervals
of four or five days. Again after two or
thi-ee weeks the itching sensation came on,
but it was less pronounced. The patient
was given a rest of about a month, when
the doses were repeated as before. He
then went to school and was not back for
eight or nine months. On his return the
applications were given again, when it was
plainly noticeable that the after-effects
were becoming markedly less. He then
went out into the bee-yard and was stung
occasionally, but, beyond a small local
swelling, there was no unpleasant effect.

Some months afterward he was assisting
one of our men at one of our yards, when,
without warning, a colony of bees that was
being handled made a most furious attack
on both the men. The young man who had
been taking the immunizing doses of bee-
vii'us received, he estimates, ten or a dozen
stings aU over his body. He had no veil
nor gloves, for the other man was doing
the work with the bees. He expected
serious consequences; but, greatly to his
surprise and gratification, no impleasant
effects followed. What was more, there
was no swelling. It should be remembered
that this person used to be so seriously
affected that a single sting would cause his
parents to worry, for they feared he would
not be able to survive the attack. He now
handles bees with the same freedom that
any experienced beekeeper does.

HOW TO AVOID BEIXG STUXG.

If the reader wiU turn to the A B C op
Beekeepixg, also !Maxipulatio>t of Colo-
XLES^ subhead " How to Open a Hive," and
if he has read carefuUy the beginning of
this article, he will have a general knowl-
edge of how to avoid stings. It will be
proper at this point to amplify some things
ali'eady said, and to add others not already
covered. The subject is so important that
it cannot be gone over too fuUy, even at
the risk of repetition. Whether one will
be able to make a success of beekeeping or
not, will depend very largely on how care-
fully he follows the directions given below.

1. He should have a good bee-smoker
with the fuel well ignited. The author

706

STINGS

prefers greasy waste, which is procurable
at almost any machine shop or garage, and
can usually be had for the asking. See
Smokers.

2. He should have a bee-veil that is
securely attached to the hat and to the
waist or shirt (see Veils).

3. His clothing should be loose, not fit-
ting closely to the body; a blouse or shirt
with sleeves buttoned or tied securely
around the wrists should be worn. If he
is shaking bees from the combs, he should
have his trousers stuck in his socks or
folded around the ankles, holding them in
place by means of strings. The shoes
should be high enough to project under the
trousers; and in the case of a woman the
skirt should be long enough to reach the
tops of the shoes. Or, better yet, let her
wear a farmerette suit. Some of these
suits are very neat and becoming. When
bees are shaken on the ground care should
be taken not to allow them to crawl up on
the feet. If perchance they do get on the
foot, it should be stamped on the ground,
jarring them off. When the weather will
permit, the man should have both his coat
and vest off. A very good suit is that
worn by garage men and railroad engi-
neers in the form of a union overalls suit.
Those who are very timid should wear
gloves or gauntlets. See Gloves.

4. One should never stand in front of a
hive — always at one side or in the rear.
When bees are flying to the fields back and
forth they are more liable to sting, appar-
ently working on the assumption that the
obstruction has no business to be in the
way.

5. A good hive-tool is important. In the
absence of a special tool, a screwdriver or a
knife with a strong blade may be used.

6. The middle hours of the day, if one is
a beginner, should be selected for the
manipulation of bees. The novice should
never attempt to open a hive on a cool or
chilly morning, or late in the afternoon,
and never after a chilly rain.

7. One should avoid opening a hive or
going out into the apiary at a time imme-
diately after a heavy rain or after any
other cause that suddenly checks or stops
the honey flow. Either a rain or a cold
spell may stop the secretion of nectar. The
more sudden the stoppage, the crosser will

be the bees; and when they work on buck-
wheat or honeydew, they are apt to be
cross when the flow stops along during the
middle hours of the day, until it begins
again during the afternoon.

8. Having selected a favorable time for
the manipulation, the beginner should blow
one or two puffs of smoke into the
entrance of the hive. With a hive-tool,
screwdriver, or knife, he should separate
the cover from the hive by merely entering
the blade, leaving a gap wide enough for
the entrance of smoke, but narrow enough
to prevent the exit of bees. A couple of
puffs of smoke should be forced into the
crack made by the hive-tool, after which
the cover may be lifted and more smoke
blown over the frames. The cover may
be set down by the side of the hive. How-
ever, it is usually advisable to jar the bees
from the cover by giving a sharp blow on
the ground just in front of the entrance,
when they will quickly run in. This is im-
portant, because the crawling bees on the
ground are quite liable to get under the
clothing; and a crawling bee always moves
upward.

9. Before proceeding further, the opera-
tor should carefully note the behavior of
the bees. If they crowd up closely between
the frames, making quick movements, and
one or two start flying up as if about to
attack, more smoke should be blown over
the combs. If, however, a few of them
crawl leisurely over the combs, apparently!
paying no attention to anything, the f rame^
may be separated with a hive-tool or m
screwdriver; but the smoker should be-
kept conveniently in the other hand; and
if at any moment the bees show a disposi-
tion to rush out or sting, more smoke
should be used.

10. If there is a division-board in the
hive it should be removed. The frames
should be separated on either side of the
one that is to be taken out. If the operator
or beginner is timid he should blow smoke
over the tops of the frames, and then very
quietly lift the frame selected, being care-
ful to avoid jerks or quick movements, and j
especially careful not to roU the bees over I
when pulling it out. This cannot be em- |
phasized too strongly. Crushed or maimed I
bees may stir up the colony to a fighting
pitch. This should be avoided by all means, i.

STINGS

707

After the first comb is removed, tlie others
may be taken out very easily.

11. The operator should not only avoid
mashing or killing bees, but he should
never jerk the hands back, even if two or
three bees do rush out and make a bluff
as if they were about to sting, which they
will frequently do. If the hand is held
stationary when they make these onslaughts
they will seldom sting; but if the hand is
jerked backward it may be stung by two
or three bees. Just the moment that a
bee inserts its claws the hand should be
withdrawn, and, when away from the hive,
quickly rubbed against the clothing in such
a way as to brush the bee off before it can
sting.

12. One should learn to distinguish be-
tween bees that are angry and those that
are flying about aimlessly. Cross bees will
be detected by their high keynote and their
quick darting movements in flight. A bee
that nervously flits back and forth before
the face, giving out a high keynote, is
cross, and will sting unless the operator
"has his face protected by a veil. The best
thing to do with such bees is to pay no
attention to them.

13. When replacing the frames, they
should be put back in the same order they
were in originally, being careful not to
pinch any bees.

14. Bees are much more inclined to sting
during a time when there is a dearth of
honey, and when robbing has been allowed
to get started. (See Robbing.) One
should not leave a hive open very long
vvhen stray bees from other hives are hov-
ering over the tops of the combs, now and
then darting into the hives or on to the
combs and stealing more or less of the
sweets.

15. After the hive has been opened up
and has stood for a while without any
manipulation, the remainder of the frames
left should receive two or three puffs of
smoke before handling. This is to drive
down the guards.

16. Hot breath from a human being or
an animal when combs are handled very
often starts beos to rush off the combs by
the dozen and alight on the veil. If one
has no face protection he may receive a
dozen stings in the fraction of a second.

17. Ordinarily bees will sting a man or
an animal when he is sweaty and gives off

a strong odor. However, the practical
beekeeper pays but little attention to what
his condition may be. His experiences
will determine what to do if the bees show
a disposition to be cross. At such times
the smoker should always be ready. It is
the indispensable implement in the yard, -
and should be in condition to give off a
volume of smoke at any instant — not that
one's life depends on it, but rather to save
time and to avoid stings.

18. Children should not be allowed to
race thru a beeyard when bees are busy in
going to the field, or at any other time
when they might be a little cross. They
should be cautioned to go around the
apiary. While the children of beekeepers
sometimes become careless, they should
avoid, as far as possible, doing anything
that will cause unnecessary irritation to the
bees, thereby provoking them to sting,

19. Never hitch a team or a horse near
a hive of bees. A single sting will some-
times cause a horse to break loose, rush
thru the yard, knocking over hive after
hive. If for any reason he becomes en-
tangled in his harness he will be stung to
death, and at the same time the life of the
owner may be in danger in trying to save
the animal. When hives are knocked over
as the result of a runaway horse or team,
there is liable to be a general stinging
fracas. The owner should not be tempted
to go into a yard at such times without
veil and gloves, and a smoker well ignited-
To do so without protection is onty inviting
disaster.

WHAT KIND OF BEES STING WORST.

The general decision now is, that pure
Italians, Caucasians, and Carniolans are
the most easily handled. (See Races of
Bees.) Not only do they sting less, but
as they keep their places on the combs
without getting excited when the hives are
opened properly, they are far less likely
to get under one's clothing than common
bees. Queenless bees are not as quiet. It
may be because they seldom work with
energy, and have therefore no fresh ac-
cumulation of stores that would tend to
put them on their good behavior. All bees
are much worse after a sudden stoppage
of nectar secretion, especially after a bass-
wood or buckwheat flow. A great many

708

STINGS

stings are received from bees that are in no
way badly disposed at all, simply from
getting pinched accidentally while on the
person of the beekeeper.

The pure races may be handled all day,
with no mishap; but after working among
the old-fashioned blacks or hybrids one
often finds a dozen or more under the coat,
in the sleeves, if they can get up, and,
worst of all, up the trousers, unless the
precaution has been taken to tuck them
into the boots — or stockings when wearing
low shoes. (See Veils.) This one thing
alone should decide one in favor of the
Italians, if they were simply equal to the
blacks in other respects. Hybrids, as be-
fore stated, are worse to sting than either
of the races when pure ; while Cyprian and
Holy-Land bees are so much worse still,
that sometimes smoke has no effect on
them. See Cypeians, under Italians;
also Races of Bees.

- BEE-STING POISON.

When bees are very angry and elevate
that portion of their bodies containing the
sting, a tiny drop of some transparent
liquid can often be seen on its point. This
liquid is the poison of the bee's sting. It
has a sharp, pungent taste; and when
thrown in the eyes, as sometimes happens,
it has a stinging, acrid feeling, as if it
might be a compound of cayenne pepper,
onion-juice, and horseradish combined;
and one who tastes it or gets it in his
eyes concludes it is not so strange that
such a substance, introduced into the cir-
culation, should produce severe pain and
local fever for a few hours.

ILOW IT IS DONE.

It is quite an interesting experiment to
let a bee sting one on the hand, and then
observe the whole performance without
disturbing it. After the bee has worked
the sting so deeply as to be satisfied, it
begins to find itself a prisoner, and to
consider means of escape. It usually gets
smashed at about this stage of proceedings
unless successful in tearing the sting —
poison-bag and all — from the body; how-
ever, if allowed to work quietly it seldom
does this. After pulling at the sting to
see that it will not come out, it seems to

consider the matter a little, and then com-
mences to walk around the sting, in a cir-
cle, just as if trying to twist a screw out
of a board. If one can be patient and let
the bee alone, it may work it out, but in
most cases the sting either tears out from
the body of the bee or breaks off. In
either case it should be removed from the
victim at once.

ODOR OF BEE-STING POISON.

After one sting has been inflicted, there
seems a much greater chance of getting
more stings. Mr. Quinby has suggested
that this is owing to the smell of the
poison, and that the use of smoke will
neutralize this scent. It is advisable to
blow smoke on the wound. The heat re-
lieves the pain somewhat, and the smoke
does, no doubt, obscure the bee-sting odor.

POISON OF THE BEE-STING AS A REMEDIAL
AGENT.

For some years past there have been
running in the daily press many reports
in regard to the agency of bee-stings in
the cure of certain forms of diseases, espe-
cially rheumatism. From the facts put
forth, any candid reasoner will have to
admit that being stung frequently does
have the effect of relieving certain forms
of rheumatism, paralysis, and perhaps
dropsy.

Numerous accounts have also appeared
of various persons affected with rheuma-
tism being greatly relieved by stings, espe-
cially on the affected parts. Some others
have reported that they could discover no
appreciable effect one way or the other.

It has happened at various field-day
gatherings of beekeepers that certain par-
ties who read these reports, having suf-
fered severely because of rheumatic pains,
have presented themselves and asked to
have experts cause the bees to sting them
on the affected parts. The operator picks
a bee off a comb by the wings and presses
it against the fiesh until the sting is driven
into the skin. This has been done on sev-
eral occasions, and in each case the parties
who came forward for this kind of treat-
ment have said they experienced relief.
At the Jenkintown field-day meeting, June
26, 1906, an old gentleman got up on the

STINGS

709

platform, and, before something like a
thousand people, stings were applied to his
arm until something like a hundi-ed were
imbedded deeply in the flesh. Did it hurt?
Oh, yes! But the induced fever of the
stings, he said, seemed to bring a warmth
and toning of the muscles that was after
all a relief; for, strangely enough, this
large number of stings does not seem to
affect a rheumatic leg or arm as it does a
healthy member.

It is a well-known fact that the homeo-
pathic school has for many years used bee-
sting poison in a remedy called " apis mel-
litica." There are large wholesale drug-
houses that have made a business of bujnng
stings taken from live bees, being di'opped,
as they are extracted, into small vials con-
taining sugar of milk. We have filled
orders from our apiaries for bee-stings to
the extent of 10,000 in one lot. From a
frame of live bees placed in a convenient
position a bee is picked up with a pair
of broad-nosed tweezers and immediately
crushed. This act forces out the sting,
when it is immediately grasped by another
pair of fine-pointed tweezers. These are
then given a sharp rap over a wide-
mouthed bottle containing sugar of milk.
In this way the stings are extracted one
by one until the whole number has been
puUed. But the operator, after having
extracted four or five thousand, experiences
a sort of tingling and itching sensation in
the face, and finds he has to take a rest of
some days before he can renew his work.
At other times it happens that he can ex-
tract only a few hundred a day when that
itching sensation wiU reappear. This is
probably due to the fact that he inhales
some of the fumes of the poison, which,
entering the lungs, is absorbed by the blood
and caiTied thru the system.

At other times a pound or so of bees is
put into a large wide-mouthed bottle or
jar of alcohol. But the poison of the
stings extracted in this way must neces-
sarily be mixed with the other juices of
the bees.

Homeopathic physicians have "apis mel-
lifica," thus made from bee-stings, supplied
to them in the form of a liquid. It smells
not unlike bee-sting poison, and is often
given internally to relieve the pain of
rheumatism or swellings in general. But

it is evident that a hypodemiic injection
of the bees, given directly on the affected
part, would be a hundred times more pro-
ductive of good results, assuming, of
course, the poison does have a remedial
effect.

SMOKE XOT ALWAYS A PRE\'EXTn'E OF
BEE-STIXGS.

There are som.e colonies that, under some
conditions, can not be conquered, even with
smoke. If the atmosphere is a little chilly,
or immediately after a rain, or if the sup-
ply of nectar has suddenly stopped short
off, a few colonies may be very hard to
handle. While most bees) under these con-
ditions will yield to smoke, it seems to
infuriate others. The only thing to do is
to let them alone for the time being ; then
the next day or two, when the weather is
favorable, blow a little smoke in at the
entrance, raise the cover very gently, blow
in a few whiffs more, when, presto t the
fiends of the day before are as gentle as
one could wish.

MECHAXICAL COXSTRUCTIOX AXD OPERATION
OF THE STIXG.

After a bee has delivered its sting, and
torn itself from that member, a bundle
of muscles near by, and partly enveloping
the poison-bag, will be noticed. The curious
part of it is that for some considerable
time after the sting has been detached from
the body of the bee, these muscles will work
with a kind of pump-like motion forcing
the sting firrther into the wound, as if
they had a conscious existence and burned
with desire to wreak vengeance on the
party attacked. Even after the sting has
been pulled from the flesh, and thrown
away, if it should stick in the clothing so
the flesh wiU come in contact with it, it
will commence working again, pull itself
into the flesh, and empty the poison into
the wound, precisely as if the living bee
Avere itself working it.

We have suffered many times from a
sting unconnected with any bee. A sting
would hold life enough to give a very pain-
ful wound, for some minutes afterward.
Muscular contraction of the sting has taken
place under the field of the microscope 20
minutes after being detached from the bee.

710

STINGS

This phenomenon is wonderful, and we
have often, while watchixig the sting sink
into the rim of a felt hat, pondered on that
wonderful thing, animal life. Why should
that isolated sting behave in this manner,
when the bee to which it belonged was
perhaps far away, buzzing thru the air?
Why should this bundle of fibers and
muscles behave as if it had a life to throw
away?

Under the microscope the sting is found
to be a beautifully fashioned and polished
instrument, whose delicate taper and finish
make a most surprising contrast with any
instrument man has been able to produce.
In shape it appears to be round ; but it is,
in reality, egg-shaped, and is of a dark-
red color, but transparent enough to show
the hollow.

The sting proper is composed of three
parts — the outer shell, or husk, D, and two
barbed spears that slide partly inside of it.
Fig. 2 shows the spears. The barbs are
much like those on a common fishhook;
and when the point of one spear. A, pene-
trates far enough to get one barb under the
skin, the bee has made a hold, and has no
difficulty in sinking the sting its whole
length into the wound; for the pumping
motion at once comm.ences, and the other
spear, B, slides down a little beyond A,
then A beyond B, and so on. With a
motion like that of a pair of pump-handles,
these spears are operated by small but
powerful muscles attached thereto. These
muscles will work, at intervals, for some
time after the sting has been torn from
the bee, as we have explained. They work
with sufficient power to send the sting
thru a felt hat or into a tough buckskin
glove. We have often watched the bee
while attempting to get its sting started
into the hard cuticle on the inside of the
hand. The spears often run along the
surface diagonally, so that it can be seen
how they work down by successive pumps.

It was formerly supposed that the duct
0 0 was for the purpose of conducting
the poison from the poison-bag up the
barbs; but Snodgrass, of the Bureau of
Entomology, has shown that this is a mis-
take.

Fig. 3 is a transverse section, sliced
across the three parts, at about the dotted
line D. A and B are the barbed spears;
F and G, the hollows to give them lightness

and strength; H, H, the barbs. It will be
observed that the husk, D, incloses but lit-
tle more than one-third of the spears. The
purpose of the main shaft C is to hold the
spears in place, and to allow them to slide
easily up and down, also to direct them
while doing this work. To hold all to-
gether, there is a groove like a sliding
dovetailed joint in both spears, with a
corresponding projection in the husk,
which fit each other as shown. This allows
the barbs to project to do their work, and
yet holds all together tolerably firm. We
say tolerably firm, for these spears are
very easily torn out of the husk ; and after
a sting is extracted they are often left in
the wound, like the tiny splinters we have
before mentioned. When torn out and laid
on a slip of glass they are scarcely visible
to the naked eye; but under the micro-
scope they appear as in Fig. 2.

Bee-sting magnified.

Stings do not all have the same number
of J)arbs. We have seen as few as seven
and as many as nine. The two spears are
held against each other as shown in Fig. 3,
and you will observe that the shape and the
arrangement of the three parts leaves the
hollow, E, in their center. The working of
the spears also pumps down poison, and
quite a good-sized drop collected on their

SUMAC

711

points while we saw them working under
the microscope. J. R. Bledsoe found a
valve that lets it out of the poison-bag
into this wonderful little pump, but pre-
vents its returning. We have not been able
to see this, but have no doubt that it is
there. The drop of poison, after lying on
the glass a few minutes, dries down and
seems to leave a gummy substance that
crystallizes, as it were, into strange and
beautiful forms, a diagram of which is
shown in Fig. 4.

SUCROSE.— See Cane Sugar.

SUGAR. — The term sugar is applied by
common consent to the white sugar com-
mercially prepared from the sugar cane
and the sugar beet, or sucrose. To the
layman, and possibly to the chemist, the
word " sugar " means white granulated
sugar; if it is powdered, the adjective
" powdered " is added to sugar as " pow-
dered sugar ; " if it is moist and soft, and
either white or only slightly yellow in
color, it is termed " soft sugar ; " while if
it is brown in color, moist and soft, it is
termed " brown sugar." In distinction the
word " sugars " refers to the whole class
of sugar, of Avhich there are some 150 or
more, many of which are rare and some of
more common occurrence. Grape sugar is
the sugar dextrose, while fruit sugar is the
sugar levulose. See Invert Sugar.

Common sugar is composed of the ele-
ments in the following proportions: Car-
bon, 12 parts; hydrogen, 22 parts; oxy-
gen, 11 parts. It is found free in nature
in many roots, as beets and turnips ; in the
stems of plants, as sorghum, sugar cane,
cornstalks, and in the sap of trees like
maple, birch, etc., and in many fruits. It
has never been commercially prepared from
the elements.

A white sugar or granulated sugar is
practically pure sucrose, while the varying
off-colored sugars ranging from light-
yellow to brown are mostly mixtures of
crystals of sucrose surrounded with molas-
ses. These yellow or brown sugars are all
produced by the refineries from the liquors
after the production of the white grades.
Formerly one had brown sugars direct
from the cane, but now these are not pro-
duced to any extent in this country.
Louisiana sugars in hogsheads used to be

these old brown sugars.

There has always been a discussion as to
whether white sugar made from beets was
the same in every particular as that made
from sugar cane. Both contain practically
the same amount of sucrose, also water and
mineral matter, but the organic impurities
which may amount to from .05 to .1 per
cent are often different in beet white sugar
from those in cane white sugar. These im-
purities may play a part in some manufac-
turing processes, and prevent the use of
beet sugar in all places where cane sugar
has been used. However, as a sweetener
and for table use or for jelly or preserving
work it is doubtful whether there is any
notable difference between beet and cane
sugar. See Cane Sugar.

SUMAC. — There are about 15 species of
sumac in the United States : Shrubs, small
trees, or vines, with handsome trifoliate or
pinnate leaves, and not infrequently poi-
sonous sap. The small white or green
flowers are massed in large clusters. The
stamens and pistils are often in separate
flowers, and in the case of some species on
different plants.

In southern New England, especially in
Connecticut, Rhus glabra L., called smooth,
upland, or scarlet sumac, is very common
in hillside pastures and along stone walls.
It is an irregularly branched shrub, seldom
more than 10 feet tall; but its graceful
foliage is very attractive. The blooming
period lasts for about three weeks from
July 8 to the beginning of August. The
flower secretes nectar most freely on hot
clear days, but in cloudy weather the flow
ceases entirely. Strong colonies will bring
in 20 pounds during an ideal day, and will
store a surplus of from 20 to 100 pounds
according to the weather. At its height
the flow is very rapid and heavy. While
the bees are busy on the bloom there is a
very strong odor about the apiary, and
the new honey is more or less bitter to the
taste. Fortunately, the bitterness is only
transient, and by winter the honey is edible.

One must eat sumac honey to appreciate
it, says Latham. There is a richness but at
the same time a mildness about it that will
suit the most sensitive taste. Once a cus-
tomer, always a customer, if one buys
sumac honey. When pure the honey has
a golden color. If properly ripened, it has

712

SUMAC

no noticeable odor, but is very heav}^, and,
like apple-blossom honey, waxes instead of
candying. It is safe to s'ay that much of
Connecticut would be worthless to bee-
keepers but for this plant.

Sumac, smooth (Rhus glabra).

R. typhina L., staghorn sumac, widely
distributed thruout the eastern United
States, is a small tree 10 to 40 feet tall.
The young shoots are covered with velvety
hairs like a stag's horn; hence the name.
If more common, it would be important.
B. toxicodendron L., poison ivy, poison
oak, is a vigorous climbing vine. It is
said to yield a surplus in certain localities.

In Georgia there are several species of
sumac which are valuable; but the most
important is B. copallina L., known as
dwarf sumac and mountain sumac. This
species extends from Maine to Florida and
Texas and westward as far as Minnesota.
In a few localities in north Georgia it is
the main source of marketable honey. In
Texas in favorable seasons, depending
upon rain, it also yields a surplus. In
California B. diversiloha T. and G. is
found thruout the State and yields an ex-
cellent grade of white honey which, how-
ever, granulates very readily. In southern
California B. laurinu Nutt. is common an«!
yields one or more extractings of amber-
colored honey of fine flavor but strong
odor.

BJius Metopium L,, coral sumac, poison
wood, doctor gum, is a tree 40 or 50 feet
tall, growing commonly on the extreme
southern part of the Florida peninsula

and on the Keys, but found as far north
as Palm Beach. Its common names are
very numerous and misleading. It is often,
but erroneously, termed " manchineel,"
from confusion with the tree of that name,
which it closely resembles in many particu-
lars; but it is much more common than
the real manchineel, which is much more
poisonous. Both have an acrid sap which
heightens the danger of confusion between
them. Of the sap of B. Metopium Pro-
fessor Rolfs says : " The juice is poison-
ous to a great many people." It resem-
bles poison ivy in being harmful only to
certain skins.

Coral sumac, or poison wood, yields
honey of a high order and in great quan-
tities. In some seasons the bees are said
to go fairly wild with excitement over it.
While the honey is of good quality, its
exact color, body, and flavor can never,
probably, be determined with exactness,
for it blossoms simultaneously with several
other honey-bearing plants or trees (nota-

Sumac flowers and leaves (Rhus glabra).

bly with the dogwood and also the pigeon
plum), so that only a blend of several
honeys is possible. The blend of the three
is thick and appetizing, of good color, and
usually brings good prices in the northern
ttiarkets. It constituted most of the sur-

SUNFLOWER

713

plus of 0. 0. Poppleton of Stewart, Flor-
ida, whose crop in 1909 was 28,000 pounds.

SUNFLOWER (Helianthus annuus
L.). — An extensive American genus em-
bracing 60 or more species. The common
sunflower grows wild thruout the West,
especially from Minnesota to Texas on the
prairies and waste lands lying between the
Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi
River. In Nebraska it becomes " a verit-
able herbaceous tree," and completely
takes possession of large waste areas 10 to
25 or more acres in extent. The tall plants
also grow along the roadsides and about
cities and towns. This species is likewise
common in California, and one year M. H.
Mendleson of Ventura extracted a carload
of wild sunflower honey, but the yield had
never before been so large. According to
Richter, the honey is amber-colored, with a
characteristic flavor not disliked by many.
Scholl says that in Texas bees gather much
propolis both from the flowers and leaves.
The stems yield a textile fiber, the seeds
oil, and the flowers a yellow dye. Many
other species of sunflower are exceedingly
common both in the West and South. The
Jerusalem artichoke {H. tuberosa L.) is a
good honey plant, and bees visit the flowers
in myriads. In Contra Costa County, Cal-
ifornia, there are acres of this plant grow-
ing wild. The tubers are used as a vege-
table.

'"''V^ILD SUNFLOWER OP FLORIDA.''-'

This name is rather loosely applied by
beemen of Florida to various species of
Compositae that grow over the southern
half of the peninsula, including Gaillardia
lanceolata, Selianthella, Coreopsis, and
burr-marigold. South of a line drawn thru
Stewart and Osprey, the one on the east
coast and the other on the west, there are
thousands of acres of these beautiful
plants, which resemble the Spanish needles
and Chrysopsis of the North. They extend
as far north as Osceola, but beemen of the
southern third of the State are most
enthusiastic over them. The " savannas "
about the edges of the Everglades seem to
be their best habitat, while they are not
common on high pine land. The blooming
period is in September and October. The
yield is rather unreliable, and nectar is

secreted only during very dry falls. A
fair crop can be counted on about every
two or three years ; a " bumper " about
once in five years. The honey is amber,
fairly good body and rather mild; but it
is, after all, a fall-flower crop, and by no
means ranks with the best honeys. It is
fine for putting the colonies in good condi-
tion for the close of the year.

SUPERSEDURE OF QUEENS.— Su-

persedure is the replacing of an old or
failing queen with a young one and is the
most natural impulse under which queen-
cells are built. A colony in a large hive or
hollow tree may not cast a swarm or be
deprived of their queen by accident for
several seasons. But every queen grows
old and must be superseded. Cells built
under the supersedure impulse are more
uniform in size and better fed than any
others. One can usually tell under which
impulse the cells are built. If under the
supersedure impulse, the queen will not
lay fast enough to keep up with the hatch-
ing brood.

SUPERS.— See Comb Honey, Appli-
ances for; also Hives.

SWARMING-.— When for any reason a
colony becomes dissatisfied with its home
— usually because of insufficient ventilation
or a crowded condition of the brood-
chamber or supers — they start queen-cells
in preparation for swarming (that is, for
sending out the queen and part of the
colony to start a new home elsewhere).
After these queen-cells are sealed, and be-
fore it is time for them to hatch, the swarm
" issues," or leaves the old hive. If one
happens to be near the hive just before the
swarm leaves, he may notice unusual activ-
ity of bees running about the front of the
hive; and if the hive is opened, there he
may find great excitement and a busy
rushing of bees here and there in every
direction. What induces the bees to leave
the hive at any precise moment, no one
seems to know. One observer states that
one or more bees in one portion of the hive
will commence their hurly-burly rush back
and forth. More bees will join in the gen-
eral pow-wow, until the whole hive is in a
furore of excitement. Then those nearest
the entrance proceed to rush for it, fol-

714

SWARMING

lowed by a stream of bees pouring from
the hive by thousands, until in three or
four minutes the air is filled with a great
cloud of humming bees — probably two-
thirds or three-fourths of the entire colony,
together with the queen. These swarming
bees are very good-natured, since they have
filled their honey-sacs with honey, partly to
sustain them until again able to gather nec-
tar from the fields, and partly to convert
into comb on arrival at the new home.
After flying about for a few minutes they
cluster, usually on the branch of a tree not
far from their hive, waiting to make cer-
tain that the old queen is with them before
they leave for their new home, which, in
most cases, has probably been chosen by
the scouts sent out several days previously.

ony, commonly called the " old " or " par-
ent " colony, is now compelled to raise for
itself a new queen to take the place of the
one that has just left with the new swarm.
At first thought it would seem that one
queen-cell would be all that would be nec-
essary; but in that case, if it should, for^,
any reason, fail to hatch, the colony would
be entirely helpless, having no means of
raising another. Therefore quite a num-
ber of queen-cells are provided; and when
the first queen hatches she partly tears
down the other capped cells so that the
other queens can not hatch; or if two
hatch about the same time they fight it out
until one of them is killed.

It is quite evident that the beekeeper
can ill afford to lose two-thirds or three-

A swarm caught in the act of leaving. — Photographed by
Chas. Y. Ilalce, York, Pa.

In the old hive are left enough young
bees to take care of the brood, which con-
sists of a little drone brood, much worker
brood (mostly sealed), and queen-cells in
various stages of development. This col-

fourths of the bees in his best colonies at
any time, but least of all at the opening
of the honey flow, when most of the
swarming usually occurs. Therefore, in
order to prevent the bees from swarming

SWARMING

715

and leaving for new quai-ters, various plans
have been tried, more or less successfully.
These are discussed under the subhead
Prevention of STvaiming."
The term swarm " itself may mean an
aggregation of bees while in the air, or the
same bees after they have been put into a
box, hive, or skep; but technically it is a
swarm until it settles down to its regular
routine of work. After that, it is a colony.
In modem bee culture, at least, there is a
sharp distinction between a sicann and a
colony; and this fact should be noted in
the general discussion which follows.

THE SYMPTOiTS OF STVAEILIXG.

From what has already been said the
reader will have some idea of what are the
symptoms of swarmmg. Clustering out has
hitherto been considered one of the sure
signs ; but it is by no means reliable.

If the weather is vei-y hot or sultry, or if
the entrance is too small, bees may cluster
out at any time with no intention of
swarming. (See Extraxces.) If a colony
has been busily at work, and then for some
reason slows down until it is doing almost
nothing when others are at work, and if
the bees in addition begin to cluster out.
-warming is probably in contemplation.

The most common and perhaps the most
reliable s^Tuptom is the presence of queen-
cells containing eggs or larvee at the begin-
ning of or duiing the honey flow. These
may be in various stages of completion.
As will be explained further on, they
should be cut out every eight days; for if
they are allowed to be sealed, a swarm may
issue the fii'st favorable opportimity, and
again it may come forth, cells or no cells.

BEEKEEPER^S PREPARATIOXS FOR
SVTARillXG.

Every beekeeper should have on hand
extra hives, combs, or supei's; and, if
combs are not available, frames of founda-
tion or supers containing sections with full
sheets. In the production of extracted
honey at least, empty combs are about the
best property one can have. There should
be enough on hand to supply every colony
with a full set. Where empty combs are
not to be had there should be an equal
number of frames with full sheets of foun-

dation; but for the purpose of producing
a crop of extracted honey, and at the same
time prevent swarming, fully di'awn combs
are far superior to foundation. If the
bees have to stop and di^aw it out they will
often sulk and swarm out.

Before the swarming season is anj-where
near — in fact, as early in the season as
possible, when the colonies are not sti'ong
— the queens should be found and theii'
wings clipped, as explained under Queexs.
All modern beekeepers today consider it
important to have queens of all honey-
producing colonies clipped, because it is
very much easier to handle the swarms
when they do come out. A swarm with a
queen in the air is a difficult problem at best,
especially if there are any taU trees in the
vicinity. Sometimes swarms will cluster on
high limbs where it is practically impossi-
ble to get them. On the other hand, if the
wings of the queen are clipped after she
begins la^-ing she can be easily picked up
at the entrance of the hive and caged just
after the swarm has issued. The old hive
may then be moved to a new location and
all but one queen-cell removed, and the new'
hive filled with frames of comb or founda-
tion placed on the old stand. Then the
queen may be placed by the entrance of the
new hive, when the swarm will hive itself
automatically, coming back to its queen.
If the wings of all the queens are clipped
in advance, there will not be much likeli-
hood of losing stray swarms provided an
attendant can be on hand to pick up the
clipped queens and hive the swarms. This
matter will be given more fully further on.

But there are some who do not care to
clip, fearing it will mutilate the queens and
mar their appearance : and where there
are such they can use the Alley trap as
described under Droxes. The objection to
the traps is their expense and their ob-
struction of the entrances when they should
be open and free.

It sometimes happens that the clipping
of queens' wings is delayed until the
swarming season has begun, when it will
be almost impossible for the beekeeper to
take the time to go thru the hives, find the
queens, and clip their wings. He should
then have on hand a number of Alley
traps. The exact procedure for handling
swarms with clipped queens or by the use
of Alley traps will be explained fui-ther on.

716

SWARMING

SWARMING MODIFIED BY LOCALITY.

Commencement of the swarming season
varies, of course, according to the locality,
and it may be said that the swarming
propensity itself is modified very material-
ly also by the same cause. In places where
the honey fliow is very heavy and continues
so for some time, swarming seems to be
checked, for the bees are all intent on
gathering honey. Indeed, they have no
time to waste on such foolishness as swarm-
ing. In such localities the swarming sea-
son comes on when the first or light honey
flow begins, and continues so long as it is
light; but just as soon as the secretion of
nectar becomes heavy, then just that soon
swarming stops.

It sometimes happens that a beekeeper
residing in one of these localities wonders
why his brethren in the craft make so
much fuss in the bee journals about swarm
control when he has almost no trouble.
The other party, on the other hand, cannot
understand how the first-mentioned bee-
keeper can perform certain manipulations
with his bees, and not have excessive
swarming. In reading the following pages
treating on this general subject one must
bear in mind this question of locality. It
should, therefore, be said that much of the
matter that follows relates to conditions
generally found in the Northern States,
and not as found in parts of Texas, Cali-
fornia, and some portions of the tropics.
In these localities there may or may not
be swarming after the main flow begins.

THE CAUSE OF SWARMING.

In order to understand the swarming
problem, which is one of the most difficult
to solve of all with which the beekeeper of
today has to contend, a few facts should be
presented that we may discover, if possible,
whether there is a fundamental cause of
swarming or a series of them. These facts
may be summed up about as follows :

1. Colonies with young queens are much
less inclined to swarm than those with
queens a year old or more.

2. A colony crowded for room, when the
swarming season is on, and when every
comb is filled with brood and honey, wiU
probably cast a swarm, altho it may go
thru the whole season and store honey,

without swarming, if one remedies the con-
gested condition by supplying the colony
with enough room in the supers and brood-
chamber. It follows that lack of room is
often a contributing cause.

3. Colonies are more likely to swarm
with a small and restricted entrance than
with a large one; altho, as in the case of
No. 2, colonies with such entrances may
store honey thru the entire season without
making an effort to swarm. It follows that
an overheated brood-nest may be a con-
tributing cause.

4. The presence of queen-cells at the
opening of the honey harvest, if they are
allowed to remain, wiU usually be the in-
direct cause of swarming, and hence the
practice of cutting out or " killing " cells
every eight or ten days. On the other
hand, it must be admitted that cell-cutting
or cell-killing does not always stop swarm-
ing, especially some seasons. It follows
that the prospect of a new queen may be
a cause of swarming.

5. Taking away the brood from a colony
and hiving it on frames of foundation or
empty combs will usually stop swarming,
for the time being, but it does not always

do so. In other words a large amount, of j
brood and constantly emerging young bees I
incite swarming.

6. Caging the queen or removing her for
a period of ten days will usually stop
swarming. Bees will not swarm without a
queen because they must have something
from which to make a new generation in
their new home. But checking egg-laying
may have its influence.

Clearly, then, while the things mentioned
may be considered as contributory causes,
there must be something back of them as
the real cause of swarming. What that
something is has been the cause of some
theorizing, but it can hardly be said to be
a settled question. German authorities,
among them Gerstung, hold that when
brood is reared in large quantity, the nurse
bees constantly on the increase, there
comes a critical period when the number
of nurses is too great for the amount of
brood to be fed. They are gorged with the
food prepared for larv«, and these are in
too small number to receive it, and this
condition brings on the swarming fever.

Geo. S. Demuth of the U. S. Bureau of
Entomology has advanced a theory which

SWARMING

717

is given in Farmers' Bulletin 503, where
he says : " Any manipulation for swarm
control, whether applied after the colony
has acquired the ' swarming fever ' or ap-
plied to all colonies alike previous to the
swarming season, is based upon a single
principle — a temporary disturbance in the
continuity of the daily emergence of brood.
This disturbance should occur just previous
to or during the swarming season."

If that " temporary " in the last state-
ment may be considered as occupying sev-
eral days, then it is possible that in prac-
tice the two theories may coincide.

In support of the theory that there is a
preponderance of nurses as compared with
the brood to be fed, attention is called to
the fact that at the time of swarming a
large amount of brood will be found in the
hive, but only a small part of it unsealed;
and this state of affairs having continued
for several days must inevitably result in
a large number of bees of the proper age
to prepare food for larvae without a suffi-
cient number of larvae to consume the food
prepared. It is also advanced that if for a
time the queen is absent (see No. 6), so
that no brood is to be fed, the swarming
fever will disappear, and this is counted as
support of the theory that there had been
too many nurses for the amount of brood
to be fed, the amount of food prepared
having become less because not needed, and
perhaps a portion of the nurses having
turned their attention afield earlier than
they would have done under usual condi-
tions.

The brood-interruption theory fits in
well with natural swarming and " shook "
swarming, since the swarm will have no
brood until it can rear it. (See Artificial
Swarming.) In the meantime there is no
swarming from the swarm. The parent
colony continues to send off after-swarms
because the hatching brood continues to
emerge. The theory fits well with the
dequeening method of swarm control and
also with the plan of removing the brood.

Whether the theory be accepted as cor-
rect or not, it would seem that practice in
accord with it brings results. While it may
be the main or basic cause, it is probable
that the other causes have a strong influ-
ence, and that while any one cause may
force a swarm it will generally require a
combination of them to do so.

Dr. Phillips, in his book entitled " Bee-
keeping," in commenting on the swanning
problem, says : " The methods described
in Demuth's bulletin are those which have
proved reliable in the hands of reliable
beekeepers thruout the United States."

However, Mr. Demuth, in conversing
with the author late in the summer of
1916, stated that during the previous year
his bees in producing comb honey in In-
diana swarmed so furiously that summer
that they violated many of the fundamen-
tal rules of swarming. In answer to some
questions he writes :

My observations on swarming, during the
past season, do not conflict with the rule that
an unbalanced condition of the colony as to
young and old bees is an important factor in
the cause of swarming. On the contrary, most
of the evidence furnished by the past season
is in support of the young-bee theory. The
fact, however, that some colonies swarmed
that were made up entirely of older bees
makes it necessary, in order to retain the
young-bee theory, to assume that under pecul-
iar conditions older bees, or at least middle-
aged bees, may become a factor in the cause
of swarming.

When the field bees are confined to the
hive at intervals during the honey flow by
rain or by irregular secretion of nectar, as
was the case last summer in some portions
of the clover belt, it is not unreasonable to
expect the resulting congestion of bees in the
brood-chamber to have some effect on swarm-
ing. In this connection it is interesting to
note that the records in the bee journals
show that the seasons of excessive swarming
in the clover belt have occurred when a
protracted period of rainy weather immedi-
ately preceded the swarming season. In ad-
dition to this, last summer the clover yielded
only during the afternoons, and the field bees
were packed in below the frames during the
forenoons.

The theory as to the effects of an exces-
sive supply of larval food fits in well with the
brood-interruption rule, but it does not ade-
quately explain why a colony that is prepar-
ing to swarm can be induced to give up
swarming by removing all their combs that
contain larvee and substituting in their stead
empty combs or combs partly filled with honey.
The removal of all larvae should as an im-
mediate effect greatly increase the excess in
the supply of. larval food, and, as a result,
according to the theory, the desire to swarm
should be increased.

An unusual season brings up the point
that there must be a contributing cause
outside of the hive itself; and this cause
is the peculiar conditions of the locality or
the season itself, for bees certainly have a

A fine large swarm ready to shake into the swarm-catcher.

SWARMING

719

way of forgetting or ignoring, some sea-
sons, all proprieties set forth in text-books.
It must be stated, however, that these
peculiar seasons occur only once in ten or
fifteen years, and, therefore, only the gen-
eral averages and not the abnormalities of
the season or the locality should be con-
sidered.

However, when these abnormal seasons
come on when the honey flow is light — a
little honey coming every day — but heavy
enough to force brood-rearing, swarming
will be fast and furious just as it is in
parts of Texas. "When such seasons occur,
if one is producing comb honey, practically
all control measures except dequeening may
fail. On the other hand, when the honey
comes in with a rush, crowding the queen
so that she is honey-bound, swarming
almost entirely stops. In either case
Demuth's rule fits in ver}- nicely. In the
first case there is no interruption of the
brood; in the second, there is a decided
cessation of it.

PREVEiTTIOX OF SWARMING.

Under this head methods for the re-
striction or prevention of swarms will be
considered; and at the very outset it
should be made plain that there is no
infallible method for accomplishing this
except by dequeening. All other methods
are restrictive, and, to a certain extent,
afford absolute prevention only in some
colonies some seasons.

From what has been already said con-
cerning the causes that induce swarming,
one can form some conception of the
proper means for restricting or prevent-
ing it.

Before proceeding further, it should be
made clear that the control or prevention
of swarming when running for comh honey
is very dif&eult; but it is comparatively
easy when running for extracted honey.
Unless a queen-excluder is used to restrict
the queen to the lower brood-chamber, the
giving of room by adding supers or upper
stories with fully drawn combs will reduce
swarming. Frames with full sheets of
foundation may answer some seasons, but
they sometimes cause the bees to sulk and
swarm. See Hives^ pp. 391-396, and
Dadaxt System of Swarm Control.

The different methods of preventing
swarming may be summed up briefly as

follows: (1) Introduction of young queens
at the beginning of harvest. (2) Cell-
cutting or cell-killing. (3) Dequeening and
requeening. (4) Shaking on frames with
full sheets of foundation or starters. (5)
Providing abundant ventilation. (6) Giv-
ing shade. (7) Breeding from non-swarm-
ing strains. (8) The elimination of useless
drones. (9) Giving additional room and
manipulation of supers. (10) Brood raised
above supers; small patch of young larva?
below. (11) Dadant system of swarm con-
trol. (12) Large hives to control swarm-
ing. Of these, (9), (10), (11), and (12)
are especially applicable for the produc-
tion of extracted honey.

Except for absolute dequeening, any and
all of these methods combined may fail
some seasons with some colonies; and,
again, some colonies will keep on storing
honey even when no such preventive meas-
ures are employed beyond giving plenty
of super room. If it were possible to
breed a strain of non-swarming bees that
would store honey and never swarm, the
problem of honey production would be
greatly simplified; but at the present time
it must be admitted that there is no strain
of non-swarmers, altho something in that
direction has been accomplished.

It will now be in order to explain more
fully the various methods as indicated
above.

(1) INTRODUCING YOUNG QUEENS AT THE
BEGINNING OF THE HARVEST.

Long experience has shown in apiaries
all over the country that colonies headed
by young queens are much less inclined to
swarm than those having queens a year or
more old. Those with queens only three
months old swarm less than those that are
two years old; and where one expects to
requeen because he needs better stock he
should do so just before the beginning of
the honey harvest. This should be done by
the introduction of laying queens. If vir-
gins are given they are likely to lead out a
swarm on their mating-trips, and, more-
over, valuable time wiU be lost in brood-
rearing. Just before or at the beginning
of the harvest, breeding should be kept up
without a break, especially if the honey
flow is likely to last more than a month.

720

SWARMING

Why are colonies with old queens more
inclined to swarm than young ones? There
is no satisfactory explanation unless the
old ones are more inclined to lay drone
eggs. It is difficult to get a young queen
to lay in drone-cells. Queen-breeders know
that if they desire to raise drones they
must use old queens. Some argue that the
presence of a large number of drones in a
colony is conducive to swarming; and this
is probably true if there are also initial
queen-cells. It is probable also that young
queens do not lay in initial queen-cells like
old queens.

(2) CUTTING OUT CELLS.

Of all the methods employed to hold
swarming in control, this is perhaps the
most common. While it is not always the
most effective, it is very clear that, unless
the cells that contain young larvee or eggs
are cut out every eight days, bees will
swarm, other conditions being favorable.
While cutting out the cells does not neces-
sarily check swarming it goes a long way
toward it. There are some very nice points
in cell-killing. As Dr. Miller has had the
largest experience of any -man in the
United States, if not in the world, the
author has asked him to give his views;
and the reader will do well to go over very
carefully what he has to say.

I have yours asking some questions about
cutting out cells to combat swarming, and
proceed to reply. We don't call it cutting
cells here, but ' ' killing cells, ' ' the term
" cutting cells " being applied to cutting
out ripe queen-cells that are to be used for
rearing queens. When we find queen-cells
constructed as a preparation for swarming,
we never cut them out. If a cell contains a
larva several days old, it is simply mashed
with the end of the hive-tool. If an egg or
a small larva is in the cell, it may be mashed
or the egg or larva may be dug out. In
either case the work is very quickly done,
and a very slight defacement will cause the
bees to reject the cell.

We begin looking for swarming-cells just
as soon as we think there is any danger of
their being started, or a little before. The
first time we look in a few of the strongest
colonies — perhaps the first of June, before
the bees begin to store from white clover —
and if we find no cells started in these we
go no further, for if the strongest have not
thought of swarming the weaker ones may
be trusted for a time longer. After that we
try again in 8 or 10 days. Ten days may be

as well as a shorter time. Indeed, as the
young queen will be started from the egg
there is no danger that she will go off with
a swarm under fifteen days. But if we go
beyond ten days, complications may arise by |!
mea-ns of swarming with the old queen, and i
as there is some danger of delays from rainy
weather or other cause, it is not a bad plan |
to make eight days the period. Then if it
is delayed a day or two for any cause we
are still all right.

The second time we look again in the
strongest colonies, and if no cells are found
in these we go no further. But whenever we
find one or more cells started in any one of
these strongest colonies, then every colony
must be examined. At least that will be the
way early in the season; later on there will
be exceptions.

Some one may ask at what stage of the
growth of queen-cells they are destroyed.
At any or all stages. In fact, no thought is
given to whether advanced cells or only eggs
are to be found. Every eight or ten days we
go thru each colony and kill all cells found.

At the first overhauling and at any sub-
sequent one so long as no cells have been
found at a previous overhauling, the bees
are shaken from each comb. One sharp shake
will usually leave the comb clean enough.
This allows the cells to be more easily seen,
whereas if all the bees are left on, some cells
may escape detection. If no cell is found,
then the page of the colony is found in the
record-book, and the entry " no c." is made
after the date. Some years we have omitted
such entry so long as no cells have been found
in the colony that season, leaving it to be
understood that so long as no entry as to cells
appears, no cell has been found. But it is a
little safer to make the entry, for then we can
be sure that we have not killed cells and for-
gotten to make the entry.

When at any time cells are found, they are
of course killed, and the entry of that kill-
ing is made with some degree of particu-
larity. The entry k 1 eg " means killed
one egg; k 2 eg ^' means killed two eggs;

k 1 c " means killed one unsealed cell;
" k 1 s c " means killed one sealed cell.
Often there will be killed one or more eggs
and one or more grubs, when the short but
comprehensive entry will be made, ^'kc,"
meaning killed cells. Indeed, that is the most
common entry made.

After the first time around, before opening
a hive, the book is always consulted as to
previous history, and if cells have been pre-
viously killed it is a matter of some judgment
as to what is to be done. If the previous
entry was kc " there is a good chance that
the bees are bent on swarming, and it will not
do to shake the bees off the comb, for we may
want to find the queen, and stirring up the
colony by shaking the bees would make the
finding difficult. So the combs are carefully
examined without shaking the bees off. If no
cells are found after thus looking over the
combs, or at least a good part of them; then
the bees are shaken off the combs and a thoro

SWARMING

721

examination made. Instead of this, we are
more likely to find a number of cells well
advanced, in which case some sort of treat-
ment that involves finding the queen will
usually be decided upon, and the queen will
be found before any combs are shaken. This
shows the importance of examining the record
before opening the hive, for without that we
would not know whether to shake the combs
or not.

The beginner is very likely to think that
all that is necessary to prevent swarming is
to continue regularly killing cells, believing
that there will be no swarming so long as no
cells are allowed to approach the sealing
stage. But it doesn't work out that way.
After a colony once fully gets into the notion
of swarming, it seems only to make it more
stubborn to have its cells killed, and finally it
may swarm with nothing further than eggs
in queen-cells, if indeed there is that much
preparation.

So it is a matter of some nicety to decide
when it is wise to continue to depend upon
killing cells and when to resort to some other
measures. Suppose a colony had cells killed
June 10, and it is again visited June 18,
19, or 20, and at this time nothing further
than eggs are found in queen-cells. No
trouble to decide in this case. Kill the eggs,
and continue killing them each time no fur-
ther advance is made. It sometimes happens
that eggs are found upon one or two visits,
and then the bees go thru the rest of the
season without any further thought of swarm-
ing.

Suppose, however, that in the same hive,
upon visiting it June 18 or 20, we find queen-
cells in number, some of them well advanced
or even sealed. In this case it will be use-
less to think of depending upon any further
cell-killing.

Between- these two extremes, only eggs and
many advanced cells — come all degrees of ad-
vancement, and it is not easy to know where
to draw the line. If only small larvae are
found, they may be considered the same as
eggs, and killing cells continued. Something
depends on the number of cells found. If
not more than 3 or 4, even tho quite well
advanced, it may be counted safe merely to
kill them. Something, too, depends upon the
time. Early in the season the bees are more
persistent about swarming, whereas later the
killing of cells may be more relied on, even
tho well advanced. Also, cells late in the
season may mean superseding the queen, espe-
cially if the cells be few in number.

It is no little trouble to keep killing cells
every 8 or 10 days, and the question as to
how efficient the plan is is a fair one. Also
it is a matter of some consequence to know
what bearing this sort of management has
upon the crop. These questions may be fair-
ly well answered by quoting from Gleanings
in Bee Culture for 1905, page 1174, where I
reported :

" Of 160 colonies run for comb honey that
were fair subjects for comparison, 13% per
cent went thru the season without ever of-

fering to start queen-cells; 12% per cent
started cells one or more times, but gave it
up when their cells were destroyed; and 73%
per cent seemed so bent on swarming that
they were treated by being kept queenless
10 or 15 days. The colonies that were left
with their queens all the time averaged 36^^
per cent more sections than those that were
treated. But that's better than they would
have done if left queenless for 21 days, which
would have been the case practically if swarn^s
were shaken. ' ' Altho it is mentioned that
treatment was given that left colonies queen-
less 10 or 15 days, it should be said not often
did the time extend beyond 10 days.

Of course seasons differ; but likely enough
1905 was about the average. It should be
remembered that this was with 8-frame hives
run for section honey. With larger hives, or
with extracted honey, the result would have
been better.

One trouble with so much shaking of bees
off the combs is that it sometimes happens
that on a certain visit we find a colony with
uo cells and then at the next visit queenless,
the queenlessness in some way no doubt caused
by the operator.

I said that early in the season every colony
must be examined and cells killed, but later
in the season there were exceptions. Those
exceptions become more numerous as the sea-
son advances, and occur whenever a young
queen of the current season's rearing is in-
troduced. We then write in the record-book
the word " Pass," and for the rest of the
season that hive will not again be opened. It
is possible that a colony with such a young
queen may swarm, but it so rarely happens
that it is not worth while to keep watch for
it. When a colony is treated for swarming,
if its queen is not a little better than the
average, it is always desirable that she shall
be replaced by a young queen, and thus the
ranks of the ' ' Passers ' ' are constantly re-
cruited, and the work of killing cells is light-
ened.

When it is best to stop the business of
killing cells it is not easy to say; but hardly
much before the waning of the fall flow.
If continued too late it may interfere with
those colonies that want to supersede their
queens. But killing cells in the later months
is by no means so important as earlier, for
a swarm in August will interfere very little
with the crop as compared with one in June.

(3) DEQUEENING AND REQUEENING TO
PREVENT SWARMING.

Dequeeninc: is, perhaps, the only abso-
lute means that can be employed. It is
used by some of the largest and most suc-
cessful beekeepers in the world, including
Dr. Miller, who uses it at times. It is
effective because a colony will rarely swarm
without a queen. It comes about as near
being an absolute rul^ as any in beedom,

722

SWARMING

During some seasons when swarming is
particularly troublesome and the apiarist
is almost in despair because the swarms
come out in spite of him, dequeening is
about all he can do.

Mrs. Wilber Frye of Sand Lake, Michi-
gan, is one of the best comb-honey pro-
ducers in that State. She has been very
successful in the control of swarming by
dequeening the colonies and then cutting
out cells nine days afterward. After hav-
ing used the plan for a number of years
she says she cannot discover that the
queenless colonies, so far as honey produc-
tion is concerned, are much inferior to
those operated by other methods. By de-
queening, she and another woman do all
the work of running a series of outyards,
producing a very fine grade of comb honey,
and that, too, without swarming. In the
production of comh honey, especially at
outyards, the one great problem is swarm
control. With that difficulty solved the
expense of producing comb honey will be
greatly reduced. Mrs. Frye feels that de-
queening is the solution.

Not all persons who have tried this
dequeening method are successful. They
find two main objections. 1. That a queen-
less colony or one having a queen caged
(which amounts to the same thing) is not
as energetic as one having a queen. 2.
Even when one dequeens or cages he must
resort to cell-killing in eight or nine days;
otherwise the bees will swarm with the first
virgin that hatches.

One advantage of the plan is that it
checks brood-rearing, thus preventing a
large force of bees from coming on after
the harvest is over, when they would have
to be fed in localities where the honey flow
is short and no supply of nectar comes in
until the fall. Dequeening simply reduces
the size of the colony, thus avoiding the
rearing of useless consumers, when they
could do no good. Following this there
should be fall breeding. If there is no fall
flow, the bees should be fed to stimulate
brood-rearing. See Feeding and Feed-
ers^ subhead " Feeding to Stimulate."

(4) SHAKING ON FRAMES WITH PULL
SHEETS OP POUND ATION OR STARTERS.

This is virtually shake or " shook "
swarmin.'o; as described under Artificial

Swarming, to which the reader is referred.
During some seasons, and with some
strains, it is quite effective. It has the
advantage that the professional man who
is compelled to be away from his bees
during the middle hours of the day can
shake his swarms at his convenience, either
in the morning or in the afternoon, rather
than have them come out when he is away.
In practice it comes very near taking the
place of natural swarming.

Of course bees shaken on frames of
foundation may swarm out. A natural
swarm may do the same thing.

(5) PROVIDING abundant VENTILATION.

If the entrance is very much contracted
it renders it extremely difficult for the
bees to ventilate the hive properly. This
is a very important factor, especially in a
hot season. Therefore at the beginning of
the honey harvest all colonies should have
their entrances very much enlarged; and
if any of the colonies still seem inclined to
cluster and loaf, more ventilation should be
given by placing four %-inch blocks be-
tween the hive and the bottom-board. This
will provide an opening on all four sides.
While the bees will use the front entrance-
mainly, they will also fly from the others.
With so much ventilation the bees, unless
the colonies are extraordinarily strong,
will go back into the hive and go to work.
Some beekeepers go so far as to claim
that the procedure will almost entirely
eliminate swarming.

During the swarming season the weather
may be very hot or even sultry; but, no
matter what the outside temperature, it is
very important that the internal tempera-
ture be kept down to about 96. If it goes
much higher, much of the brood will be
destroyed, and a large portion of the bees
will be forced outside.

By giving plenty of bottom ventilation
it will take fewer bees to keep the hive cool
than when a restricted entrance is used. In
this connection it may be well to explain
that one set of bees will place themselves
in such a position that they force a current
of air into the hive, and another set forces
the warm moist air out of it. Aftei" the
bees have been heavily at work in the field,
if one will light a match and hold it in
front of the entrance, he will find there is

SWARMING

723

a strong current of air going in on one side
and another strong current going out at
the other side. Sometimes the air seems to
go in at both sides and come out in the
center. See Ventilation.

Of course a restricted entrance must
mean that the bees will cluster out in front
of the hive and that starts the loafing habit
— a habit that is not easy to break up, even
after large entrances are provided. While
clustering-out is not necessarily an indi-
cation of swarming, it may be. Very often
bees will cluster out worse after a honey
flow when the weather is extremely hot
than during it.

During extremely hot weather many
extracted-honey producers use Dr. Miller's
plan of " staggering " the stories — that is,
the second story is shoved forward enough
to leave a ventilating space of half an -inch

Fig. 1. — A case of too small an entrance. It was
a warm day when this picture was taken. The bees,
being unable to ventilate thru the small entrance (8 x
% in.) clustered out.

Fig. 2. — A hive with proper ventilation at the bot-
tom to prevent clustering out at the entrance.

at the back between the two stories. The
third is shoved back to leave a siinilar
space at the front between the second and

third. The fourth is shoved forward, etc.;
and, last of all, the cover is shoved for-
ward to leave another half-inch space.
When raising comb honey it is necessary
to keep the supers warm enough so that
comb-building may continue at night.
Therefore stories should not be "staggered"
in comb-honey production.

(6) GIVING SHADE.

Practically the same reasons that apply
for giving an abundant ventilation also
apply here. A colony any season that is
exposed to the direct rays of the sun has
a much more difficult problem in keeping
the interior of the hive cool than when the
hive is in the shade. Under the head of
Apiaries^ various means for shading the
hive are illustrated and described. If a
hive is exposed to the hot sun it requires a
good many bees to keep up the ventilation,
and these bees might otherwise be in the
field at work.

(8) breeding prom non-swarming stock.

The usual tendency on the part of bee-
keepers is to raise queens from sv/arming-
cells because they are abundant, and be-
cause vigorous queens can be reared from
such cells. But the question has been
raised whether such queens will not inherit
more of the swarming tendency than those
reared under other impulses as in super-
sedure. One queen-breeder says he believes
they do and for this reason raises all his
queens under the supersedure impulse. No
definite proof has been' adduced to show
that colonies headed by queens from
swarming-cells will swarm more than colo-
nies from queens reared from supersedure
cells; however, Dr. Miller and some others
have made some progress in breeding from
non-swarming strains of bees. For years
his queens have been bred from those colo-
nies that keep on storing honey thru the
season without swarming. While he does
not claim that the colonies from such
queens will not swarm, he feels that the
effort is not in vain.

The very fact that Dr. Miller has pro-
duced some of the largest yields of comb
honey per colony that have ever been
known — yields, taking the apiary as a
whole, that have broken the record — shows

724

SWARMING

Fig. 3. — One of Vernon Burt's hives for the production of comb honey. Mr. Burt says
this scheme of putting his brood-bodies upon four blocks so as to provide entrances for all
four sides goes a long way in eliminating swarming.

that his views can be taken with same de-
gree of authority.

(8) ELIMINATION OF USELESS DRONES.

Getting rid of an excess of drones in a
hive will not of itself prevent swarming,
but it is certainly one very important fac-
tor. If any of the brood-combs have large
areas of drone comb, it would pay well to
cut out such comb and patch with good
worker comb. Such work may be easily
done during fruit bloom when the bees are
good-natured and when there will be less
bees, brood, and honey in the hive, than
later on. ,

(9) GIVING ADDITIONAL ROOM AND
MANIPULATION OF SUPERS.

As already stated, swarm control is com-
paratively simple in the production of ex-
tracted honey. While the principles al-
ready set forth apply more particularly to
comh honey, they have considerable force
in the production of extracted. It should

be borne in mind that comb-honey supers
with their little square boxes containing
only foundation are unnatural, and for
that reason there is apt to be a period of
sulking or hesitation before the bees go
into them. During that time preparations
for swarming may begin. See Comb
HoNEi% TO Produce.

In the production of extracted honey,
the mere giving of empty combs in which
to store the freshly gathered honey goes a
long way toward keeping the bees con-
tented. If room is given fast enough, and
if sufficient ventilation is provided, and
the queen not cramped for egg-laying
room, the amount of swarming will be very
little, comparatively. The extra room in
the case of the ordinary Langstroth hive
can be given by adding extra supers as
fast as the bees require them. While the
same thing can be done in the production
of comh honey, the extra supers, as al-
ready stated, are unnatural, requiring the
bees to build comb in the small compart-
ments remote from the brood-nest.

SWARMING

725

Tlie more-room principle involves one of
the fundamental features in the preven-
tion of swarming. While it is true that
some colonies will not swarm, even in con-
tracted quarters, there is no better way
to force swarming than to keep the colony
in a single brood-nest without giving
supers or upper stories. If, therefore, one
would check swarming, more room must be
given.

There is one point to consider, and that
is that room should be provided before the
bees are crowded. If they are allowed to
fill every available cell with honey or
brood, the chances are they will start cells ;
and when cells are once begun it is some-
times difficult to get the swarming notion
out of the colony. Better by far make the
conditions so the bees will not build cells
than to try to stop swarming by killing
cells afterward.

DEMAREE PLAiT OF SHIFTING SEALED BROOD
TO UPPER STORY AND THE QUEEN" TO
LOWER STORY.

The author has been able to keep down
swarming b\" adding from time to time ex-
tra supers containing fully drawn empty
combs. If a queen-excluder is put on at
the very beginning of the season, the queen
may be cramped for egg-laying room, espe-
cially if an eight-frame hive is used. If,
however, she is given access to two stories
thru the breeding season, there will usually
be little or no swarming. A week before
the actual honey flow the sealed and hatch-
ing brood should be put in the upper story,
and the queen and unsealed brood in the
lower story, with a queen-excluder between.
As the brood hatches out in the upper
story it will leave room for the storage
of the first new honey. This shifting is
commonly called the Demaree plan. Be-
fore the bees are cramped for room an-
other story should be added, always keep-
ing in mind the importance of keeping
well ahead of the bees. If the bees seem
disposed to cluster out, the hives should
be raised up on four blocks, because venti-
lation is very important. If they are ex-
posed to the direct rays of the sun, a
shade-board may be required. (See Api-
ary.) As fast as combs are fiilled with
honey they may be extracted, or held till
later in the season, a reserve of empty
combs being given instead.

(10) BROOD RAISED ABOVE SUPERS LEAVING
SMALL PATCH OF YOUNG LARV^
BELOW WITH QUEEN.

Chalon Fowls of Oberlin, Ohio, uses
very satisfactorily a modification of the
last plan. He thus describes it :

Let us consider for a moment the differ-
ence between a natural swarm and a "shook"
swarm. A natural swarm is made up of
the bees old enough to fly; but a "shook"
swarm consists of bees of all ages — nurse-bees,
cell-builders, all sorts. We have made many
" shook " swarms previous to 1912 (when we
adopted the new plan), and I often thought
the bees acted uneasy and dissatisfied, which I
attributed to the presence of so many young
bees. No doubt many of these were cell-
builders primed with royal jeUy, which would
go right to building another batch of cells.

In 1911 we had a poor season here, the
bees getting just enough honey to induce them
to swarm, and we practiced ' ' shook ' ' swarm-
ing until we became convinced that the plan
was wrong in principle for the aforesaid
reasons.

About this time Dr. Miller answered an
inquiry in Gleanings, Aug. 15, page 490, 1911,
explaining that the presence of queen-cells
above a comb-honey super would not have
enough effect on the lower story to start
swarming there. Probably I got the idea
from this, and the next year (1912) we put
it in practice, making over forty swarms by
the new plan. The next year (1913) we had
a bumper crop, and the bees directed their
energies to storing, so we did not need to
make as many swarms; therefore I decided
to wait another year before reporting, as
I wanted to try the plan out thoroly under
different conditions; so last year we made
about fifty swarms by this plan ,and I don't
remember that we had a single failure.

Having found a colony with queen-cells
we begin our treatment. If the hive has a
loose bottom so that it may be used as an
upper story, so much the better. In this
case, find the queen and place her on a comb
containing a small batch of young larvae and
a few bees. Place in an empty hive, filling
the rest of the hive with empty combs, and
place on the stand after setting the hive of
brood aside. Frames of foundation may be
used, but are not as good. In case foun-
dation is used I would take (in addition to
the one comb with the queen and a little
brood) two frames containing Httle or no
brood from the hive of brood, first brushing
off the bees so they will be with the brood.
Now place a queen-excluder on the new brood-
chamber and two or more extracting-supers of
empty combs on top (we use shallow supers)
with the hive of brood put on last. Fill any
extra space with dummies and leave till the
next visit in seven or eight days, when they
are moved to a new stand. To insure that no
young queens hatch during the time, at the

726

SWARMING

time of making the change tear out the capped
cells, leaving all those not capped. Of course,
the swarm in the lower hive will be made up
of returning field bees all old enough to fly.
It will be seen that this result is radically
different from that in the case of a shaken
swarm with bees of all ages, and therein is the
secret of its success, in my opinion.

The first year I practiced this plan, there
were some cases in which cells were built in
the lower story; and as there often were a
lot of young bees left sticking to the sides
of the hive, or adhering to the two outside
frames of honey sometimes left below, I be-
lieved those fellows did the work. As most of
our hives have tight bottoms I was obliged to
leave them on the stand, lifting the brood out
to raise up. Therefore, since that first year 's
experience I have taken more pains to get
those fellows out of the lower story. Rather
than leave a quantity of young bees in the
hive below I would brush them out into the
hive of brood to be put on top, as I feel that
is much safer.

When moving the upper story of brood I
usually remove all but one queen-cell, or all
queen-cells, and replace with a cell from some
other stock if desired. But as the flying bees
will have returned to the old stand, there is
but little danger of second swarms if no cells
are cut. This plan is all right where there
is a hive full of brood showing that the queen
is prolific.

But if, as often happens with old queens,
the bees start cells in a small or n^oderate-
sized colony, the upper story of brood may
be left right on top by allowing them only
one queen-cell and providing an entrance
above so the young queen can get out to be
mated. After she begins laying, remove the
old queen from the lower story, and transfer
the upper story, queen and all, to the lower
brood-chamber.

By this plan, out-apiaries can be left a
week wirh little likelihood that any swarms
would issue; and not only that, there will be
no loafing, as congestion has been relieved at
just the right time.

1 claim the following good points in this
plan :

It follows the process of natural swarming
very closely, as the bees of the old colony are
mostly young and hatching bees; and keeping
a strong working force together during the
period of cell-building insures the production
of the finest cells. There is no loss of larvae
or brood from chilling, as the brood-nest is
kept very warm until the brood is all sealed;
and while these results are secured in the
upper story the bees in the lower story give
up all idea of swarming; for there is an
abundance of room, both for the queen and
for storing, as the conditions here are about
the same as with a natural swarm, the bees
being comb-builders and field bees, and the
nurse bees and cell-builders being eliminated.
The whole plan makes it possible to leave an
apiary entirely alone for a week at a time
during the swarming season.

(11) THE DAD ANT SYSTEM OF SWARM
CONTROL.

Under Hives mention is made of the
large Quinby hive used by the Dadants,
and of the fact that they have very little
swarming. During 1916, from 525 colo-
nies in Quinby hives run for extracted
honey they had only 30 swarms. Their
scheme of swarm control in connection
with these large hives may be briefly
summed up as follows :

1. An ample brood-chamber as provided
by the Quinby hive.

2. Plenty of super room filled with foun-
dation or fully drawn combs. The Quinby
hive is so large that the average queen
does not require a queen-excluder, and
therefore will not go into the upper story,
No effort is made at any time to cut out
queen-cells every seven or eight days, and
on this point the Dadants make strong
claims for their system.

3. Ventilation is provided by raising the
hive up on four blocks above the bottom-
board. If the season is hot and the colony
very strong the space may be increased to
two or three inches.

4. Protection from the sun or hot weather
is regarded as important; and to that end
shade-boards or a moderate shade from
trees is provided.

5. The queen must be young. While some
queens are used the second year, often a
very prolific queen will fail at the end of
the first year.

6. No drones should be allowed in the
hive. To that end, all drone comb should
be excluded by the use of combs drawn
from worker foundation.

7. Frames should be spaced IV2 inches
from center to center. C. P. Dadant re-
gards this wider spacing as quite impor-
tant because it gives more room between
the combs. The fact that the Dadants se-
cured a crop of 125,000 lbs. from 525 colo-
nies during 1916, one of their best years,
without the use of queen-excluders, without
cutting out cells, and with only 30 swarms,
shows there must be something in their
system. The hives were operated almost
entirely on the let-alone plan, and all they
did beyond what is stated was to take off
the honey after the supers were filled.

SWARMING

727

(12) LARGE HIVES. TO CONTROL SWARMING.

Whether or not practically the same re-
sults can be secured with Langstroth hives
on the tiering-up principle is something
of a debatable question. It is generally
agreed that the ten-frame brood-nest,
Langstroth size, is not large enough to ac-
commodate a good queen. Where she has
plenty of room she may have brood in
anywhere from twelve to thirteen frames,
Langstroth size, and an extra-good queen
will sometimes have brood in fourteen or
fifteen frames. Experience has shown that
an ordinary ten-frame brood-nest, single-
walled, will not, as a rule, have brood in
the outside of the two outside combs. The
queen will therefore have only about nine
combs, when her capacity for egg-laying
is at least 25 per cent more. In most
localities when the queen has eight or nine
frames of brood in a ten-frame Langstroth
brood-nest and hive boiling over with bees,
the colony may start cells, which will re-
sult in swarming as soon as the hone}^ flow
begins to start. Putting on an upper story
will sometimes forestall cell-building to a
certain extent, but more good will be ac-
complished if two or more frames of brood
are lifted from the lower hive into the
upper one, the space below being filled
with empty combs. In this way the full
capacity of the queen can be secured; but
it frequently and commonly happens that
the apiarist neglects to give the needed
room in time, and swarming follows.

Dr. Miller says he has no trouble about
the queen going into the upper story, but
he uses wood splints so that the brood is
carried nearly, if not quite to the top-bar.
Others use a form of wiring that secures
much the same results, but with the ordi-
nary- horizontal wiring the brood will not
go much nearer than two inches of the top-
bar. This two inches of honey has a ten-
dency to discourage the queen from going
upward, and it is therefore necesssary for
the beekeeper himself to put upstairs two
or more frames of brood so that the queen
will go above. If three or four frames are
put upstairs, the queen will probably fill
the empty combs below with eggs, with the
result that there will be anywhere from
twelve to fourteen frames of brood and
plenty of room for the bees until time to

put on the supers. With such an amount
of brood and bees, swarming is usually cut
down to a very small per cent.

A colony in order to secure a crop of
honey ought to be very strong in bees and
the only way this strength can be secured
is to get more than the ordinary nine or
ten frames of brood during the breeding
season. This can not be had in a single-
story ten-frame Langstroth hive.

In some localities where the honey flow
comes on late, the necessary force of bees
can be secured from one brood-chamber,
but such localities are an exception. Now
then to the point of this discussion of large
hives. The curtailment of the breeding
capacity of a good queen is a frequent
cause for swarming. Sufficient room can
be secured by manipulating the frames in
a two-story hive and sufficient room will
usually be secured in a thirteen-frame hive
or a long-idea hive without any manipula-
tion on the part of the beekeeper.

During 1918 we tried some long-idea
hives in the queen-rearing yard where we
had a number of cell-builders. (See
Queen-rearing.) These special hives
were double-walled and packed on the
sides, or what is really at the ends of the
frames. It was found that the cell-builders
in these long hives were but little inclined
to swarm, where colonies in double-storj^
ten-frame Langstroth hives would swarm
under the stimulus of cell-building. Our
queen-breeder, Mr. Pritchard, came to the
conclusion that the reason that the colonies
in the long-idea hives did not swarm was
because the queen could expand laterally,
going from frame to frame. The . colony
was thus able to raise all the brood that it
required, with the result that there was no
inclination to swarm, when high-pressure
methods of feeding were resorted to to
start the cell-building.

At this writing it has not yet been
proven whether or not the large brood-
nest thirteen-frame hive. Jumbo hive, and
long-idea hive have come to stay. The
author can only suggest that the beekeeper
try them out in a small way. See Hives.

The main feature of swarm control in
the Quinby hive rests in the fact that the
queen has unlimited room for laying. This
can also be given in two brood-chambers of
Langstroth size.

728

SWARMING

Aspinwall hive dissected, showing

NON-SWARMING HIVES.

All the systems thus far described, both
under this heading and under the head of
"Artificial Swarming," relate to methods
of management of the hives or colonies
themselves. For a number of years much
has been said about non-swarming hives.

L. A. Aspinwall goes at the problem by
increasing the clustering space between the
combs during swarming. To that end he
has devised a hive consisting of a series of
brood-frames, and during the swarming
season a series of slatted wooden dummies
or separators placed in alternation between
the frames. These slatted dummies made
up of quarter-inch vertical slats spaced a
bee-space apart provide a clustering space
between the brood-combs, thus relieving the
congestion that naturally arises because a
large force of bees cannot be crowded into
the small space between the combs such as
are found in an ordinary hive. The Aspin-
wall frames, instead of having one end-bar
at each end, have a series of extra end-

rood-frames and slatted dividers,
bars bee-spaced apart that provide a clus-
tering space at the ends of the frames as
well as between them. The supers are
constructed in much the same way as the
brood-nest. The end-bars of the frames
themselves being closed-end and close-fit-
ting, constitute the ends of the hive proper,
the frames simply resting on the cross-
cleats. The sides are closed up by means
of wooden panels that hang like the frames
on the frame-supports.

It has been claimed that there will be
little or no clustering at the hive entrance,
because the surplus bees will be clustered
in the dummies between the frames; and
as the dummies consist of a series of slats
a bee-space apart, there can be no comb
building. L. A. Aspinwall has tried out
this principle, and it has worked so well
in his hands that he thinks he has solved
the problem of a non-swarming hive. But
there have been some reports showing that
it failed in the hands of others. The
author believes the principle is good but
too expensive for the average beekeeper.

SWARMING

729

APPLIANCES FOR EIVIXG
NATURAL SWARMS.

In the foregoing, methods have been
given for preventing, checking, or controll-
ing swarming. It vrill now be in order to
take up the other problem of restricting
s wanning down to one swaim per colony,
•and hiving that one swarm ^'hen it does
come out. A large number of beekeepers
believe that a natural swann has much
more energy in the production of either
comb or extracted hone^^ than a colony
whose efforts to swarm have been cheeked
or balked. Sometimes swanns that have
been thwarted wiU begin to sulk and then
the problem is how to get them to work.
While perhaps the great majority of bee-
keepers will find it an advantage to use
preventive measures, there are those who
hold that they can secure more honey by
letting the bees satisfy their natural desires
by swarming once — that is to say, the par-
ent colony and the swarm together will pro-
duce more honey than if they have been
kept in one hive. While this is, of course,
a debatable question, it is a matter that
should receive careful consideration; for
no one method or set of methods will work
with all beekeepers and in all localities.

For the purpose of the present discus-
sion it will be assumed that it is an advan-
tage to manipulate the colonies so that they
will cast a swann, after which repressive
measures will be applied on the parent
colony.

Some of the advocates of the one-swarm
scheme find that the artificial plan of shak-
ing, as advised under the head of Artifi-
cial SwARiMixG^ is quite satisfactory, while
others believe it is better to let bees have
their own way, so far as the fii'st swarm is
concerned. The advocates of the one-swarm
plan practice clipping the queens' wings,
as already described under the head of

QUEEXS.

HOVT TO HR'E A STVAR:iI WITH CLIPPED
QUEEN.

Under Queexs. sub-head Shall Queens'
Wings be Clipped ?" intimation is given how
swarming can be controlled to a certain
extent by clipping. Where the plan of
forcing the swarm ahead of time by brush-
ing or shaking (described under Artifi-

cial SwARiiixG) is not practiced, clipping
has come to be almost universal among
comb-honey producei-s; for where queens'
wings are clipped, or they are prevented
from leaving the hive by the use of Alley
traps or entrance-guards (see Droxes), a
great amount of labor wiU be saved.

It will be assumed that all queens in the
apiary have their wings clipped. A swarm
comes forth. After the bees are nearly all
out the queen will be found, in all prob-
ability, hopping around in the grass near
the entrance, vainly endeavoring to fly
with the rest of the bees. She should be
caged, and the cage slipped temporarily
into a pocket or some cool place. The
super or supers in which the bees have
already started work should be set on the
ground near the hive. The brood-chamber
should now be removed, just as it is, to an
entirely new location. In its place on the
old stand a hive containing frames of foun-
dation or empty combs should be set and
on top of this a queen-excluding honey-
board. Some prefer having only starters
of foundation. The supers, placed on the
gi'ound temporarily, are now put on the
new hive containing these frames of foun-
dation or combs. The caged queen is laid
in front of the entrance.

AU this may be done while the bees are
in the air, and it will not be long before
they discover that the queen is not with
them, return pellmell to theii' old location,
and rush into the new hive. After they are
well started going in, the queen may be
released, when she wiU go with them.

The work already begun in the supers
will be pushed on and completed with more
vim and energy than before, because, as
already stated, a new swarm works with
new energy. If only frames containing
starters have been given them, what honey
does come in is forced into the supers, for
the bees have no other place to store it, at
least until foimdation below has been
drawn out; but as soon as this takes place
it is occupied immediately by the queen.

The old hive containing frames of brood
and queen-ceUs now in another location
may cast a second or third swarm; but if
queen-cells are cut out, even second swarm-
ing may be checked.

This method of handling swarms where
natural swarming is allowed commends it-

730

SWARMING

A self-hived swarm.

self especially to the women-folks, who are
generally at home. All they have to do is
to hunt up the clipped queen, cage her,
then put an empty hive containing frames
of foundation in place of the old one. As
it might not be practicable for the women to
carry the old hive to another location, they
can simply drag it over to one side, and
change the entrance so that it will face to
the rear. When the " man of the house "
returns, he can lift the supers from the old
stand on to the new one, then take the old
brood-nest over to another location. This
may be done any time within a day; or,
when preferred, the old hive can be left
alongside the new one, providing the en-
trance is reversed.

If two or more swarms come out at the
same time, and one of them has a virgin
queen, all the bees will be likely to unite
with the one having the queen; then, of

course, this plan to make them return will
come to naught. But in a well-regulated
apiary there will be few such occurrences.

THE QUEEN-EXCLUDING ENTRANCE GUARD.

The employment of a queen trap will
not prevent swarming — it only hinders the
bees from accomplishing their purpose;
that is, absconding and taking their queen *
with them. The trap or guard simply
takes the place of clipping the queen's
wings. In some cases it may be desirable
to use such instead of clipping. Usu-
ally, it is preferable to clip the queen's
wings rather than to cause the bees the
inconvenience of crawling, during the con-
tinuance of the honey flow, thru narrow
perforations of zinc or wire bars, simply
to hold back the queen should a swarm
issue.

While the author recommends clipping
in place of using perforated zinc, yet in
the case of very strong colonies in the
height of the honey flow, especially when
such colonies are in two-story hives, it is
more practical to put on entrance-guards
or Alley traps. (1) Attaching the traps
can be done in a tenth of the time it takes
to find the queen; (2) pulling the hive all
apart to find her majesty causes more or
less interruption; but, of course, the
queens should be clipped early in the sea-
son when it is easy to find them.

THE TRAP GOOD FOR EMERGENCY USE.

While the trap can be used as mentioned
under Drones for catching the queen as
she issues with the swarm, yet it shuts
off ventilation, so vitally necessary during
the swarming season. It impedes the in-
gress and egress of the workers, and dur-
ing the honey flow it must necessarily cut
down the efficiency of the colony. It should
therefore be used only in a case of emer-
gency, either to prevent a valuable queen
from getting away or to hold her until
such time as the apiarist can go thru the
colony, hunt her up, and clip her wings.

SWARMING-DEVICES VARIOUSLY
CONSTRUCTED.

Every apiarist engaged in the produc-
tion of honey should certainly have the
wings of all his queens clipped. He can-

SWARMING

731

not afford not to, unless lie uses an entrance
guard, and that should be avoided. It is
much more diflScult to take care of swarms
when queens are not clipped but are al-
lowed to go with the swarm. But as there
are some who dislike to " disfigure " or
" mutilate " their queens, and as some
swarms in anj' case will get out with a
virgin queen, it has been thought best to
describe the various devices for capturing
swarms with undipped queens. See
QuEEXS^ subhead concerning clipping.

Almost every apiarist has his own pe-
culiar notion as to how a swarming-device
should be constructed. Some of these im-
plements are very ingenious, and of valu-
able assistance during the swarming sea-
son. Their particular use is to remove
a swarm after it has clustered, and place
it in the hive where it is desired that it
take up a new abode. The first one to
which attention is called, not because it
is the best, but because it is the simplest,
is a sort of butterfly-catcher.

The hoop is made of band iron, about
20 inches in diameter. The ends are se-
cured, as shown, to a suitable pole. When
the bag is attached to the hoop, it is de-
signed to be put up under the swarm, and
the hoop is then made to cut off the clus-
ter so that the bees will fall into the bag.
It is then turned edgewise, so as to confine
them while being taken down and carried
to the hive. It may be necessarj^ to hold
the bag in the air to catch the flying bees.
These will shortly cluster on the outside.
As the bag is made of cheese-cloth, the
bees inside have plenty of air. To empty
the bees turn it inside out.

This consists of a wire-cloth basket made
in the shape of an inverted pyramid, and
pivoted at the opposite corners so as to
hang always in an upright position. When
a swarm is captured the basket may be
grasped by the ring at the small end, and
inverted, dumping the bees into the hive
prepared for them.

As soon as the cluster beginning to fonn
on a tree or bush is half or nearly com-
pleted, the basket is shoved up to and
around the cone of bees. An assistant, if
present, gives the limb a jar, so as to dis-
engage the bees into the basket. In case no
one is ready to assist, a sliding movement
of the basket will precipitate the cluster
into the wire-cloth cage, when it is quickly
lowered. This operation, in passing down
thru the limbs, will usually catch the wire-
cloth lid, and close it with a slam. In case
it is not closed, the apiarist does it himself.
Half or two-thirds of the bees are generally
confined. In all probability the queen is
there also. As the bees can not get out,
those still flying in the air will very readily
cluster on the wire cloth, surrounding the
majority of their companions inside. To
make this more expeditious the tripod is
adjusted and the cage suspended in the air
right where the bees are flying thickest.

732

SWARMING

S. D. Chapman of near Mancelona, Mich.

and his method of hiving swarms with a forked pole and a
bushel basket.

In five or ten minutes the remainder of the
bees will be clustered on the outside. At
this stage of the proceeding the apiarist
comes forward, folds the two short legs
against the pole, grasps it at its center of
gravity and walks off to the hive, which he
has previously prepared.

One of the special features of the Manum
arrangement is that the basket can be ad-
justed to almost any position, all the way
from two to ten feet from the ground. All
that is necessary is to adjust the tripod so
that the basket will be held where the bees
are flying. In the mean time, unless the
hive is already prepared, the apiarist has
ample time to get it ready. After this he
can return to the swarm just now clustered.
Most of the devices require to be held until
the cluster has settled. It is a tedious job
to hold a pole at arm's length, with face
upturned.

In the absence of any special tools or
appliances one can extemporize in a very
few minutes a swarm-catching device out
of the ordinary material on a farm. A
small sapling, long and slender, is cut. All
the branches are trimmed off, care being
taken to leave a fork or crotch in the end.
This extemporized swarming-pole should
be at least 12 to 15 feet long. A

common bushel basket is hooked into the
fork at the end of the pole. The combina-
tion is almost as good as the one just de-
scribed, with the further advantage that
the basket can be detached from the fur-
ther end of the pole as soon as the swarm
is caught.

After being hooked on to the end
of the pole, the basket is elevated to a point
just below where the swarm is hanging on
the tree. It is gradually pushed up until
the swarm is nicely placed therein. The
pole is given a sharp push upward, care
being taken not to unhook the basket. This
sudden jar will dislodge the swarm; and
before the bees have an opportunity to
take wing, the basket is lowered and un-
hooked from the end of the pole. It may
now be dumped in front of the hive where
it is to be placed. In all probability a few
more bees may cluster back on the old spot.
If so, the operation is repeated, after which
the second bunch of bees is placed where
the first was dumped.

THE SWARM-HIVING HOOK.

With most of the hiving-devices a hiving-
hook can be used to considerable advantage
at times. It is simply an iron hook mounted

SWARMING

733

on the end of a long pole, and resembling,
somewhat, a shepherd's crook. One of the
hiving-devices is passed beneath the swarm.
This hook can be used to reach over, grasp
the limb on which the swarm is clustered,
until the bees cluster on some other spot
and by one or two smart jerks jar the bees
into the basket, bag, or box.

HOW TO GET A SWARM FROM AN
INACCESSIBLE LIMB.

Sometimes a swarm will alight upon a
limb beyond the reach of any ladder. Pos-
sibly, also, the limb upon which the bees
are clustered is so far out from the body
of the tree that it would not sustain the
weight of any one climbing after them.
Such a swarm can usually be reached in
the following manner. A stone about as
large as the single fist is tied at the end of
a good line. If one is not a good thrower
himself he can get some boy who is a good
ballplayer to perform the throwing act.
He should uncoil a considerable quantity
of the line, then throw the stone into a
crotch if one is near the swarm. If he is
lucky enough to land the stone in the
crotch, he should draw gently on the line
until the stone catches in the fork. One
quick jerk will dislodge the bees, and after
that the limb should be kept in a tremble
until the bees cluster on some other spot
which they will do presently if the limb is
kept agitated for five or ten minutes. They
may cluster higher up, but the probabilities
are they will seek some other spot more
accessible.

If there is no convenient crotch at the
right point, the stone should be thrown so
it will pass over the limb, taking about one
foot of line. The string should be given
a good jerk, causing the stone with the
line to whirl around the limb a couple of
times. If one does not succeed in doing
this the first time or two, a third or fourth
attempt may be successful. It is not a
very difficult trick; but the main thing is
to get the line attached to the limb at some
point near the swarm. Then the rest is
easy.

SPRAY-PUMP FOR CONTROLLING SWARMS
WHILE IN THE AIR.

One of the most useful implements in
the apiary when queens are not clipped is

a good hand force-pump. A swarm of
bees in the air with a queen that might
otherwise circle about for fifteen or twenty
minutes can usually be made to cluster in

This SAv.irm of bees issued June 7 from a colony of
bees tliat produced 180 pounds of comb honey the same
season.

from two to five minutes by its use.
Whether the fine particles of water dampen
the wings, and so impede their flight, or
cause the bees to think it is raining, or
both, and that therefore they had better
cluster at once, can not be proven; but
certainly the spray has a very decided
effect. One who becomes moderately ex-
pert will be able not only to make the bees
settle but to compel them to cluster on some
point easily accessible to any of the ordi-
nary hiving-devices just described. Occa-
sionally a swarm will make for the top of a
tall tree. With a pump they can be headed
off, causing them to settle on a lower
branch. Even when a swarm is clustered
twenty or thirty feet from the ground, by
adjusting the stream nozzle and letting it
play directly on the swarm itself, it can,

734

SWARMING

many times, be dislodged, thus causing the
bees to take wing and finally settle again
upon a lower limb or bush. Again, sev-
eral swarms will come out simultaneously,
and two or more attempt to cluster to-
gether. By the timely use of the spray,
each swarm can be kept separate by damp-
ening the wings of the stragglers of the
two swarms about to come together. A
good many times a swarm that is about to
abscond can be headed off and made to
cluster; in fact, during the summer of
1889 the author several times drove a
swarm about like a flock of sheep.

SWARM-CATCHEE.

This is simply a large wire-cloth cage, in
the shape of an oblong box, about three or
four feet high, by 12 or 15 inches square,
one end being open, and made to fit against
an ordinary'- hive-front.

Swarm-catcher.

It very often happens that the apiarist
is on hand just at the time the swarm
pours out the entrance like hot shot. With
one of these wire swarm-catchers handy he
simply attaches the mouth to the entrance,
and the outpouring bees fly pell-mell into
the top of the cage, and are there confined.
When the apiarist succeeds in catching
two-thirds of the bees, the rest will cluster
on the outside. The cage is set mouth end
down very near where the bees come
forth. Meanwhile the apiarist prepares
his hive, if he has not already done so, and
then brings the cage of bees and dumps
them into the hive, replaces the cover, and
the swarm is hived without having had any
swarm in the air — not even giving them a

ghost of a chance to fly all over the neigh-
borhood, and possibly finally alight upon
the limb of a tree 40 feet from the ground.
But it should be borne in mind that the
swarm-catcher is serviceable only when the
apiarist happens to be on the ground just
as the bees are beginning to pour forth.

A large cage that comes down over the
whole hive is much better than something
adjusted to the entrance, because it can be
set down over the hive and proceedings
stopped. As soon as the bees are all out,
the cage is lifted gently, and carried to the
hive where it is proposed to dump the
sw^arm. The cage is held squarely over the
prepared hive with its cover off, and given
one quick jolt. This will dislodge the bees
so that most of them will land in and
around the hive. As soon as they have
settled, the cage is removed and the cover
put on the hive.

THE AUTOMATIC HIVING OF SWARMS.

For many years back there has been an
effort on the part of beekeepers of an
inventive turn of mind to devise an
arrangement that would automatically hive
swarms in the absence of an apiarist or
attendant; and since out-apiaries have be-
gun to assume such importance where the
production of honey is carried on ex-
tensively, some sort of device that will
hive the swarms automatically — yes, do the
work just as well as if the apiarist were
present himself, is greatly to be desired.
Several devices have been introduced; but
most of them have been proven to be more
or less failures.

The general plan contemplates some
scheme having an empty hive placed near
the colony expected to swarm. This empty
hive may be alongside, in front of, or
below the other one. In the case of the
first-mentioned plan, an entrance-guard is
placed in front of each hive; and con-
necting the two is a tube of wire cloth or
perforated zinc. When the swarm comes
forth, the queen, finding herself barred by
the perforated metal, runs along until she
finds the tube communicating with the
entrance-guard of the other hive. In this
tube she runs up against a bee-escape or
wire-cloth cone. She passes this ; but,
being unable to return, is compelled to
enter the entrance-guard of the new hive.

SWARMING

735

Upon discovering that the queen is not
with them, the bees rush back to the old
stand; a part of them find the queen in
front of the new hive, enter with the
queen and " set up housekeeping." But
the plan fails because the majority fail to
find her, and re-enter the parent colony.

HOVr TO HIVE SWARMS WITHOUT SPECIAL
DEVICES.

If the apiary is located in a locality
where there are no tall trees, but only
low-growing shrubbery, or, at most, dwarf
fruit-trees, or, better still, if the wings of
all queens are clipped, the special tools

A cross of bees that -are not cross.

The author has tried these plans to some
extent, but, taking everything into con-
sideration, it is cheaper and more practica-
ble to hive the swarm on the clipped-wing
plan, or, better, practice "shook" swarming,
as described under Artificial Swarming,
or the Fowls Plan under the general head

of SWARMIXG.

already described will not be found neces-
sary, and perhaps not even a convenience.
The author's home apiary located at
Medina has no trees. Outskirting it are
rows of bushy evergreens furnishing the
only place for the bees to cluster in the
immediate vicinity of the apiary aside
from grapevines in the apiary itself.

736

SWEET CLOVER

Rarely do swarms cluster elsewhere. When
a swarm alights on one of the two places
just mentioned a frame of unsealed larvae
is selected. As the swarm is but rarely
more than four or five feet from the ground
this frame is gently thrust among the bees.
A large majority of them will very soon
crawl upon it. This, together with the
adhering bees, and three or four other
combs, is placed in a hive immediately
under where the swarm is clustered, if
possible. The limb on which the cluster is
hanging is jarred, causing the bees to fall
on the frames below. Those bees which
have already clustered on the combs will
begin to call their companions. The hive
is then left until the bees have all entered,
when hive and all are removed to their
permanent stand in the apiary.

HOW TO BRING HOME A SV^ARM A MILE OR
SO FROM THE APIARY.

A swarm will sometimes escape and be
traced a mile or so from the bee-yard. At
other times a farmer wdll report that a
swarm of bees is hanging to one of his
trees, and that, if the beeman will come
and hive them, he can have them. A good
swarm is sometimes worth going after; but
how shall it be brought back with the least
expenditure of time when bees are swarm-
ing at home? A boy can be sent on a
bicycle, equipped with a burlap sack, a
pair of pruning-shears and a smoker, these
latter fastened to the rider. The bicycle
enables him to make a quick trip, and on
arrival the bag is quietly slipped around
the swarm of bees, clustered on a limb of a
tree, and the bag tied. The pruning-shears
cut the limb, when the bag and all are slung
over the handle-bars, or carried in one
hand while the other guides the machine
home.

PLURAL SWARMS UNITING.

Sometimes when the swarming-note is
heard in the apiary other colonies seem to
catch the excitement and issue one after
another while the first is still in the air.
Of course if the wings of the queens are
not clipped they will unite in one, and as
many as a dozen have been known to come
out in this way and go to the woods before
anything could be done to stop them. If

Carrying a captured swavm on a bicycle.

for no other reason the wings of all queens
should be clipped. Even then if a stray
virgin is present all the bees may unite as
one swarm, taking her along.

SWEET CLOVER.— Half the States in
the Union have laws classing sweet clover
among the noxious weeds. In these same
States, while legislation remains technically
in force, farmers are planting acre after
acre in sweet clover.

A former Ohio statute required road
supervisors to cut it, along with the Canada
thistle, common thistle, oxeyed daisy, wild
parsnip, wild carrot, teasel, burdock, and
cockleburr. They were even given the
right to enter private lands where it was
growing and cut it down. Bee pastures
near Delaware were destroyed at one time
under the provisions of this law. Similar
laws are still in force in other States.
That such States will soon follow Ohio in
removing it from the list of noxious weeds
is evident.

SWEET CLOVER

737

Its peculiar odor, the somewhat bitter
taste of the leaves, the fact that cattle have
to learn to like it, the tendency of the
stalks to become woody, and a habit of
appropriating land upon which other
plants cannot even get a foothold, were
the sources of this ill favor. Within the
memory of every one, the virtues of this
innocent plant have been so forcefully
brought to the attention of the public that
much of the former odium has been re-
moved.

Sweet clover meanwhile is rapidly reach-
ing a position of importance as a staple
American farm product. At the present
time, its seed is the highest-priced crop
seed on the market — a situation which
could not obtain were it a weed.

In spite of the fact that not a single
State experiment station has failed to rec-
ognize the real worth of the plant, there
stiU remain occasional uninformed or
prejudiced farmers who see nothing but
danger in its growth and nothing but dam-
age in its spread. In parts of Ontario,
farmers are said constantly to neglect im-
portant work in order to cut it down.

VAEIETIES.

Three species are common, the white
biennial {Melilotiis alba), the large yellow
biennial (MeUlotus o-fficinalis) , and the
small yellow annual {MeUlotus inclica).
When the plant is referred to simply as
' 'sweet clover," the white is usually meant.
The biennials store up in their large roots
supplies of food for rapid growth in early
spring of the second year.

The yellow variety never grows as high
nor wdth as thick stems as the white. The
third variety, the yellow annual, is seldom
considered of much value except in south-
ern California, where it is grown in
orchards as a cover crop to shade the
ground and prevent the moisture from
drying out. In regions where the biennials
will succeed, its groAvth should not be
encouraged.

The sweet clovers have been known to
the world for thousands of years. Theii'
value as pasturage for both stock and bees
seems to have been imderstood first in cen-
tral Asia. From there the seed was intro-
duced into Europe at a very early date.
According to the Iliad, upon these plants
24

the steeds of Menehius and AchiUes pas-
tured before Troy.

A number of other names have been used
for sweet clover, among the most common
of which are melilot, melilotus, and Bokhara
clover. Bee clover and honey clover are
names indicating its value as a honey
plant.

WOELD-WIDE ADAPTABILITY.

The range of its growth has now encir-
cled the globe. It has been planted on
every continent, and is at present one of
the most widely, tho not the most extensive-
ly, cultivated crops in the world. In parts
of this country, Australia, and South
Africa, its success has been remarkable.

From Florida savannas to the sandy
mesas of Colorado, from the deserts of
Arizona to the pine woods of Ontario,
sweet clover has succeeded. It seems to be
fond of gullies and eroded banks, lands
wasted by mining operations, abandoned
quarries, and greasy oil lands.

The acid soils of the East and the alkali
regions of the West seem equally its home.
In soils rich in lime it appears to be most
successful, yet lands too acid for clovers
will grow it. The range of this vigorous
plant is wider than that of the clovers and
probably even than alfalfa.

Sweet clover grows spontaneously along
the roadsides, even in abandoned wheel
tracks. Where the weather has washed
away the humus it starts, and in time
replaces the humus and restores the land to
its former value.

SWEET CLOVER HOXEY.

WTiite sweet clover is usually water-
white, but in parts of the East and in
California it is reported to have sometimes
a greenish tinge; and, like alfalfa honey,
under certain conditions the color may be
light amber. The flavor is suggestive of
vanilla; by many it is regarded as a little
too strong, while othei^ describe it as mild.
When the nectar is secreted veiy freely the
characteristic flavor is less pronounced;
thus the flavor, like the color, is somewhat
variable. Sweet-clover honey in the West
is often mixed with that from alfalfa, and
in the Central States with white-clover
honey, forming a blend that is superior to

738

SWEET CLOVER

I

either honey alone. Honey-distributors
prize it highly for mixing with other
honeys. The body is medium. The honey
from yellow sweet clover is essentially the
same as that from the white species, but it
blooms about two weeks earlier and in a
few instances has been reported superior
for bee pasturage. Sweet-clover honey is
now marketed by the carload, and the qual-
ity is generally admitted to be excellent
whether in the comb or extracted. It al-
ways commands good prices. The present
distribution and the future outlook of this
honey plant deserve the careful considera-
tion of every beekeeper. Its cultivation is
receiving today more attention than that of
any other fodder plant in North America.

SWEET CLOVER AS A HONEY PLANT.

Altho many experiments have been made,
beekeepers have as yet failed to discover
any honey plant which it is profitable to
cultivate for honey alone. Sweet clover is
almost an exception, and thousands of
pounds of the seed have been sown to ad-
vantage along the roadsides, on railroad
banks, in waste places, and in pastures.
In no other way can the area of honey
plants be so easily increased at so small a
cost, and yet with advantage to all inter-
ests. Sweet clover has already been a great
benefit to bee culture in this country, and is
likely to exert a greater influence on its
future than any other honey plant. There
are millions of acres of land, which will grow
sweet clover, but are of little value for any
other crop. Its present distribution, there-
fore, deserves the most careful attention.
In considering the regions in which it is
of special benefit to beekeeping, it must be
remembered that while it will grow to some
extent on widely different soils this plant
will not thrive except under proper condi-
tions. It is not true that it will yield a
profitable crop everywhere.

To understand why there are sweet-
clover regions and belts in various parts of
the country and why in other sections it is
of little value, the conditions to which it is
well adapted must be briefly considered.
Sweet clover will not grow well unless there
is lime in the soil, hence it is abundant in
limestone regions. On clay soils, which ap-
parently contain little lime, it does not
spread rapidly or produce a luxuriant

growth ; such soils, however, doubtless con-
tain more or less lime due to the decompo-
sition of the silicates. In Alabama and
Mississippi the sweet-clover belt is on a
limestone soil, and where the clay soil be-
gins the sweet clover ends so abruptly as
to excite comment. It will not grow in the
rice lands of the South or in land saturated
with moisture, or in the desert regions of
the Southwest. It requires a hard, com-
pact seed bed. In a loose-cultivated soil
the seed does not sprout readily, and the
plants die out during a drouth, or north-
ward freeze out in winter. But the area
over which sweet clover succeeds is very
large and its cultivation is yearly extend-
ing. The regions in which it is of the
greatest value to bee culture today are the
North-central States (Ohio, Indiana, Illi-
nois, Iowa, Wisconsin), Kentucky, the
sweet-clover belt of Alabama and Missis-
sippi, the Great Plains region (Kansas,
Nebraska, and Dakota), and the western
highlands (Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming).
It is also valuable in many other sections,
but it is in these areas that it reaches its
highest development and has largely in-
creased the production of honey.

CANADA AND THE EASTERN STATES. '

Sweet clover is abundant in parts of the
provinces of Ontario and Quebec, and in the
vicinity of Toronto it covers hundreds of
acres. It continues to bloom after white
and alsike clover have ceased to be of value,
but tho the bees visit it freely it secretes
nectar sparingly. In New England it is
not important as a honey plant except in
localities. At Middlebury, Vt., it is highly
prized for fodder, green manuring, and as
a weed eradicator. At Crawford, Mass., it
grows well on the thinnest soil, even where
the white limestone is exposed. An apiary
of over 40 colonies obtained almost its
entire surplus from this source. In the
limestone soils of New York it also gives
most promising results to both the farmer
and the beekeeper; but it is still widely
regarded as a weed in this State. In the
sand belt in Schenectady and Albany
Counties the soil is so poor that alfalfa
can not be raised; but sweet clover grows
luxuriantly and is converting this impover-
ished soil into a rich loam. At Jonesville,
N. Y., the land along the railroad track

SWEET CLOVER

739

was formerly covered with sweet clover,
and the bees in that vicinity stored from
75 to 150 pounds of honey per colony. A
law was passed compelling the railroad
company to cut all bushes and weeds along
the track, and the honey yield fell to 25
and 50 pounds per colony. In Pennsyl-
vania sweet clover prolongs the honey flow
fully two weeks after white and alsike
clovers are out of bloom. It also gives
good results in New Jersey, but its im-
portance thruout this entire section is much
less than in the following regions.

IN THE NORTH-CENTRAL STATES.

In Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Wis-
consin, and Michigan, altho sweet clover
must compete with alsike and red clover
and alfalfa, its cultivation is steadily in-
creasing. In Ohio sweet clover grows
spontaneously along tramped roadsides
and on abandoned roads and compact land
everywhere. At one time an Ohio statute
compelled its cutting as a noxious weed
like burdock and thistle, but today it is
grown in fields under proper tillage by
hundreds of farmers. At Rochelle, 111.,
there are over 1,200 acres of sweet clover
practically all in one field. Here it pas-
tures three head of cattle to the acre, is
raised for seed, cut for silage, and em-
ployed to renovate the soil. A few years
ago the average farmer in this section ridi-
culed the claims of both alfalfa and sweet
clover. On the banks of the Chicago
Drainage Canal there are hundreds of acres
of sweet clover. At Milledgeville it begins
blooming early in July, and is in full flower
when white clover and alfalfa have ceased
to blossom. Where very abundant it has
been known to yield nectar for two months.
When pastured or mowed, it will bloom a
second time and continue in bloom until
after hard frosts. Bees have been seen on
it in October, when few other flowers were
to be found. While it stands a drought
well, it yields better when there are fre-
quent rains. It is not unusual for the bees
to store from 50 to 100 pounds per colony.
With sufficient rain the secretion of nectar
is reliable in this State, but in very dry
weather it has been known to fail entirely ;
for instance, one year at Kenney during a
severe drought, when vegetation generally

withered, the bees were starving with 160
acres of blooming sweet clover within easy
reach.

In the western part of Iowa, where the
land is rolling and hilly, some of the hills
are so steep that it is impossible to plow
or harrow them. When the seed of sweet
clover is scattered over the tops of these
hills it grows readily without further at-
tention. In this section, in 1916, 320 colo-
nies of bees produced 40,000 pounds of
honey and increased to 500. Near Delmar,
Frank Coverdale, one of the earliest advo-
cates of the planting of sweet clover, has
170 acres under cultivation. His apiary of
300 colonies store most of their honey from
this plant. After very careful study he
estimates that an acre is worth from $3 to
$5 for bees alone, Altho the yield varies
at different times, he obtains a surplus
every year. At Onawa 60 hives stored
2,500 pounds of honey chiefly from sweet
clover. Doubtless, in the near future the
acreage in this State will be greatly in-
creased.

THE LIMESTONE HILLS OF KENTUCKY.

Sweet clover has had a wonderful
development on the limestone hills of
northern Kentucky, and almost the entire
territory of the three counties, Pendleton,
Bracken, and Robertson, are devoted to its
culture. Fifty years ago tobacco was grown
on much of the land ; in Pendleton County
this was the chief agricultural industry. In
this hilly country the fertile tho shallow
surface soil was gradually washed away by
heavy rains, and the eroded and often
gullied fields became bare and unproductive.
Farm after farm was abandoned, and in
many instances sold for taxes. More than
one-third of the population of Pendleton
County moved away. Then sweet clover
was introduced, apparently at first by
beekeepers, and on the many limestone
knobs and hills it found a most congenial
home and multitplied apace, spreading in
every direction. At first it was destroyed
as a noxious weed likely to render the land
even less valuable, but it outran the farmers
and overran the fields. Gradually the soil
was renovated and again became produc-
tive. The farmers began to return, while a
part of the abandoned farms were bought
by new settlers. Dairy farming and the

740

SWEET CLOVER

Sweet clover m experiment plot, Lexington, Kentucky.

sale of sweet-clover seed brought great
prosperity and comfort. In Pendleton
County alone there are now 50,000 acres of
sweet clover and half a million pounds of
seed are produced annually, and thousands
of dollars worth of dairy products are
shipped every week. Land in this section,
which was formerly valued at only $5 per
acre, is today worth $40.

Both the yellow and the white sweet
clover are extensively cultivated. Begin-
ning about the first of June there is a
continuous supply of nectar until late in
the fall. This barren section has become
a fine country for bees, and in one county
there are 4,000 colonies. Kentucky bids
fair to produce more sweet-clover honey
than any other State in the Union, for 100
to 200 pounds to the colony are obtained.
But indispensable as sweet clover is to bee
culture, it is not always reliable even in
Kentucky. In 1913 a beekeeper shipped
131 colonies to Pendleton County on the
first of July in time for the main flow
from this honey plant. They failed to store
a pound of honey, and it was necessary to
feed them thru August and September.
There was a severe drought during this
season, and sweet clover will not yield nec-
tar without sufficient moisture in the soil.
In this same county, in 1914, there was an
ample rainfall up to May 8. By May 15

the yellow sweet clover was in bloom, but
when the bloom faded about June 1 not a
pound of honey had been gathered from it.
Following a heavy rain white sweet clover
bloomed about June 15, but a hive on
scales during a month and a half showed
a gain of only about five pounds. For the
balance of the season the bees depended
chiefly on buckberry.

While this experience may be excep-
tional, sweet clover is not always a certain
yielder, but varies in different localities and
under different conditions like most other
honey plants. . The secretion of nectar is
greatly influenced by the amoimt of water
in the soil; it is more reliable, perhaps, in
Alabama and Mississippi than anywhere
else.

THE SWEET CLOVER BELT IN ALABAMA AND
MISSISSIPPL

In this section sweet clover is found
chiefly on the limestone hills and knolls of
central and western Alabama and north-
eastern Mississippi, where the soil is thin
and poor in humus. No other crop suc-
ceeds so well on this limestone soil, which
in three years it deepens and improves so
much that the land may be profitably useu
for general farming purposes. In addition
to renovating the fields, it prevents the

SWEET CLOVER

741

washing of hilly land and is excellent for
fodder. In the black soil of the prairie
section of these States alfalfa is chiefly
grown. While sweet clover grows spon-
taneously in the limestone section, it has
not extended to any great extent to the
clay soil immediately adjoining; and so
sharp is the line of demarkation that the
abundance of sweet clover on the limestone
soil and its absence from the clay soil a
few feet away has often been remarked.
Thousands of acres are in bloom in June,
July, and the larger part of August. The
larger part of this area has been occupied
by beekeepers, but along the line between
the two States for 100 miles north of
Meriden there are many good locations.
The apiaries range from 140 to 170 colo-
nies, and frequently 200 and rarely 500
colonies are found in a single yard. At
Fitzpatrick there are 900 colonies in 11
apiaries, which are devoted chiefly to the
production of bees and queens. One hun-
dred pounds per colony seems to be a fair
average, and there is a well-authenticated
record of 100 pounds per colony being
stored for 10 years in succession. No re-
ports of sweet clover failing entirely have
been published. The farms are highly im-
proved and there are many evidences of
general prosperity. While sweet clover is
the main reliance of the beekeeper, other
honey plants are tulip tree, black gum,
locust, and white clover.

Sweet clover grows along the rocky por-
tion of the east coast of Florida, but in the
interior the soil is deficient in lime. In
Texas the seasons are so dry that none of
the clovers grow well except sweet clover.
It is abundant in the northeastern part of
the State in various places, and there are
great areas of waste land that could be
planted with it to advantage. In many
localities, where there are intervals in the
season without any bloom, it would be most
helpful. In the west and southwest parts
it is too dry except along the streams. In
Louisiana sweet clover in the majority of
cases does not succeed well.

IN THE WEST.

Sweet clover has not received as much
attention in the West as in the East, and
in the arid sections will not grow without
irrigation. In many States it is still re-

garded largely as a weed, especially w^here
irrigation is practiced, and the water car-
ries the seed upon the alfalfa fields. In
the Great Plains region it is extensively
cultivated in the States of Oklahoma, Kan-
sas, Nebraska, and Dakota. In Nebraska
there are many scattered fields, but it is
not planted as continuously as in Ken-
tuckj^ or Alabama. In the eastern part of
the sandhill district it has greatly improved
the quality of the soil and increased the
yield of hay. Since its introduction there
has been an increase both in the quantity
and quality of the honey. In Kansas at
Garden City there are about 3,000 acres of
white sweet clover, the owner preferring it
to alfalfa. At Augusta one farmer prefers
the yellow variety since it blooms earlier
by about two weeks, and the bloom lasts
until the second crop of alfalfa is in full
flower.

In South Dakota the future of sweet
clover is believed to be most promising. It
is already cultivated over a section extend-
ing more than 200 miles north of Sioux
City, Iowa, and is rapidly spreading north-
ward and westward. It is expected that
soon it will cover a million farms in the
Dakotas, Wyoming, and Montana, and that
this region will support thousands of colo-
nies of bees and produce millions of pounds
of honey. The opportunities for beekeep-
ing in South Dakota deserve careful con-
sideration.

In Colorado and Utah sweet clover is
grown to a limited extent. In the irri-
gated section surrounding Ferron, Utah,
there are many farmers who are enthusias-
tic in its praise. There are extensive areas
of sweet clover in Colorado, but usually
on land which can not be used for other
agi^icultural purposes; from 70 to 100
pounds of honey per colony may be ob-
tained. There seems little probability that
in the Rocky Mountain region sweet clover
wiU displace alfalfa. It is rapidly spread-
ing in central California and is common in
moist valleys northward.

AS SOIL IMPROVER.

Its power of renewing the fertility of
eroded ground has been suggested. By its
vigorous growth and the decay of the large
roots it will replace humus where it has
been weathered away, and by its power of

742

SWEET CLOVER

taking nitrogen from the air will bring up
in fertility poor, run-down soils.

The plant takes nitrogen from the air by
means of the nitrogen-gathering bacteria
which inhabit nodules about the roots. This
adds more nitrogen to the soil and makes
possible the growth of other plants. The
bacteria which inhabit the root tubercles of
sweet clover and alfalfa are identical, or at
least capable of living on either plant, and
for this reason sweet clover is valuable as
a pioneer crop for alfalfa, insuring proper
inoculation of the soil.

Besides, the large fleshy roots of the
biennial sweet clovers store up a great deal
of plant food the first year of growth, in
order to get an early and running start in
the spring of the second year. This supply
of food, not altogether used up, goes back
to the soil on the death of the plant, adding
to and enriching the humus.

The roots x^eing fleshy instead of fibrous
decay more rapidly and so has-^^n the in-
crease of fertility. Their rapid decay
moreover releases the stored-up nitrogen
about the ends of the rootlets sooner than
in the case of roots of the true clovers.

The exceeding rapidity of the decay
makes plowing an easy operation — much
easier than plowing an old alfalfa field.

In contrast to the other legumes which .
gather nitrogen in the same way but which
need considerable humus, sweet clover
thrives where humus is quite absent. This
emphasizes its value as a pioneer crop.

The long taproots, piercing the lower
layers, make way for roots of other crops
which are not able to penetrate where the
ground has not been broken up. The con-
tinual growth and decay of the heavy roots
slowly converts sand into fertile soil.

Where it is planted as a fertilizer, the
application of manure or straw will help it
to get a start and will hasten the work of
soil restoration.

" It is best to delay the sowing of other
grass two or more years after the sweet
clover has been seeded. Areas should not
be pastured, but the sweet clover allowed to
fall down and form a surface mulch. On
badly eroded areas, sweet clover and the
yellow locust form an excellent combina-
tion."*

Sweet clover's valuable power of soil
renewal the Ohio Experiment Station sums

* Ohiu Experiment Station, Circular 129.

up as follows : "It belongs with the clovers,
and it may be used to improve the land on
which it grows. This appears to be its
mission. It occupies lands which have
become unfit for good growth of other
forage plants. Its rank then is as a useful
forage plant, capable of increasing the .
fertility of land." ^

RUN-DOWN LAND RESTORED.

One of the most characteristic examples
of this service to the land is its work in
alkali regions of Colorado. In some places
irrigation and the growth of alfalfa for a
number of years had forced the alkali out
of the earth and on to the surface. The
alfalfa roots, piercing the layers of the
subsoil, brought up saline and other depos-
its which in turn destroj'ed the life of the
plants.

Nothing but a kind of salt grass could
be made to grow. Whole farms and towns
were deserted. Finally farmers accidentally
discovered that sweet clover would grow
where nothing else would, that cattle could
be pastured on it successfully, and that it
could be used for hay or harvested for the
seed.

Finally — and this is most important —
the alkali deposits on the surface and' in
the subsoil somewhat began to disappear.
Now alfalfa again is grown. The crops are
rotated with sweet clover and the soil
maintained in its fertility.

Lands of this nature, formerly unfit for
alfalfa, corn, or wheat, now yield immense
crops of all three. In some cases the value
of farms in Kansas, Oklahoma, Missouri,
Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming, and Mon-
tana, where sweet clover has been grown,
has risen nearly 50 per cent.

Sweet clover has transformed King
Island, off the coast of New South Wales,
from an island of useless sand dunes into
one of the best grazing regions in the
commonwealth. Sown on white beach sand,
sweet clover changed the character of the
soil until at the end of five years much of
it had become dark brown in color, and in
some places almost black. Each year it is
improving the value of the land. At
present the export trade of King Island
consists of fat cattle, dairy produce, and
horses, and by far the most extensively
used fodder is sweet clover.

SWEET CLOVER

743

Frank Coverdale's field of sweet clover with cattle grazing on it.

In northern Kentucky, farms in Pendle-
ton, Bracken, and Robertson counties had
been planted in tobacco for a century. It
was once the custom, when the soil gave
out entirely, to allow the tobacco lands
to grow up in brush for six to ten years,
and then to plow and plant again. During
the years of abuse, this heavj^ waste seemed
to be necessary.

By some means, sweet clover was intro-
duced, but for a long time was fought as a
weed. Finally farmers began to realize its
value. The old soil, tobaccoed almost to
death, received new vigor.

Today sweet clover flourishes in those
counties. Land which formerly' brought
from five to ten dollars an acre is worth
from forty to sixty dollars. At that time
farmers were abandoning their homes and
seeking employment in the cities. They did
not have the means to buy suitable cloth-
ing. At present there is on deposit in the
banks of Pendleton County money aggre-
gating over $100 per capita, most of which
belongs to the farmers.

AN EXCELLENT PASTURE.

As a pasture, sweet clover is very satis-
factory. According to an analysis by the
Wyoming Experiment Station, it does not
differ greatly from alfalfa in food content.

Altho cattle will sometimes refuse grass
in order to feed on sweet clover, it is
sometimes a little difficult to get them to
acquire an appetite for its rather bitter
leaves. For this reason it is sometimes a
little difficult to get them started. To cre-
ate this appetite, they should be turned into
the field early.

"A man prominently identified with live-
stock interests in the Middle West once
told me that no self-respecting animal
would eat sweet clover. I wish he could
see my steers todaj^," wrote C. E. Gapen in
the Country Gentleman, interviewing W. P.
Graham, an Illinois sweet-clover grower
and authority.

Mr. Graham pastures three head of
cattle to the acre with success, instead of
the traditional " one head to the acre." He
maintains, by the way, that sweet clover is
a better soil renovator than alfalfa.

For pasture for cattle, seeding it with
timothy or any of the native grasses gives
best results. The sweet clover acts as a
nurse crop for the timothy. The former is
richer in protein and the latter in carbo-
hydrates, two constituents as necessary in a
stock ration as in human. Then, too, if one
fails, the other is likely to take its place.

In pasturing hogs, an acre of sweet
clover will do for about twenty shoats. A
superior pasture is secured by seeding with
oats on good ground. These fields will

744

SWEET CLOVER

provide an iinmense feed for two seasons,
and, if enough is left to reseed itself, the
pasture will be perpetual.

In regard to this, Mr. Coverdale, the
authority already mentioned, says:

SWEET CLOVER FOR HOG PASTURE.

Nine years ago I sowed a sixty-acre field
to white sweet clover, and also a forty-acre
field. Altho the plants started, not a single
one lived until winter, and the whole under-
taking was a failure because of the poor and
impoverished condition of the soil. Many
others around here lost their seed in the
same way. The tables have turned, however,
for we are now securing perfect stands of
this legume, as shown by the picture of one
of my neighbor's fields. His hogs enjoy a
continued feast, and they keep it down to
about six inches high by continual brows-
ing. My neighbor has a field of alfalfa ad-
joining this, and he has been changing the
hogs from one to the other, but he is much
better pleased with the results from the
sweet clover, as it is so much more hardy.
He has now bought seed to change his alfalfa
field into sweet clover, as the alfalfa won't
stand being pastured. A few more farmers
in this neighborhood have secured seed, and
will have hog pastures just like this one.

The field sown is identical with our own,
especially our hog pasture. I have come to
the conclusion that every farmer can and
should have a hog pasture like it. Every
one around here who has come to my knowl-
edge is very enthusiastic over the success, and
is securing new supplies of seed to be sown
next spring. This fact speaks louder than
any other. My seed is all sold.

One authority advises mowing the second
season, if the white clover threatens to get
too tall and grow woody. The guards on
the mower should be turned very high in
order to prevent killing any of the plants.

No injurious effects on the stock can be
noticed. On the contrary, it prevents bloat
in cattle. After feeding it a number have
reported that their cattle were troubled
very little with digestive disorders.

"At one time when we fed our three
Jerseys for several weeks on sweet clover
and bran, we decided that it made a little
nicer butter than anything else." This is
from J. A. Green, Boulder, Col.

Care should be taken in pasturing stock
on sweet clover that they do not crop it so
closely that it has no chance to bloom.
They should be given a field so large that
the plants will be able to reseed themselves.
Fortunately the plant, particularly the yel-
low biennial, is not easily discouraged.

VALUABLE FOR HAY.

Hay made from the sweet clover when
the plant is in the right stage of growth,
and properly cured, some farmers think
equal to the best quality of hay from the
cowpea vine or any of the clover family.
It does not bring as much on the market
per ton .as clover or clean timothy, but it
is often used instead of these.

SWEET CLOVER

745

The quantity of hay to the acre is re-
markable. The Utah Experiment Station
found in 1892 that sweet clover produced
more than double the yield of the clover
and grasses compared with it. Other sta-
tions have reported phenomenal yields.

Very complete directions for handling
sweet clover for hay have been given by
Frank Coverdale of Delmar, Iowa, who is
perhaps the best authority on sweet clover
in this country.

SWEET CLOVER AS A HAY CROP.

When I first began to grow sweet clover I
had little thought of ever using it for a hay
crop; but as time passed I began to see that
it would answer very well as a dry feed. We
experimented with one patch, and, contrary to
what I had expected, a fine hay crop of
superior quahty was secured. This first field
that we tried had been sown about the first
week in May, and had been pastured to hogs
until August, when all hogs were taken off.
By October 10 the sweet clover stood 22
inches high, and then the mower was started.
Just as soon as the hay was well wilted (but
not dry enough to put in barns) it was raked
into windrows and shaped into well-formed
small cocks. These cocks, by the way, were
just large enough so that they could be
thrown on the rack in one good fork-load all
at one time. This avoided scattering the
leaves, which are as valuable as so much
wheat bran. From this the reader will see
the importance of putting up the hay so that
it is not too dry when handled. All the
handling, in fact, should be done while it is

green and tough, when it can be gotten into
cocks before any leaves will be scattered
around. It should stand in cocks until it is
sufS.ciently cured to keep in the mow. We
have always found that this clover has kept
well when managed in this way.

White sweet clover is the worst of any of
the clovers that I know of to scatter its
leaves when overdry; and the leaves being
thick and meaty are surpassed by those of
no other legume. A dairyman is lucky who
has a good winter supply of first-year sweet-
clover hay for his cows.

The cocks referred to will stand many
rains and still be very good feed. The
authors have had sweet clover exposed to
rainy weather for several weeks after it had
been cut. After it stopped raining it was
gathered up and put into the barn. Strange
to relate, the cows and horses, after all this
wetting down, preferred it to good timothy
hay. Sweet clover sheds water better than
common clover, and it has a smooth stem.
The common red clover, because of its hairy
stem, holds moisture, and quickly turns black
and becomes unfit for feed. I have been
happily surprised to find that this first-year
hay cures the nicest of any that I have ever
made.

I know of no other clover that can be
depended upon to make a good hay crop the
same year as sown. It has often been tall
enough to mow in July; but at this time it
would be very dangerous to mow it unless
care were taken; for as yet there are no
crown sprouts started; and if one mows the
clover close to the ground in July, much of
it will be killed outright. On this account,
if one wishes to mow the first clover in
July, or before the crown sprouts start, the

746

SWEET CLOVER

machine must be set so as to cut high enough
to leave stubbles that have a few leaves to
make a start for the next crop. When the
crown sprouts are started, the mower may
be run close to the ground with perfect
safety. These crown sprouts on the first-
year crop will be seen close to the roots after
removing about an inch of dirt. This is the
reason, by the way, why this clover will not
winterkill. The crown sprouts are about an
inch below the surface of the ground, so that
a covering during the winter is a certainty —
a point of vast importance to one who is de-
pending upon this clover the coming season.

MAKING HAY FROM SECOND-YEAR GROWTH.

Handling the second-year growth is, per-
haps, a more difficult problem, as the clover
gets very rank early in the season before
good curing weather arrives. In this respect
it is just like alfalfa. We have never dared
to try to cure the hay until along in June ;
but . at the same time every effort that we
have made has been successful; we have
never yet made a forkful of poor sweet-
clover hay. With the improved variety of
white sweet clover that we now grow, I am
not sure but that we might cure the hay
even as early as the first of June. If we
could do this, the problem of making hay
from second-year's white clover would be
solved, and two good cuttings could be easily
made during the second year, and a seed crop
secured late in the fall.

There are many ways in which this clover
can be handled for hay. One plan, which is
very successful and easily carried out, is to
wait until the clover is in bloom, and just
beginning to form seed. . This is just before
the leaves begin to show yellow. Wliile the
foliage is still on, go over the field with a
self-binder and set in shock rows, two and
two. These bundles will cure nice and green,
and will dry very quickly. They should be
hauled and stacked like oats until winter,
when the bands may be cut and the bundles
thrown in the mangers for any kind of
stock. It will keep perfectly dry if well
stacked, and will make very satisfactory feed.
The binder should be run high enough to
leave behind a stubble which contains a few
leaves, otherAvise it will die out. If the
leaves are left on, a nice crop of seed of
excellent quality can be cut later in the fall.

Another plan is to pasture the second-year
clover with some kind of live stock until late
in May or the first of June. The hay will
then be just about right in good hay weather,
and can be made just as tho it were a
first-year crop. The stubble should be left
high, as shown on the preceding page. It will
be seen that some of the clover in the picture
has not been cut well. In explanation, I
will say that, just before we started to cut
this hay, a new pitman arm had been put on
the mower, and it drew the sickle too far
one way, and hardly cut at all on the return
stroke. If this had not been the case, there
would have been a smooth top.

The cocks of hay shown were out in twc
showers, but nothing was colored except the
outside. The middle cured to perfection, and
went to the barn as green as tea leaves.
This field was mown when just coming into
bloom, and the stubble grew up and made a
seed crop.

The reader may be interested to know that
clover of any kind in this part of Iowa was
very rare last year, as severe drouth had
killed all other clovers except a little alsike
here and there. Sweet clover grew as tho
there had been no drouth.

An Alabama farmer who owns 640 acres
grows 160 acres a year of oats and sweet
clover, and cuts the combination crop ex-
pressly for hay. He says the hay when
baled and marketed in Birmingham, Ala.,
sells readily at $15 a ton.

Sweet clover should be cut as soon as the
first blossoms appear. If left longer, the
stems become woody and a great many
leaves fall off when it is cured. The mower
should be started in the morning as soon as
the dew is off. Great care should be taken
to prevent sun-burning as this destroys its
palatableness and nutritive properties.

Sometimes the plants are high enough
in May for mowing; but since hay cannot
be cured at that time, the field may well be
used as pasture until haying weather comes.

Care should be taken against feeding too
much of the hay. Stock may become
cloyed and go " off feed."

Sometimes, just as in pasturing on sweet
clover, it is a little difficult to get stock
started to eating it. The taste for sweet
clover is an acquired one. By moistening
the hay with brine they can usually be
made to eat it. This should no more be
urged as an objection to the use of sweet-
clover hay than the fact that western cattle
will sometimes refuse corn is an argument
against the use of corn as a feed.

Cut w^hile young and tender the fall of
the first year, sweet clover may be put into
silos just as corn. During the winter it
may be fed to stock just as other silage.
In 1914 W. P. Graham of Ogle County,
111., fed steers with 70 tons of sweet clover
which he had put up in a tile silo.

SEEDING SWEET CLOVER.

At almost any time of the year the plant
may be sown and will mature, on account
of the hard seed coat which makes germina-
tion slow.

SWEET CLOVER

747

In December, January, February, and
March the seed may be sown broadcast on
the . snow or on ground honeycombed by
frost. Spring rains soften the seed coat
and bring about germination hi the spring.
Spring sowing is the plan most popular in
northern Kentucky where sweet clover
makes its greatest success.

Sowing in March allows the seeds to be
covered hj the rains and alternate freezing
and thawing.

Spring sowings take place in April or
May. At that time it is covered lightly
and the soil fii^med with a roller or drag.
Some authorities believe this spring sowing
the best, all things considered.

In a country where the winters are mild,
seed may be planted in the fall. Part of
the clover comes up before wdnter but the
growth is not so heavy the second season
since the roots do not have time for devel-
opment. What seed fails to germinate
during the fall usually does so in the
spring.

Alfalfa must be sown between Aug. 15
and Sept 1 for proper development before
winter,, while sweet clover may be delayed
as late as Oct. 1 with fair results. This
makes it possible for sweet clover to be
planted in fields in which crops are too
late in maturing to admit of alfalfa.

One of the peculiar characteristics of
sweet clover, and one which, more than any
other, has caused difficulty in its cultivation
is its demand for a hard seed bed. Farm-
ers have often been amazed to see the
apparent ease with which the plant will
appropriate railroad banks and flourish
without any care w^hatever; yet in their
own fields where it is planted as a forage
crop it would do only indifferently.

SOWING STREET CLOVER WITH OATS.

With regard to this, Mr. Coverdale,
already referred to, sajs :

Secure from a druggist a few sheets of lit-
mus paper. Stick a spade three inches into
moist surface soil; withdraw the blade and
put in a sheet of blue litmus paper and press
the son tightly against the paper for ten
minutes. After removal, if the litmus paper
has turned pink, lime is needed for best re-
sults. However, if there is only a slight pink
color on the paper, it is possible to get along
without the lime.

In either case, Early Champion oats is the
best variety to seed Avith. Sow a third less

than the usual seeding of oats. It is a pretty
good plan to inoculate the seed. I prefer
the glue and dust method when it is done
right. Select some soil three inches under
the surface, where sweet clover has grown
for years. Dry it in a cellar— not quite dry,
but so it will pulverize nicely. Moisten the
seed well with glue water that is just a little
sticky when put between your finger and
thumb. Mix thoroly, allowing all the dirt
possible to hang to the seed. I have had
the best results by sowing this inoculated
seed by hand, because in this way the dirt
sticks to the seed, whereas a seeder rubs and
grinds it loose. None of the extras need be
put on where sweet clover has been growing
in late years. Do not allow the sunlight to
strike the seed before covering.

It will pay to make a seed bed on the
surface, cultiA'ating it quite well, as the white
sweet clover always makes a stronger growth
on such prepared land. It is always the
poorly cultivated as well as the corners that
are missed that do the poorest.

If the soil cuts in well, one good harrow-
ing will be sufficient. If not, double and
harrow. It probably would not pay to plow
unless the land is a tough sod. I always
plow such fields with good results, and secure
a good deal of seed or hay the first season.

If one does not want to disk or plow the
ground, I would advise sowing the seed in
March just as the snow is going off.

>"EEI)S A GOOD SEED BED.

A good seed bed is necessary. Otherwise
plants will be heaved out by the frost in
the winter intervening between the first and
second seasons of growth. Just enough
loose earth should be placed on top to
cover it.

Frank Coverdale gives some valuable
notes on seeding :

" Sow sweet clover on ground well pre-
pared, on a good mellow seed bed. A sod
field that has been plowed the previous fall
is best of all. Spring-plow^ed sod is all
right, and will answer nearly as well, and
will work into a good seed bed. Where the
rainfall is sufifieient, harrow the seed in
shallow. But in arid sections a drill is best,
putting the seed sufficiently deep to insure
moisture enough to make sure of a good
crop.

" Sweet clover sown on such ground will
grow^ a heavy crop of nodules on its roots;
and by the end of the second season this
ground will be thoroly inoculated, and can
be depended upon for all time to come for
routine methods, as these bacteria will live
in the soil for several years.

748

SWEET CLOVE K

■ "A good stand of alba is usually sure
when sown on land that would grow 60
bushels of corn per acre, and a nurse crop
sown with it of barley, wheat, or early oats,
seeded somewhat thinner than usual. After
the ground is inoculated from growing pre-
vious fields, a fair cutting of excellent hay
can be mown in October after the grain has
been harvested, making a crop of small
grain and a cutting of hay the same
season."

SWEET CLOVER — SOWING THE SEED AMONG
GROWING CORN.

Considerable has been written in various
farm papers in regard to sowing sweet-
clover seed in cornfields just after the last
cultivation. Ordinary broadcast seed-
sowers cannot be used, because the corn-
stalks and leaves are so much in the way.
It has been several times suggested that
sowing the seed while going thru the corn
on horseback would answer better; and
no doubt this plan is giving fair results.

About three years ago a machine was
advertised for the express purpose of
sowing clover and other seeds between the
rows of corn. One was purchased and
given a trial with excellent results. This
machine has some cultivator teeth to work
the seed into the soil. We had a splendid
stand of sweet clover, sown 1916. We also
had a splendid catch in a field of corn
where the corn was about ready to cut.

The only trouble with the machine for
sowing is that it sows more seed than is
needed; and there is no way of controlling
the amount of seed very accurately. The
cultivator teeth work well; and with the
rains we had after the seed was sown, it
seemed that almost every seed had germ-
inated. As a result, there were about four
times as many plants as were needed be-
tween the rows of corn.

The machine for sowing is a revolving
cylinder made of galvanized iron, and the
whole thing is pulled by a horse.

SWEET-CLOVER STRAW AFTER THRASHING OUT
THE SEED.

Horses and cattle after they get a taste
of sweet-clover hay will eat the dry stalks
from which the seed has been thrashed;
and even after these dry stalks have been

out in repeated rains, so that any other
kind of clover or hay would be ruined, the
sweet clover seems to be hurt but very
little.

INOCULATION.

Sweet clover is unable to grow without
the help of nitrogen-gathering bacteria in
nodules about the roots. These bacteria, if
they do not already exist in the soil, must
be placed there with the seed. The process
of starting the growth of the proper bac-
teria is what is known as inoculation. The
bacteria are usually present on lands where
sweet clover has been grown before.

Inoculation may be accomplished easily
by gathering soil from about the roots of
roadside sweet clover, moistening the seed
with a thin solution of commercial glue,
and mixing a few handfuls of the soil with
a peck of seed. Unless the seed is thoroly
dried it may spoil.

Another form of the soil-transfer method
is to scatter between two and three hundred
pounds of soil to the acre, the soil taken
from a field in which the plants show an
abundance of tubercles on the roots. The
government bulletin suggests that the seed
be mixed with a small proportion of the
soil and the remainder of the soil scattered
broadcast and immediately harrowed in.

The work should be done on a cloudy
day or during the evening, or else the soil
in which the bacteria are growing should
be turned under before the sun's rays have
time to penetrate the particles. Sunlight
destroys bacteria of all kinds.

The soil may also be inoculated by the
pure-culture method. A bottle of the pure
culture of the proper kind of bacteria is
opened and mixed with water. This solu-
tion is then mixed with the soil and the
soil distributed over the field immediately
after it has dried. The drying should be
done in a shaded room away from the
sunlight. This gives the sun no chance to
kill the bacteria in the seed.

MAKING MORE SEED GERMINATE.

One of the great obstacles which have
been found hitherto to the successful grow-
ing of sweet clover has been the uneven
germination of the seed. At the price of
sweet-clover seed this has been indeed a
fault. Some farmers have reported decided

750

SWEET CLOVER

White sweet clover.

success in getting a stand while others have
hardly been able to get a fair amount.

Sweet clover often grows apparently of
its own free will in the most unexpected
places, but efforts at starting it have been
hindered by the lack of germinable seed.
This has been due not to the infertility of
the seed itself, but to the hardness of the
cellulose case which surrounds the germ.

Sweet clover shares this fault with
alfalfa and the true clovers. A large
proportion usually fails to come up the
first year and much of it never sprouts at
all. In the wild state it has its advantages
where seed falls in September and October

and does not sprout until spring. By that
time the rains and freezes have softened
the seed coat so that moisture can get thru.

Several schemes for reducing the loss
due to difficult germination have been tried
with varying success.

In the national bulletin on sweet clover
directions are given for soaking the seed in
commercial concentrated sulphuric acid for
half an hour, a plan which has been suc-
cessful, altho somewhat dangerous. The
acid eats away the impermeable seed coat
sufficiently to enable the seed to absorb
enough moisture to germinate. Tests made
in the Department of Agriculture gave an

SWEET CLOVER

751

increase in germination of 40' to 45 per
cent.

After the acid is poured off, the seed
should be quickly washed, using running
water if possible, as sulphuric acid becomes
very hot when mixed with a small propor-
tion of water. The seed should then be
di^ied out quickly by spreading it on a
board or canvas and stirring at intervals
of two or three minutes.

Since sulphuric acid burns flesh and
wooden objects, great care should be taken
in working with it. Vessels used for treat-
ing the seed should be of earthen or
enameled ware.

After testing, seed should preferably be
planted at once, as it "has a tendency to
dry out. Where the air is not too dry,
however, it may be held two weeks or a
month if necessary.

A new but highly promising method
consists of scratching sweet-clover seeds
in what is called the Ames hulling and
scarifying machine, brought out in April,
1915, by the Iowa Experiment Station. By
its use the germination of legume seeds is
reported, after extensive tests, to be in-
creased to over 90 per cent.

The first machine of this efficiency was
constructed in December, 1913. No an-
nouncement was made at that time, how-
ever, in order to allow time for field tests,
comparing treated and untreated seed, in
addition to extensive germination tests.
A large number of plots were seeded on
the station field in 1914, comparing treated
and untreated sweet-clover seed from vari-
ous sources. In a large number of cases,
stands which were, if anything, too thick,
were secured from the treated seed, when
the same seed planted at the same time,
but not treated, failed to produce any stand
at all.

The machine as constructed has a capacity
of approximately 25 bushels per hour, and
requires about four-horse power to operate
it. It is estimated that it can be put on the
market at a price not to exceed $90 to $100.

The construction of the machine repre-
sents eight yeai-s' work on the part of
H. D. Hughes, Chief of Farm Crops at the
Iowa Experiment Station.

During the spring of 1914 and 1915
several thousand pounds of sweet-clover
seed were treated for individual farmers.
A farmer for whom the station treated some

3,000 pounds of seed in the spring of 1914
states that the seed germinated approxi-
matelj' 50 per cent when sent to Ames, but
germinated 98 per cent when returned.

Another reports using 5 pounds per acre
of treated seed, from which he secured a
perfect stand, while the usual rate of seed-
ing ranges from 15 to 20 pounds per acre
with many failures and uncertain stands-
resulting from poor germination.

HOW MUCH TO SOW.

The amount of seed to sow to the acre
depends upon what purpose the sweet clover
is gTOwn for. Moreover, the promising
invention described above is likely to make
necessary a revision of the estimates usually
given.

Xot less than 20 pounds of unhulled seed
and not less than 12 to 15 pounds of the
hulled should be sown to the acre. Ordi-
narily 20 to 30 pounds of the hulled and
5 pounds more of the unhulled are advised.

For sowing on waste lands, about one
bushel to six acres is enough. Altho the
plant spreads rapidh', it is well to sow
enough to insure a good stand. To secure
continuous growth, sow the second year
also.

Can sweet clover be gotten rid of after
a crop has been grown, and small grains
sown the next year? This i3 a question
which has worried farmers wherever the
plant is being introduced. One reported
that he had planted wheat the spring fol-
lowing a crop of sweet clover in the same
field, and that the clover has choked out the
wheat. The experience is unusual, to say
the least.

The best crop to put in immediately
following sweet clover is corn. The effect
of the sweet clover will be noticed only in
increased growth of the corn, sometimes
as much as 20 bushels heavier than on land
not previousl}^ planted in sweet clover.
Sometimes corn is grown two years in
succession, and then followed by wheat.
Xo trouble with smothering is reported.

The farmer need fear no difficulty in
getting rid of sweet clover after he has
once sown it. The fact that the plant
gi-ows abundantly along the roadsides and
seldom appears in cultivated fields, is evi-
dence that it can be easily destroyed if
necessary.

752

SWEET CLOVER

Another point on which there is question
is the amount of sweet-clover seed to be
mixed with oats in seeding them together.
Some sow 10 pounds to the acre, others as
much as 20. A good average is 15.

Care must be taken in mixing the seed in
the drill, and in not having so much in at
once that the clover will work down under
the oats in the drill-box. This would mean
uneven proportions in the field. With care
the seeding can be made even. Hulled
sweet clover is more satisfactory in such a
mixture, since some of the unhuUed is not
likely to come up the first year.

Rye and spring barley are other crops
often sown with sweet clover. The grain
is harvested while the clover is coming on,
and the field used for pasture or for hay
after the grain has been taken off.

Here is where sweet clover again is
superior to alfalfa. Grow oats, wheat, or
barley as a nurse crop and you get the
grain besides, but best results with alfalfa
are obtained by planting alone.

There is no better way to fit a piece of
ground for alfalfa than to seed in sweet
clover, cut off a crop of hay the first season,
and plow under the second season when
the clover is about a foot tall. Cultivate
with a drag and harrow until the first of
September. Then seed in alfalfa. This inoc-
ulates the soil for alfalfa besides fertilizing
the ground by the addition of humus.

GROWING FOR SEED.

Before harvesting sweet clover for seed,
it is always best to take a cutting of hay
first. Much better seed and shorter, finer
straw will result. The crop should be har-
vested like oats with a self-binder about the
time most of the seed is showing black.

In moving, care must be taken to prevent
shattering of the hulls. A canvas covering
for the hayrack will save what drops off.

For thrashing small amounts of the seed,
an old-fashioned flail or similar primitive
instrument will do. But for larger amounts
the thrashing machine is necessary. The
process results in a lot of broken stalks
and leaves being mixed with the seed.
These can be removed with a fanning mill.

MORE VIRTUES OF SV^^EET CLOVER.

Among minor merits of this all-around
plant is the tendency of wild sweet clover

to drive out weeds. Growing luxuriantly
in waste places and reseeding itself, it will
even choke out the dreaded Canada thistle.

On the other hand the plant is not hard
to get rid of, as suggested above. When
the land is broken up, the plant is gone.
Pasturing the land so no seed matures has
the same effect if kept up one or two
summers.

Add to these advantages its freedom
from pests, both insect and fungous. A
species of aphis has been reported but no
appreciable damage noticed. The absence
of enemies is one of its most peculiar
characteristics, partly explained by the
presence of cumarin, the bitter element in
the leaves.

SWEET CLOVER AS A COVER CROP.

In many parts of the West, in some of
the large orchards sweet clover is used as
a cover crop — that is to say, the ground
under the trees is harrowed when sweet
clover is sown in the regular way. As soon
as it reaches two-thirds of its growth it is
plowed under. In a similar way red clover,
alsike, and other clovers are sown and
plowed under. When alsike and red are
used, the clover is often allowed to come
into bloom. If the trees are sprayed at
this time, the nectar in the clover will be
poisoned and bees that gather it will be
killed by the thousands. (See Fruit
Bloom, subhead " How the Spraying of
Cover Crops Kills the Bees." On the other
hand, sweet clover will come into bloom,
especially Melilotus indica, when the trees
are not sprayed. It grows rapidly, and,
when plowed under, makes excellent fer-
tilizer.

IN SUMMARY.

While much information has had to be
omitted from this article enough evidence
is in to show that sweet clover is one of
our most valuable forage plants. Long
despised as a weed, sweet clover is rapidly
breaking down prejudice and ignorance
and taking the place it has long deserved.
" The new sensational grass " it has been
called. Sweet clover is new in the sense
that only lately has its full value been get-
ting recognition.

As a soil renewer, it is unexcelled.- As
pasture and for hay, it i^ nearly equal to

TEMPERATURE

753

alfalfa in feeding value. As a honey plant,
furnishing nectar over a long season, it is
unsurpassed. These are not the sole merits,
only a few of them. Within this sketch it
has been possible to suggest only some of
its charactei-isties and its value.

In the preparation of this subject the
following authorities have been consulted:

Lloyd, W. A., Sweet Clover. Circular
Xo. 129, Ohio Agricultural Exp. Station.

Root, A. I. Tlie Truth about Sweet
Clover. A. I. Root Co., Medina, 1913.

TTestgate. J. M., and YinaU, H. N.
Sweet Clover. Farmers' Bulletin 485,
U. S. Dept. Agric, March 12, 1912.

Also files of Gleanings in Bee Culture.

T

TEMPERATURE. — In bee culture, tem-
perature is one of the most important fac-
tors with which the beekeeper has to deal.
The more nearly he can hold it to the exact
point the better he will be able to bring
about certain desired results in the busi-
ness.

Under the heads of Yextilatiox and
SwAEMixG it is shown how the bees keep
down the internal temperature of the hive
during hot weather by an elaborate scheme
of forced ventilation. One set of bees, by
means of a vigorous fanning of the wings,
force air into the hive; and another set,
working in collaboration, drive foul and
heated air out. Under Mo\-ixG Bees, the
importance of gi^'ing plenty of ventilation,
by means of wii-e screens to keep down the
internal temperature of the hive, is shown.

Under the head of Bottlixg Honey it
will be seen that temperature plays an
important part in preventing the granula-
tion of liquid honey. If it is too high, the
delicate flavor of the honey will be injured.
If it is too low, granulation will take place
soon.

Under Wixterixg ix Cellars, refen-ing
to the temperatm-e of the ceUar it
is explained that, in order to get the best
results, the temperature should show not
below 40 nor above 60 degrees F. In
some cellars 45 degrees gives the best re-
sults; in others, 50; and still others, 55.

THE temperature OF THE CLUSTER IX
WIXTER.

Up to the year 1911 various erroneous
notions were current. Some authorities

stated that the internal temperature of a
colony in winter was blood heat; that
when the cluster was broken into, no mat-
ter how cold the day, the individual mem-
bers would rush out. apparently just as
active as at any time during the summer.
Others held that bees went into a winter
sleep, somewhat analogous to a condition of
semi-hibernation or even perfect hiberna-
tion.

Still others maintained that bees dui'ing
winter could and do go into a state approx-
imating death; that they had broken into
their clusters and found them lifeless ; had
carried them into the house and put them
near a stove, and found that they soon
revived and flew about the room as lively
as ever. From this they argued that bees
were like ants in that they went into a
state of perfect hibernation. This, of
course, is a mistake.

Others, again, held that the winter tem-
perature of the cluster di'opped down to
about 60 degrees F. and remained at that
point until the weather warmed up, when
the bees would arouse.

The fact is, there is truth in all of these
assertions. The different observers had
taken the temperature of the clusters at
difl'erent times during the winter and under
difl'erent conditions. The temperature of
the honeybee cluster varies all the way,
according to conditions, from 32 F., which
would shortly result in death, to 97, which
would be summer temperature. "Whenever
the cluster is chilled thru, so that each
individual member of it is stiff and cold,
and apparently lifeless, that cluster of bees

754

TEMPERATURE

will die soon, unless the weather becomes
warmer. If one were to dig down into
such a brood-nest and find such a condition,
he would naturally argue that bees hiber-
nate like ants and flies.

There was quite a school of beekeepers
who, in the early days, argued in favor of
reducing the surrounding temperature until
the bees were chilled thru, because they said
that in such a state they would consume
almost no stores. Unfortunately for this
argument experience shows that in a chilled
condition bees cannot live more than a week
or ten days. Any time within that period
they may or may not be revived by placing
them in a warm room. If a cluster is
chilled clear thru in an outdoor colony, and
it warms up outside enough so that the
internal temperature of the hive reaches
between 60 and 70, the bees may revive,
move to the portion of the brood-nest where
their stores are, and may, if the winter is
not too severe from that time on, live thru.

When the conditions are such that a
cluster will chill thru during the middle or
earh^ part of the winter, the owner may
rest assured that the bees will die. When
he comes to open up the hive in the spring
he will find a perfectly formed cluster with
every bee dead.

On the other hand, when a colony is
properly housed, and strong enough, there
will be no danger of the cluster chilling
thru. It behooves the apiarist, therefore,
to have strong colonies and then place them
in a good cellar or in warm double-walled
hives or packing-eases. See Wintering
Outdoors and Wixterixg ix Cellars.

When one desirous of getting the tem-
perature of a colony of bees during mid-
winter thrusts a common thermometer down
into the cluster, he is misled. In an hour
or two after inserting the instrument he
will probably find the mercury standing at
about 97, for breaking into the hive and
thrusting something down into the cluster
of bees arouses them so that the tempera-
ture rises rapidly till it reaches 97, He
concludes that the temperature of the win-
ter cluster is 97, for has he not seen it with
his own eyes?

If, again, he were to put a dairy ther-
mometer into the center of the cluster,
allowing the upper part of the instrument
to project thru the packing material, and
allow it to stand, he would get a more

correct reading, but not until the bees have
gone back into their quiescent state previous
to their disturbance. They might never go
back; but in most cases a temporary dis-
turbance does no harm, and a cluster of
bees will resume its normal course. If in
a day or two after the insertion of the
thermometer the cover is lifted gently so as
not to disturb the bees, and if the thermom-
eter sticks up thru the packing, so that it
is not necessary to uncover the cluster, a
fairly correct readmg may be secured, pro-
vided the cluster in the meantime has not
moved. The temperature may then show
as low as 57. If it is lower, the bees will
proceed to raise the temperature of the
cluster in a manner that will be explained
later.

In this connection it should be stated
that the common mercurial thermometers
are not always correct; and, what is more,
it is not always possible to place them so
that they will be in the exact center of the
cluster; and even when they are so placed,
the bees may move from one portion of the
brood-nest to another. As fast as stores
are consumed in one portion the cluster
will move to a fresh supply, provided it is
not too cold.

It is not difficult, with these general
facts before us, to understand how various
observers have been deceived in forming
conclusions in regard to the temperature
of the honeybee cluster during winter. It
is also ver^^ evident how one might jump to
the conclusion that bees hibernate like ants.

It was not until the Bureau of Entomol-
ogy, Washington, D. C, attacked this prob-
le^m in 1912, 1913, and '14 that the matter
was definitely cleared up. Dr. Burton N.
Gates, then Apicultural Assistant in the
Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C,
made a series of experiments in determin-
ing the temperature of a colony in winter.
His investigations are described in Bulletin
96, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
These experiments were carried on further
by Dr. E. F. Phillips, Apicultural Investi-
gator in the Bureau, and by Geo. F.
Demuth, as given in Bulletin No. 93, De-
partment of Agriculture. Dr. Gates worked
with mercurial thermometers, but because
of the limitations of these instruments he
was unable to carry his work to a finish.

Phillips and Demuth conducted a series
of experiments in wintering bees in a con-

TEMPERATURE

755

stant-temperature room at the University
of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, during the
winters of 1912 and 1913 and 1913 and
1914. Several colonies variously prepared
were placed in a constant-temperature
room, where the temperature was held by
means of coils of pipes containing a brine
solution — much the same apparatus that is
used in cold-storage plants. On the roof
of the building containing this room there
were placed several colonies of bees where
the conditions of out door- wintered colonies
could be observed. A series of electric
thermometers, or " thermo couples/' were
placed in these colonies in the room before
mentioned, and in colonies on the roof out-
doors. By an elaborate system of wiring,
these electric thermometers were connected
to an observation room in the buildins',
entirely separate and distinct from the
constant-temperature room. Here Dr. Phil-
lips, with his assistant, could follow with
the greatest precision the temperatures of
every part of the hive and clusters of the
several colonies inside and outdoors.

By these temperature readings it was
possible to determine the exact state and
size of the cluster, when it moved, and the
various reactions that took place as the
result of feeding, disturbance, and the
rising and lowering of the temperature
outside the hives. The purpose of using
electric thermometers wa- to avoid the
disturbance incident to the use of
mercurial thermometers that reciuire the
entering of the bee-room and the opening
of the hive to get the readings. Moreover,
it would be practically impossible for an
observer to stay in a bee-rooni vrith. a
temperature of 42 F. day and night, taking
readings every fifteen minutes : and even
if he could do so, the constant disturbance
would naturally cause a rise of temperature
that would be above the actual normal of a
colony not so molested.

The outside-wintered colony had 19 elec-
tric thermometers, with connections to the
observation room below. Bees were placed
on the roof early in Xovember. From then
until along in March the inside and outside
temperatures were taken. It was learned
that the temperature within the cluster is
far from being unifonn, as is generally
supposed by beekeepers. "At the temper-
ature at w-hich other insects become less
active (begin hibernation) the honeybee

becomes more active, and generate- heat —
in some cases until the temperature vnthin
the cluster is as high as that of the
brood-nest in summer." During the fore
part of the readino-^ in Xovember and
iJerember the internal temperature of the
ehi-ter of thi- outside colony had a tendency
to drop, a- the outside temperature went
down, until it reached 57 F. At that point
the reaction took place; that is. the
generation of heat began, and from this
point it beg-aii to rise in spite of the fact
that the outside tempei'ature continued to
drop. The cluster heat continued to rise
until the center of it registered nearly 90
degrees. After the coldest outside temper-
ature was reached, the outer air began to
get warmer, and simultaneously the tem-
perature of the cluster began to ?ag.

Dr. Gates tried these experiments at an
earlier period, as reported in Bulletin Xo.
96, and discovered a similar inverse ratio;
but he did not tind the exact point at which
the colony temperature ceased to drop with
that of the outside. Dr. Phillips and Mr.
Demuth learned that this point is 57 F.
When the colony is without brood, and the
bees are not flying, the bees generate
practically no heat until the coolest point
among the bees reaches a temperature of
57 F. "At this point the bees besin to
form a compact cluster; and if the
temperature of the air surrounding them
continues to drop, they begin to generate
heat." Between 57 and 69 F. the bees do
not do much in the way of heat generation.

Apparently, it is desirable to have the
surrounding tem])erature at such a point
that tht' internal teinperature of the clu-ter
will not go below 57 nor above 69; but. a-
will be shown, the questions of food and
syrup are additional factors to be consid-
ered.

Attention will now be directed to the
colonies, or one of them at least, in the
constant-temperature room, where the
mercury was kept at about 42 or 43 degrees
F. •' This temperature was chosen as being
nearly the one generally considered best by
beekeepers.'-' There were two colonies — one
fed on honey stores and another on an
inferior grade of honeydew honey, that
are particularlv mentioned in the bulletin.
Colonj' Xo. 1, fed on honey stores, was m a
constant-temperature room for 163 days,
during which readings were taken hourly.

756

TEMPERATURE

At first the internal temperature of the
cluster according to the chart hovered
around 64 and 68. It rose gradually clear
thru the winter. The colony fed on honey-
dew stores showed a higher temperature at
the beginning; when up to about 76 F. it
began to take a sharp rise, going up to 91
above, and on Nov. 23 the temperature
began to show a sharp drop, the line
running down as low as 48 on Dec. 10,
when the colony died. Clearly the poor
food caused uneasiness by reason of the
accumulation of fecal matter that the bees
could not digest, and the uneasiness caused
activity; and activity called for a greater
consumption of stores. The one condition
operated against the other, finally ending
in the destruction of the colony. The other
hive fed on good honey pursued its normal
course thru the season.

It is interesting to observe that the nor-
mal temperature of the cluster of the col-
ony fed on good stores only gradually
increased, and this increase was doubtless
due to the slight accumulation of feces.
This accumulation was markedly less than
that in the case of the colony on honeydew
stores, not because the bees became uneasy,
but in proportion as the feces increased,
the activity and temperature of the colony
increased. This increase was not enough,
however, to cause the death of the colony,
but did cause a slight reduction in the force
in the spring. These observations explain
the importance of good food — a food that
will not clog the intestines. It also ex-
plains a common cause of dysentery.

Phillips and Demuth also discovered that
the length of the life of bees either during
summer or winter depends on the activity
of the bees. The greater the activity, the
shorter the term of life.

They also found that when brood-rearing
commences or is in progress, the tempera-
ture of the cluster will rise to about that
of summer or spring. This was to be ex-
pected, of course.

During these experiments a remarkable
thing was learned — namely, that there can
be, and actually is, activity inside of a
cluster of bees during winter. When the
temperature of a cluster goes down to 57,
and the outside temperature surrounding
the hive is dropping, the bees by actual
muscular exercise can raise the tempera-
ture of the cluster. This ac^ivitj^ may con-

sist of a few bees tugging at each other,
moving their bodies back and forth, or
actually fanning with their wings. One bee
may set up an active fanning inside the
cluster during the dead of winter. Bees
actually fan to cool themselves in summer
and to warm themselves in winter, para-
doxical as this may seem.

It is difficult to comprehend that bees
can warm themselves up by exercise, like
their owners; and the idea that their little
electric fans, so to speak, can raise the
cluster temperature as well as cool it seems
at first ridiculously absurd; but that it is
true the author proved to his entire satis-
faction by the experiments he conducted
during the winter of 1914 and 1915. He
used a hive that had double glass sides.
The bees were compelled to form their
winter clusters against these sides. It was
thus possible to watch the internal move-
ments that actually took place inside, and
what was seen was indeed a revelation.

Various observers have opened up clus-
ters of bees in midwinter, and found the
bees inside in many cases as active as they
ever are. Also thermometric readings have
sometimes shown the temperature nearly
the same as during the summer. In the
light of the observations taken by the Gov-
ernment, it is very easy to explain this, not-
withstanding that there are times when the
temperature of the cluster is below 60 to
70. One has only to remember that, when
the inside temperature of the cluster goes
as low as 57, the bees raise the temperature
of the cluster even tho the outside tem-
perature is becoming colder and colder.
The presumption is that, when the cluster
is large enough, they keep up these " daily
exercises " in order to keep the cluster
warm. A prolonged cold spell, especially
that down to zero, is nearly always disas-
trous to good wintering. This cold weather
puts the bees in the cluster in a state of
activity; and activity causes an abnormal
consumption of stores, with no means of
voiding their feces, and then dysentery
follows; hence after a prolonged spell of
cold weather that has lasted for weeks, we
commonly find evidence of dysentery.

At the close of this bulletin the authors
make the statement that "bees in winter,
either in cellars or outdoors, should be
disturbed as little as possible." This is a
yery natural conclusion; yet for two or

I^EMPERATURE

757.

Box hive turned upside down preparatory to drumming out the bees.

three winters back we have had good results
in making increase in cellars by pursuing
just the opposite policy. "We fed bees on
hard candy, and disturbed them as much as
possible. This caused brood-rearing and
increase at times when the temperature of
the cellar was 55 to 60. While this mode
of wintering is not advocated for novices,
and while such increase is not made with-
out some corresponding disadvantage, we
know we have made increase in the cellar;
but we advise the average person to follow
Dr. Phillips' advice. Fussing w^ith bees in
the cellar is usually attended with disaster;
but that does not argue that the expert may
not pursue the practice to advantage.

THISTLE.— See Canada Thistle.

TITI {Cyrilla parvifoUa Raf.). — Iron-
wood, leatherwood, and red titi. An ever-
green shrub, 6 to 10 feet tall, growing in
swamps and along streams in northern
Florida. The leaves are oblong, leathery,
shining green above but paler below. The
flowers are numerous, small, white, and in

racemes, appearing in February and
March. As the weather is very likely to be
unpleasant during the blooming period,
very little surplus is obtained from it. The
amber-colored honey is reported to be
rather strongly flavored and good mostly
for bakers' use. A surplus is obtained
only in the extreme northwestern part of
the State.

C. racemiflora (L.), or ivory bush, is
also found in wet land in Florida, but is
more widely distributed, extending north-
ward to Virginia and westward to Texas.
The white flowers open in May and June.
In middle Georgia it is not a very sure nor
abundant yielder, but it is valuable as it
comes at a time when there is little else for
the bees to work on. The honey is dark
amber with a good body and a mild flavor,
which is, however, more pronounced when
it is first gathered.

Black titi {Cliftonia monaphylla (Lam.)
(Britton), also called buckwheat tree and
ironweed, is a small evergreen tree growing
in pine swamps from Florida to Louisiana.
In southern Georgia it is very abundant

75S

Drumming bees up into the empty box.

along streams. The fragrant small white
flowers appear in March and April. A
small quantity of honey of fair quality is
obtained.

TRANSFERRING. — This term might
mean moving bees from one yard to an-
other, or bees from one hive to another.
In the strict technical sense, however, it
means moving bees from box hives, log
gums, or straw skeps into modern movable-
frame hives. The usual process involves
^he act of cutting the combs out of an old
fiive and fitting them into movable frames,
after which they are placed in an up-to-
date hive. When one by purchase or other-
wise acquires a lot of old gums, he must
transfer them into modern hives before he
can do anything. To do this be must pro-
vide himself with as many hives, with a

full equipment of frames, as he has gums
or old box hives to transfer. He will need,
in addition, a hammer, a coldchisel, a fine-
toothed saw, some tacks, a ball of string, a
big butcher-knife, a small box a little larger
than the top of the gum, and a large board
or cover on which to place the combs when
cutting them to size to fit the frames. He
will also require a pail of water in which
to wash his hands and tools every now and
then, as they will become intolerably sticky
with honey.

HOW TO TRANSFER.

A little smoke should be blown into the
entrance of the gum or box hive, which
is then lifted off its stand and a modern
hive put in its place to catch the returning
bees. The old hive should now be turned
upside down, and smoke blown down be-
tween the combs, after which the small box
(above referred to) is placed over. The
operator should now, with a couple of
sticks or clubs, drum on the outside of the
gum. If it is an old log he can use a
couple of hammers. This drumming should
be kept up incessantly until all or nearly
all the bees have crawled up into the empty
box placed on top. This should now be
emptied in front of the entrance of the
new hive. The sides of the old gum are
now removed with cold-chisel and hammer;
and the combs, the largest and best of
them, are cut out with the long-bladed
knife and laid in a pile. Every now and
then the tools and the hands will have to
be washed in the pail of water.

The next problem is to cut the best of
the pieces of comb so they will just fit in
the frames. This is best accomplished by
laying a slab of comb on the board or
hive-cover, and over it a frame. The knife
is next drawn along next to the inside of
the frame, marking its exact size and shape
on the comb. The frame is lifted off, when
the comb is trimmed to the required size
and fitted into the frames. Care should be
taken to cut the comb large enough to make
it a snug fit. If it is a loose fit it is
advisable to wind a string around the frame
and comb, going around it two or three
times, and then tying; but if the work is
done properly the combs will not need to
be fastened.

No comb, unless large enough to fill a
frame, and unless it contains brood, should

TRANSFERRING

759

be inserted in the frame. It is a question
whether it pays to use good worker comb
unless it contains brood. Certainly all
irregular pieces, and all drone comb of any
size whatever, should be rejected and
melted up into wax, as it does not pay to
fuss with them. Small pieces of comb
containing worker brood should be saved,
and a series of them placed on the board
and fitted together as tightly as possible.
A frame should be laid over the pieces and
the exact size marked. The surplus on all
sides is then trimmed away, and the frame
slipped over the pieces. It will take con-
siderable care in handling this patchwork
of comb to keep the pieces from falling
out. The board should be lifted to a
vertical position and then deftly pulled
away. A string may now be wound around
the frame in such a way that the several
strands will come opposite the small pieces,
holding them in place. After the brood has
hatched out, such comb should be rejected.

Some prefer to use narrow strips of
wood instead of string for fastening the

Fig. 1. — Removing one of the sides of tlie box hives.

pieces of comb in the frames. Wooden
separators such as are used in comb honey

Fig. 2. — Box of bees placed in front of the entrance
of the hive.

can be cut up into narrow strips and tacked
to top-and bottom-bars of the frame and
across the face of each piece of comb. The
frame is then turned the other side up
while another set of strips is tacked to the
other side. The comb may now be put in
the hive. As soon as the bees have fastened
the pieces to the frame and to each other,
the string or strips of wood should be
removed ; otherwise, some brood will be
destroyed. The string is preferable to the
strips of wood for the reason that the bees
will remove the former if the apiarist neg-
lects to do it.

All scraps of every sort, as soon as they
are cut out of the hive, should be dumped
into a closed box or hive to keep them away
from robbers ; and each comb, as soon as it
is fitted into a frame, should be put into
the new hive on the old stand. At the close
of the work everything should be washed
clean to prevent robbing. See Robbing.

If all combs are rejected unless they
contain worker brood, there will be extra
space in the new hive. This should be
filled either with good combs from other
hives, or with frames of foundation. It is
usually poor policy to try to save any
combs in a box hive unless they contain
ivorker brood.

760

TRANSFERRING

Mike Wall, Tempe, Ariz., and pile of odd-sized frames from which he had cut the comb and fitted them into

Langstroth frames.

In the directions already given, no men-
tion is made of the possibility of robbers
" interfering " with the " operations." If
the work is performed at a time when no
honey can be secured, robbers would enter
into a free-for-all help -themselves proposi-
tion, and in the course of a few minutes
there would be a general uproar, and the
bees cross enough to drive every one off the
premises. The beginner should understand
that, when he undertakes to transfer, he
should be careful to prevent a general rob-
bing fracas, else he may have a damage
suit on his hands from some irate neighbor
whose children, horses, or cattle have been
stung. Where there are no other bees in
the yard or immediate vicinity, there will
be no danger of robbing, and Mr. Beginner
can proceed without fear of molestation.

The danger of robbers brings up the
question of when to transfer.

WHEN TO TRANSFEB.

Usually the best time to do this work is
in the spring during fruit bloom when the
combs are light and without much honey,
and when the bees will work on the bloom
rather than rob. Transferring can be done
at any time when there is a honey flow on ;

but if it is undertaken during or following
the main honey harvest the combs will be
very heavy and awkward to handle.

When, however, one desires to transfer
at some particular time, irrespective of
robbers, he can take the whole equipment,
bees and all, into a screened building. The
objection to that procedure is that the bees
will get all over the building and on the
windows, many of them wearying them-
selves to death in trying to get out. A far
better way is to use a large cage, such as is
illustrated under Robbing. The new hive
and the old one, including all the tools,
should be crowded on as small an area as
possible. The operator is then to pick up
the cage and set it over the whole, with
himself inside. If he proceeds carefully he
can do the work of transferring with the
help of an assistant on the outside to hand
him the necessary tools for the completion
of the work.

A SHORT WAY OF TRANSFERRING.

A little before swarming time the top of
the box hive is pried off, and a single-story
hive containing empty combs is placed on
top. All joints between the two hives are
made tight. After the queen starts laying

TRANSFERRING

761

Transferring not impossible for women to undertake. Brushing the few remaining bees from the combs in

the old box hive.

in these combs a large portion of the bees
will soon move up into it. After brood-
rearing is well under way the upper story
with its movable frames is lifted off and
placed on the stand occupied by the box
hive. In the mean time much of the brood
from the latter will have hatched out, and
what remains can be cut out and fitted into
the frames as already described. The rest
of the bees are either drummed out or
&]noked out of the old hive and the old
combs are melted up.

THE GUERNSEY METHOD OF TRANSFERRING.

This is very similar to the one already
described. An uppper story with a full set
of empty combs is placed on top of the old
box hive after the top has been pried off.
As soon as the queen takes possession
above, which can be determined by the
presence of eggs, a queen-excluding honey-
board is slipped between the two hives. In
21 days, or as soon as the brood is hatched

out of the combs in the old hive, the upper
story is lifted off, the box hive is removed,
and the upper story with a bottom-board
is placed on the old stand. Any bees left
in the old gum may be drummed out, after
which the remaining combs can be put in
a solar wax-extractor, which separates the
honey and wax; or the old hive can be set
to one side, when the bees will rob out the
honey left in it, after which the combs can
be cut out and melted up. The objection
to letting the bees rob out the honey is the
danger of bee disease.

THE HEDDON SHORT VS^AY OF TRANSFERRING.

This is a plan that has been used consid-
erably and preferred by many, because it
does away with all robbing, the messing up
of hives and tools, and leaves nothing but
perfect combs built from full sheets of
foundation in the hive in which the trans-
fer is made. Combs built from foundation
are much superior to those made out of

762

TRANSFERRING

Method of transferring as carried out by E. D. Townsend.

pieces and fitted into frames by the old
plan. The plan of procedure in detail is
as follows :

The old box hive is moved back four or
five feet, when the new hive, with a full set
of combs or foundation, is put in its place.
The old hive is turned upside down, after
which about two-thirds of the bees are
drummed into a small box placed above, in
the manner already explained. In doing
this drumming it is important that the
queen enter the box. This can be deter-
mined by dumping the bees from the box
in front of the entrance of the new hive.
By watching carefully, it can be seen

whether the queen goes in. It she is not
discovered, more bees are drummed out of
the box hive, and the second lot is dumped
in front of the entrance. If the queen is
found this time the old box hive should be
given enough bees to take care of the
brood. It is then turned right side up, and
put two feet back of the new hive with its
entrance turned in the opposite direction.
It is allowed to stand for 21 days, at the
end of which time all worker brood will
have hatched out, and nothing will be left
but a little drone brood. All bees in the
old box hive are drummed out in front of
the new hive having an entrance-guard

TULIP TREE

763

The combs in the old hive are melted up,,
and the hive itself burned.

At the time of making the second drive
after all the brood has hatched it would be
advisable to smoke both lots of bees before
uniting them, otherwise there may be con-
siderable fighting. See Uniting.

If there is no choice between the young
queen which will be in the old box hive, and
the old queen in the new hive, the entrance-
guards will not be needed. One queen will
kill the other. Generally the younger and
better one will sur^dve.

There is one objection to the Heddon
method. If it is practiced during or after
the honey season, combs in box hives may
be heavy with honey. They can be ex-
tracted in an ordinarj- extractor, or they
can be put into a solar wax-extractor; or
still again they can be put into a wax-
melter, described under the head of Ex-
tracted Honey and under Wax^ when the
honey and wax can be separated, the wax
going into one compartment and the honey
into another. If the work is done right,
the quality of the honey will not be affected
very much, or at least not to be noticeable.

TRAVEL-STAIN.— See Comb Hoxet.

TULIP TREE {Liriodendron tulipfera
(L.). — Other vernacular names are white-
wood and yellow poplar from the varying
colors of the wood, canoe wood from the
use made of it b}^ the Indians, and saddle
tree from the arrangement of the leaves in
the bud. This magnificent tree belongs to
the same family as the Magnolia, and
among American deciduous-leaved trees is
surpassed in size only by the plane or
buttonwood, to which it is superior in
s^^nmetry and in the attractiveness of its
foliage and flowers. Its height is usually
from 60 to 90 feet, but in favorable locali-
ties it may grow 140 to 180 feet tall, with
a diameter of 4 to 12 feet. Michaux meas-
ured a tree near Louisville, Ky., which at
five feet from the ground was 221/2 feet in
circumference and exceeded 120 feet in
height. The tulip tree is one of the hand-
somest of American ornamental trees,
growing in a conical form, offering an ex-
tensive shade, and putting forth in May or
June an immense number of large greenish-
yellow flowers. The peculiar-shaped leaves
easily distinguish it from all other forest

trees. They are four to six inches long,
4-lobed, with the end abruptly truncated
or broadly notched and have a smooth
bright-green surface. The bark, which is
broken into large flat ridges, has a very
bitter taste and was used hy the Indians as
a remed}^ for intermittent fevers.

The slightly fragrant bell-shajDed flowers
are two inches long, solitary and terminal.
The calyx is composed of three oval con-
cave sepals of a pale-greenish color, which
finally become reflexed. There are six
large yellowish-green petals, each of which
is marked at the base with an irregular
crescent-shaped bright orange-yellow spot.
The stamens are numerous with short fila-
ments. In the center there is a cone-like
mass of pistils (carpels). The seeds are
winged and form a dry cone 3 inches long,
which falls apart in autumn. The flowers
are verv frequently visited bees and
also by humming birds.

The tulip tree is found in woods from
Xew England and Michigan southward to
Florida and Mississippi and westward to
Arkansas and Missouri. It is especially
common in Virginia, Carolina, Kentucky,
Tennessee, and Georgia. It succeeds best
in a rich loamy soil such as is found in
river bottoms and on the borders of
swamps.

The nectar may be seen in both large
and small drops on the orange-yellow por-
tions of the petals, on the inner side, which
thus serve as both nectaries and nectar-
guides. The time of blooming varies with
the conditions of the weather from May to
June, some years being very early and in
others much later. When the blossoms are
late in opening and the weather is warm
and dry, the honey flow is veiy much
heavier than Avhen the bloom is early. Un-
der such conditions there are few if any
better hone}^ plants than the tulip tree, and
each flower will jdeld not far from a spoon-
ful of nectar. When the flowers appear
early in the season, the flow is often inter-
rupted by cold rains. The period of bloom
lasts for nearty a month. A large quantity
of honey is stored even when the trees are
scarce, and one or two supers are often
filled from this source alone. Where the
trees are abundant there is little danger of
overstocking, and it has been estimated that
200 colonies could not take care of the
nectar withiii their range. Unfortunately,

764

TULIP TREE

Flower of tulip tree.

there are today few such locations, and
they are in regions difficult of access.

The honey obtained from the tulip tree
is bright amber when new, but it becomes
darker with age and very thick, so that it
closely resembles molasses. It is of fair
qualit}-, and is in good demand among
those accustomed to it. While it does not
command the highest prices it can be used to
advantage in brood-rearing and increasing
the strength of the colonies for gathering
the more desirable honeys which come later.
In Tennessee the first surplus is obtained
from the tulip tree, which begins blooming
during the last week in April or the first
week in May, The yield is heavy, seldom
fails, and lasts for about 25 days. The
dark-amber honey is strong-fiavored. In
North Carolina it is found in all parts of
the State except in the lowlands, and
blooms from May 10 to 30, according to
the location. In Georgia it is very common

all over the State, blooming in April and
yielding nectar abundantly. The honey is
dark, thick and of inferior quality; but it
is nearly always improved by an admixture
of holly honey.

The seed should be sown as soon as ripe
in moderately dry fertile soil, and should
be protected during the first winter. The
wood is soft and fine-grained and is easily
worked; it is usually nearly white but in
some localities is yellowish. It shrinks
badly in drying and consequently is not
adapted to exposure to the weather. When
dry it resists decay and is rarely attacked
by insects. It may be used for sections
and brood-frames, but is very unsatisfac-
tory for hives. It is suitable for door pan-
els and wainscotting and in the manufac-
ture of carriages, furniture, and various
smaU articles. As the wood is light and
strong, the Indians built great canoes from
it capable of carrying 20 persons or more

TUPELO

765

TUPELO OR GUM (Nyssa) .—The tu-
pelos are the most valuable honey-produc-
ing trees in Florida, not to say the entire
United States. They are, at the same time,
the most tantalizing. While the four native
species are all clearly defined (tho some
authorities claim that they hybridize), the
duplication and complication of common
names applied to the gums has given end-
less trouble to those trying to classify these
trees thru the local names only.

Aside from the identification of the tupe-
los by the characters of their respective

Sprig of scrub tupelo, showing the shape of ^ the leaves
and blossoms.

Scrub tupelo of Georgia.

woods, they are readih'- distinguished by
their botanical characters. There are four
native species, as follows :

1. Nyssa sylvatica (synonym Nyssa mul-
ti flora), which is variously named black
gum, sour gum, and pepperidge, is a high-
land species, a large forest tree growing,
at its best, from 100 to 150 feet high, in
rich upland woods of northern Florida and
westward. The leaves are small and entire
— that is, are not notched or lobed. The
bark of this gum, as it grows older, finally
breaks into hexagonal blocks. This is the
giant of the tupelos.

2. Nyssa hiflora called locally water gum
or water tupelo. It is very common in the
estuarine swamps of the mouth of the
Apalachicola and other northern rivers of
Florida, but does not grow down to the
river banks, perhaps because the water is
too swift or too muddy for it there. It
grows from 100 to 120 feet high, with a
trunk diameter of from five to seven feet
at base. Its favorite habitat is in swamps
and on the margins of ponds, and it can be
recognized by its bark, which is from % to
ly^ inches thick.

TUPELO

767

3. Nyssa aquatica (synonym Nijssa uni-
flora) is named, locally, tupelo gum, white
tupelo, and cotton gum. This is, as its
name implies, also a low-ground species,
reaching a maximum height of 90 or 100
feet in its best habitat ; but in pine-baiTen
ponds it is a small tree, a mere shrub,
and is often taken for a different species
by those not familiar with its habits. It is,
when thus stunted, often called locally,
"scrub tupelo." (The term "scrub" is not
a definite nor accurate name.) It is occa-
sionally found as far south as the middle
of Florida, but is not of commercial im-
portance except in the northern and west-
ern part of the State, and thence on into
Georgia and further. It has large leaves,
which are usually irregularly toothed, with
a bark comparatively smooth and thin, only
about 14 inch thick. The fruit, called
drupes, is a dark purple. This tupelo, with
the following, is the source of the "tupelo
honey" of commerce, and this special varie-
ty is the greatest honey-producer of all the
tupelos.

' ^ # f ;l » % •

Black tupelo or gum with berries.

The country along the lowest part of the
Apalachieola River is so thinly settled that
the effects of civilization are hardly notice-

able except for the removal of large quan-
tities of cypress for timber by the lumber-
men. Almost the only works of man that
are visible from a boat, on this part of the
river, are lumber camps and apiaries, the
latter to take advantage of the abundance
of fine honey secreted by the Nyssa aquat-
ica and Nyssa Ogeecliee.

4. Nyssa Ogeecliee (synonym Nyssa capi-
tata), Ogeechee lime, black tupelo, and
Ogeeehee plum, is only a small tree, but
grows in deep swamps from central Flor-
ida to the north and west part of the
State. It is of commercial importance,
however, only in the northwest. The max-
imum height of this species is about 60
feet, usually much less, say 30 or 40 feet,
and the bark is irregularly fissured. The
leaves are large, and the drupes red and
very acid. The stems of the leaves are
short. The blossoms grow under the leaves.
The honey is white and the body thin, much
resembling that from cabbage palmetto. It
comes into bloom in March, after the titi,
but just before the Nyssa aquatica.

Calhoun County, which forms the west-
ern boundary of the Apalachieola River
for many miles at its southern part, is the
banner honey county of Florida, producing
annually about one-third of the honey crop
of the entire State. The source of this
honey is the Nyssa aquatica and the Nyssa
Ogeechee (commonly called "white tupelo"
and "black tupelo)." These are the two
great honey-yielding trees of the tupelos.

There is a fifth species of tupelo, called
Nyssa acuminata by Small, which appears
only in Georgia, a mere shrub, gro wing-
not more than seven or eight feet tall. It
has smooth bark, branches and twigs red,
and tops spreading. The honey closely re-
sembles that from the Nyssa aquatica in
bodj' and color, being white and thick, but
having a greenish cast to it. It is often
called " scrub tupelo," as are some forms
of the Nyssa aquatica.

The best honey of all is, as indicated,
that from the Nyssa aquatica. It is white
and very thick and of delicious flavor.
When unmixed with other honeys it will
not candy. It deserves to rank with the
four best honeys of Florida, and with any
of the best honeys of the world.

In the wonderful tupelo regions along
the Apalachieola River in northwestern

768

UNITIiSiG BEES

Florida there has actually been produced
nearly 2,000 barrels of honey, each contain-
ing- from 300 to 500 pounds, in a strip of
territory not over 100 miles in length, and
perhaps a mile or a mile and a half in
width on each side of the stream.

What about this honey? What is it? It
comes mainly from the tupelo, both white
and black. If one goes into southern Flor-

ida, the local beekeepers will confidently
assert that the palmetto is the finest honey
produced in the State. In other regions
they will say that mangrove carries off the
palm; but when one goes into the north-
western country the beekeeper will assured-
ly assert that a pure white tupelo without
other honey excels them all. It is of heavy
body and very mild in fiavor.

u

UNITING BEES.— This term is used to
refer to the putting together of two or
three nuclei or weak colonies, either from
the same yard or from other yards. The
operation is just the reverse of dividing,
in which process a colony is split up into
several smaller units. See Dividing, In-
crease, and Nucleus.

When several families of bees are put
together they may or may not quarrel, de-
pending on circumstances. If the weather
is warm, and the bees are hybrids or
blacks, they may, at the moment of uniting,
enter into a free-for-all fight. The result,
unless stopped by the timely use of smoke
may be almost the annihilation of one or
both lots of bees. As a rule, even without
smoke there will be no quarreling where
gentle strains of bees like Italians are
used; and even when they have these
" family disturbances " they can be " ad-
justed" very nicely by the use of a little
smoke. Sometimes more smoke will be
needed than at others, especially if the two
lots of bees are of fairly good strength, and
persist in stinging each other to death.

There is another difficulty in uniting;
and that is, that the old bees, if taken from
the same yard, are quite apt to go back to
the old stand. This is especially true if
the uniting is performed during or imme-
diately following a honey flow. Young
bees that have never been out of the hive
will stay where they are placed, and per-
haps a majority of the old ones.

If the several families to be united aU
have queens, no attention need be paid to
them if there is no choice between them.
If one is better than the rest, cage her

after uniting and kill the others. This is a
precaution.

The old-fashioned black bees can be
moved about from one part of the apiary
to another with less trouble than the Ital-
ians because the blacks will find their loca-
tion better. But when uniting by the news-
paper plan, this point need not be con-
sidered.

In these days, when out-apiary beekeep-
ing is practiced on so large a scale, the
weak colonies or nuclei of two separate
yards can be united very easily without
any returning. Where one finds, there-
fore, a number of undersized or weak colo-
nies in two or more of his yards, he can
put the weaklings of one yard with the
undersized or medium-strength colonies of
another, thus bringing them all up to nor-
mal strength either for honey-gathering in
early summer or for wintering at the close
of the season. See Building up Colonies.

When there is only one yard of bees, as
in most cases, one can unite even then if he
will follow the directions here given.

HOW TO PREVENT THE BEES FROM THE SAME
YARD GOING BACK APTER UNITING.

After inclement or cool weather, during
which the bees have been confined for sev-
eral days, they may be united with little
or no returning, when, if they have been
going to the fields for nectar for several
days, the old bees will be almost sure to go
back. It is, therefore, advisable to wait
for a spell of rainy or cool weather when
the bees cannot fly much, during which
time they will have been confined for at

UNITING BEES

769

least four or five days. Then in the cool
of the morning the nuclei can be moved
to their permanent winter stands. At the
moment of uniting it is advisable to use
plenty of smoke, not only to avoid any
possible fighting that may occur, but to
disorganize them so that, when they seek
flight from their new home, they will mark
their entrance anew. It is also important
to remove the old hives after taking the
bees from them to unite with other bees.

It very often happens that late in the
fall one will have a lot of nuclei without
any brood. If these should happen to be
queenless, the bees of several of them can
be shaken iato a swarming-box and con-
fined over night in. a cellar or in a cool
place. The intermingling of several fam-
ilies of bees, and confinement in a box
without combs, breaks up the old family
spirit that formerly existed, and almost
entireh" eliminates all knowledge of the old
home. This lot of bees can now be appor-
tioned out to colonies that are not quite up
to standard of strength as follows :

In the cool of the morning, before any
bees are flying, the box of bees should be
taken into the apiary. Previous to this,
all hives to be strengthened should be
marked in such a way that the apiarist can
at a glance determine how many bees he
shall give to each individual stand. He
approaches hive No. 1. The marking on
the cover shows that it can take two dip-
perfuls of bees. He gives the box a jounce
on the gi'ound so as to pile the bees up en
masse on the bottom. If they are disposed
to fly up, he wets them down with a little
spray — just enough to dampen their wings,
and thus impede their flight. Before they
can crawl up on the sides of the box he
now scoops up a bimch of the bees with a
little tin dipper and dumps them in at the
front of the enti'ance. If the hive in ques-
tion requires two dipperfuls, then two dip-
perfuls of bees it gets; and so on he dis-
tributes bees to every hive that needs them.

As a matter of precaution, every hive
receiving bees like this should have its
queen caged for 24 hours at least, in such
a way that the bees can release her by eat-
ing out the candy or gnawing away the
comb. As a further precaution, after the
bees have been distributed in front of the
various hives, an examination should be
made ui about 25 minutes to see that there
25

is no flghting between the new family and
the old.

By uniting in this way there have been
accomplished two things — strengthening
the colonies that are not quite up to the
standard, and disposing of aU the weak-
lings in the apiary. If the box will not
hold all of them at the fii'st time, it can be
fiUed the second or third time until all
nuclei that are too weak to winter are
cleaned up.

There is stiU one more way of uniting
to prevent bees returning, and this may be
practiced even when bees are flying to the
fields if the weather is not too hot. The
moved hive with its bees is put on top of
another with a single thickness of news-
paper between. By the time the bees above
gnaw a hole thru, some time elapses. The
confinement and the gi'adual uniting of the
bees thru the hole in the paper averts aU
fighting and aU returning of bees to the
old stands, says Dr. Miller. During hot
weather there is danger that the bees in the
upper story may suffocate, in which ease it
is advised to punch a hole thru the paper
with a lead pencil.

rXITIXG XEW SWARMS.

This is so easily done that directions are
hardly needed; in fact, if two swarms
come out at the same time, they are almost
sure to unite, and two such swarms are not
likely to quarrel. One of the queens will
very soon be killed, but the extra one may
be easily found by looking for the baU of
bees that wiU be seen clinging about her,
very soon after the bees have been joined
together. A swarm can, as a rule, be
given, without any trouble, to any swarm
that has come out the day previous ; and if
one will take the trouble to watch them a
little, he may unite any swarm with any
other new swarm, even if it came out a
week or more before. If inclined to fight,
they should be smoked as before explained
to make them be good to the new comers.

UXITIXG BEES IX THE SPEIXG.

As has been pointed out elsewhere, unit-
ing two weak colonies in the spring is
usually unprofitable. Uniting a weak to a
medium colony is quite a different thing,
as will be presently explained. When there

770

UNITING BEES

are two little weak colonies, or nuclei, one
having a queen, it would seem the most
natural thing in the world to put the two
together for additional warmth and to pro-
vide a queen for all the bees; but, un-
fortunately, theory is not here borne out
by facts. One can unite nuclei in the
spring; and while at the very time of
uniting they will seem to make up a fairly
good colony, yet in two or three days there
wdll seem to be just about as few bees as
there were before the uniting took place.
This is because the moved bees go back to
the old stand.

A nucleus from an out-apiary can be
brought home and united with a nucleus at
the home yard, or at any other yard. There
will be no returning of bees then, and the
two clusters will stay together, sharing each
other's heat and enjoying the privilege of
having a queen over all.

THE ALEXANDER PLAN OF UNITING WEAK
COLONIES.

During the year 1905, and again in 1906
and '07, a good deal of interest was mani-
fested thru Gleanings in Bee Culture in the
Alexander plan of uniting a weak colony to
a strong one in the spring. Many of those
who followed the method were very success-
ful. A few, however, failed. To these
latter reference will be made later. The
j^lexander plan of uniting as carefully re-
vised by Mr. Alexander himself is as fol-
lows :

ALEXANDER METHOD OF BUILDING UP W^EAK
COLONIES IN EARLY SPRING.

About six or seven days after taking the
bees from their winter quarters, pick out
and mark all weak colonies, also the strongest
ones, marking an equal number of each ; then
all weak colonies that have a patch of brood
in one comb about as large as your hand.
Set all such on top of a strong colony with a
queen-excluder between, closing up all en-
trance to the weak colony except thru the
excluder. Then there are those that are
very weak that have only a queen, and per-
haps not more than a handful of bees with
no brood. Fix these last named in this way:
Go to the strong colony you wish to set them
over, and get a frame of brood with its ad-
hering bees, being sure not to take theb
queen; then put the queen of the weak colony
on this comb with the strange bees, and
put it into the weak hive; leave them in this
way about half a day; then set them on top
of the strong colony where you got the brood

with a queen-excluder between. Do all this
with very little smoke, and avoid exciting the
strong colony in any way. If a cool day, and
the bees are not flying, I usually leave the
strong colony uncovered, except with the ex-
cluder, for a few hours before setting on the
weak colony. The whole thing should be done
as quietly as possible, so that neither colony
hardly realizes that it has been touched. When
the weak co'ony has been given some b::'ood,
and put on top in this careful and still man-
ner, hardly one queen in a hundred will be
lost, and in about 30 days each hive will be
crowded with bees and maturing brood. Then
when you wish to separate them, set the
strongest colony on a new stand and give it
also some of the bees from the hive that is
left on the old stand, as a few of the working
force will return to the old location, especially
if they are black bees or degenerate Italians.

In every ease that has come to my notice
where this method has been reported a fail-
ure it has been from one of two' causes —
either lack of brood in a weak colony to hold
the queen and her bees in the upper hive, or
smoking the strong colony so that, as soon as
the weak one was set on top, the bees from
below would rush up and sting every on(
above. Therefore avoid using smoke or doing
anything to excite the strong colony.

If done in a careful manner the bees in the
lower hive never seem to realize that any
strangers have been put above them, and they
all work in harmony together.

At the outset mention was made of those
who met with failure in following the
method. As Mr. Alexander says, the difla-
culty doubtless arose from the fact that
they failed to put brood along with the
weak nucleus to hold the queen and her
few bees, or else they did the work so
clumsily that it stirred up both lots of
bees, wdth the result that they came to-
gether before they had the same scent. Mr.
Alexander's injunction is to put the bees
together so carefully that the clusters do
not really unite for some two days, at
which time there is a peaceful union, and
the tw^o queens go on lajdng so as to make
up one rousing colony, w^hich can be
divided, making two strong colonies where
before there would have been onhv^ one,
since the nucleus left to itself would have
died.

Where one desires to proceed with
extreme caution he is advised to put a
wire-cloth screen between the two lots of
bees at the time of uniting, keeping it
there for two or three days, after which its
place is taken by a perforated zinc honey-
board. In this connection it should be said
that the wdre-cloth screen should be

VEILS

771

mounted in a wooden frame about inch
thick.

TVliile this plan of uniting contemplates
performing- the act in early spring, some-
thing can be done at it in the fall. Mr.
Josiah Johnson, in a communication sent
to Gleanings in Bee Culture, tells how he
unites on the Alexander plan in the fall.

Some have had trouble in following the
Alexander plan of building up weak colonies.
I think the trouble in many eases is due to
rousing up the bees and getting them uneasy
before the weak colony is put over the strong
one. Then the two colonies have war for a
while. I always use wire cloth between the
two hives and never have any trouble from
the lower colony going up and killing the bees
in the upper hive. For some time I have win-
tered my weak colonies this way. on the

summer stands. Last winter I had several
weak colonies, and I put them all over strong
oclonies. making an entrance in the back with
my knife thru the handhole of the upper hive.
This should be just large enough to allow two
or three bees to pass out at a time. This is
done on some cloudy day after very cold
weather comes.

Last year I had a weak swarm of bees.
There was just one frame of bees and a
young queen. I put this frame of bees in
with nine frames of honey, and put the
frames in a hive and set it on top of one of
the strongest colonies I had, and in February
they got pretty strong, and I left them on
till April ; and when I set them off I had two
strong colonies. Josiah Johnson.

MUan. lU.

See BuiLDixG rp Coloxies, Sprixg
DwiXDLixG. and Sprixg MAXAGE:yiEXT.

V

VEILS. — The necessity of using face
protection will depend largely upon the
race of bees to be handled. When dealing
with hybrids, Cyprians, or Holy-Lands, a
veil is a necessity. With Italians, Carnio-
lans, or Caucasians it is not so important;
still it is advisable to have one on the hat
ready to puU down. Its use in any case
gives the apiarist a sense of security to
enable hun to work to much better advan-
tage than he would if continually in fear
of every cross bee that chanced to buzz
near his eyes.

The two objections that have been made
against the use of veils are that they ob-
struct the vision more or less, and interfere
with the free circulation of air in hot
weather, thus tending to make the wearer
sweaty and uncomfortable: but these ob-
jections with a good veil are not very
serious. Our best beemen, as a rule, wear
a veil constantly when among the bees, and
it is best to do so.

The very nicest veil is one made entirely
of silk tulle, altho somewhat expensive.
The material is so fuie that a whole veil of
it can be folded to go in a small vest-
pocket. The author carries one of these
constantly during the working season of
the bees, and it is always ready for an
emergency. It neither obstructs the vision

nor prevents the free circulation of air on
hot days. A cheaper one. tlio not so light
nor cool, is made of grenadine with a fac-
ing of silk tulle net sewed in. The gTena-
dine is strong, and the brussels-net facing
obstructs the vision but little if any. The
top of the veil is gathered with a rubber
cord, so that it may be made to fit closely
around the crown of the hat.

There is a special broad-brimmed cloth
hat, costing about 75 cts. each, that is sold
by dealers. These hats are very light, will
fit any head, and can be folded and put in
a coat-pocket. This broad brim is sup-
ported and held out bv means of a steel
hoop, and when the veil is placed over the
hat and properly drawn down it cannot
touch the face or neck, and hence leaves no
possible chance for stings. During hot
days when bees require the most attention
in the apiary, a coat or vest is simply in-
tolerable. In the absence of either one of
these garments the corners of the veil may
be drawn under the suspenders. The foitr
views (next page) show successively this
manner of drawing the veil under the sus-
penders, and its position when in use. The
last view of the series shows how easily it
can be drawn out from under the sus-
penders and raised above the hat while not
in use. A few apiarists work a good part

772

VEILS

m.

Manner of adjusting a bee-veil under the suspenders when there is no elastic cord in the bottom.

of the time with the veil raised. When the
suspender method of holding is used one
can raise or lower and fasten the veil in a
moment's time.

But there are many who prefer a veil
with a rubber cord inserted in the bottom,
fastening the same by means of a large
safety-pin to the clothing. Unlike the other
veils shown with no elastic in the bottom
of the fringe, this veil can be used by a
man or woman, because the safety-pin can
be secured to the clothing of either. But

ends sewed securely to the veil, leaving the
veil fulled on the elastic so that the latter
may be stretched without tearing the veil.
On each end of this elastic is sewed a short
loop of cotton tape thru which are passed
the ends of the long tape. This tape is
then drawn up and crossed at the back, the
ends being passed thru a two or three inch
loop of tape attached to the cotton tape at
the middle lower edge of the back of the
veil, then brought to the front and tied.
This holds the veil securely. See page 774.

in putting this on, care should be taken to
draw the elastic clear down near the bottom
of the waist, securing it with a pin as
shown in the first ilUustration.. ISTo. 2 looks
very nice, but the movement of the arms
will soon push the cord above the shoulders,
leaving it so loose that bees can readily
crawl up. No. 3 is better; and if the elas-
tic is stiff enough very good results will be
secured. But if not, the veil must be drawn
down as shown in the view at the extreme
left, or No. 1.

No. 4 shows a good method of fastening
the veil. A long piece of cotton tape is in-
serted in the bottom edge of the veil ex-
tending clear around the veil except in
front. Across the front, a four-inch length
of %-inch tape elastic is inserted, and the

The Alexander is a headgear that is used
by some of the most extensive beekeepers
in the country. It is a plain wire-cloth
cylinder having a circular gathering of
muslin at the top, and a sort of skirt of the
same material sewn to the bottom edge.
With this outfit one will be required to go
bareheaded or wear a small cap. Much of
the work of the apiary is done during the
hottest weather, and this veil is very cool
because the wire cloth rides on top of the
shoulders, leaving a free circulation of air
over the top of the head. In passing
among trees or shrubbery it does not get
" hooked," nor torn like some of the veils
of fabric. It has the further advantage
that it can be removed in an instant with-
out breaking any fastening, and is quickly

VEILS

773

put on again. The muslin skirt fits loosely
yet fairl}^ snug around the shoulders and
neck. There are many practical beemen
who prefer wire-cloth head-protectors to
anything else. When first used they seem
a little awkward; but the extreme comfort
that one enjoys more than compensates for
its apparent outlandishness.

The one shown in the cut uses a. strip of
wire cloth approximately a foot wide and
a yard long. A yard of muslin completes

Tlie Alexander bee-veil.

the material required. Where one uses a
coat, the skirt of this head protection can
readily be tucked inside ; but even without
coat or vest, the loose folds of the cloth fit
with a fair degree of snugness around the
shoulders and neck.

Some use with much satisfaction a sort
of chopping-bowl or basket inverted. It is
a hat that is worn in India and other hot
countries, and is slowly working its way
into this countiy, particularly in the South.
It is made of palm-leaf, and it is supported
above the head in the manner shown below.
The cut will render further description
unnecessary.

Hopatkong veil and hat.

As light breezes can circulate above and
around the head, it is perhaps the coolest
sun-shade of any herein illustrated and de-
scribed. If one cannot secure one of these,
and would like to get the ventilating feat-
ure, he can take an ordinary palm-leaf hat

several sizes too large. On the inside of
the hat-band sew four or five %-inch corks
that have been cut in halves lengthwise.
These, if spaced at regular distances, will
keep the hat from the head, and permit
ventilation.

As has already been said, one objection
to bee-veils is the obstruction to the eye-
sight. To overcome this, John C. Capehart
of St. Albans, West Virginia, glued a piece
of glass in front of the veil. The difficulty
with this was, that the glass would hardly
ever be in range with the eyes, on account
of its weight, and then it would be covered
with steam from the breath; and, worse

Capehart's glass-front veil.

than all, it would get broken. The brussels
net is open to none of these objections, and
is almost as transparent as glass.

Walter S. Ponder made an improve-
ment on this veil by substituting celluloid
film such as is used for photographic film
negatives. While this overcomes the objec-
tion of weight it does not prevent the
moisture of the breath from accumulating
on it. Moreover, it is very inflammable —
so much so that if a hot spark from a
smoker should alight upon it, the face
might be seriously burned. So far nothing
has been found better than nor as good as
silk tulle.

THE GLOBE BEE-VEIL.

This is a veil that has had a very large
sale, and is preferred by a great number,
because it is large enough to extend down
over an ordinary hat or cap; and it is so
constructed that it cannot get against one's
face at any point. Sometimes an ordinary
veil will touch one's nose or the back of

774

VEILS

his neck. At these points a bee can insert
its sting- thru the meshes of the veil. The
globe veil is made so as to fold up com-

The Globe Bee-Veil.

pactly so that it can be carried in the
pocket. With cross bees to handle, this is
by all odds the best veil in the lot.

The Holmes veil is simply a straw hat
with a broad rim, the veil being made of
mosquito-bar, and the facing of brussels
net. A strip of cloth lines the lower edge
of the veil, and is made just large enough
to fit snugly around the shoulders. A

couple of cloth straps hitched to buttons
pass under the arm-pits, and button on in
front. While this arrangement is good, the
rubber cord and safety-pin is better.

HOW TO GET ALONG V^ITHOUT A VEIL.

Occasionally one meets a person who
says he does not need any bee-veil and
never uses any in his bee work. Such a
person is to be pitied for his shortsighted-
ness rather than admired for his temerity.
He will at times spend enough time smash-
ing bees that sting him in the face to make
up many times over for the slight incon-
venience of the veil. It is foolhardy and
totally unnecessary to run the risk of a bad

sting around the eyes, nose, mouth, or ears,
and a good beekeeper is wise enough to
wear a veil of some sort or have one on his
hat ready to pull down.

Plan of securing veil as originally devised by W. Z.
Hutchinson. See description p. 772.

Occasionally there will be times when one
will have to do some work with the bees
without a veil. Perhaps it has been for-
gotten, or perhaps a visitor more suscepti-
ble to stings has to have it. In such case?

Woodman's advanced bee-veil.

as these, one should make sure that his
smoker is in excellent working order, with
plenty of fuel. The smoker should be held
between the knees when not in use so as to

VEILS

775

be ready for instant service over the
frames. If the day is at all chilly smoke
should be blown down over the frames
quite frequently. By proceeding very cau-
tiously, using smoke every now and then,
one can get along without a veil, but he
wastes more time and uses an unnecessary
amount of smoke.

The author, when the bee season is on,
makes it a practice to carry one of those
light brussels net veils in his hip pocket
all the time. With gentle Italians on warm
days one can have his veil thrown back
over his hat; but he should always have it
ready so he can draw it down instantly in
ease of emergency. This is especially nec-
essary where one has to wear glasses. An
angry bee will sometimes get between the
lenses and the eyes and the owner in order
to save himself from a sting will some-
times break his glasses.

BEE DRESS OR CLOTHING FOR BEEKEEPERS.

Under the head of Gloves, are described
some long-sleeved gloves or gauntlets that
reach away up above the elbows. Many
beekeepers use these to keep bees from get-

Tlie Coggshall veil when not in use, but ready for
emergency.

ting up the sleeves, and at the same time to
protect the wrists, especially the inside
fleshy portions of them where they are
very sensitive. Others carry this same
principle further, combining the gloves

The Coggshall bee-veil and suit.

and headgear all in one. The accompany-
ing illustrations show the outfit worn by
David Coggshall of West Groton, N. Y.
The lower part of the blouse is taken up
by a string hemmed in at the lower edge,
which is drawn and tied. When not de-
sired for use, the veil is pulled down from
the hat. Many other beekeepers have made
veils very similar to this.

As for trousers, one can get a pair of
overalls at any clothing-store, and it is

776

VEILS

Farmerette beekeepers who, in 1918, reared queens and extracted for M. H. Mendleson of Ventura, Calif.
He says they were the best help he ever had.

suggested that he get
outfits such as are used
by machinists and en-
gineers. These have
numerous handy pock-
ets, large and small, in
which various tools may
be placed.

Bicycle pants-guards
can be used to very
good advantage during
extracting and all other
times, when one is
shaking or brushing
bees off combs. The
bottoms of the trousers
should be neatly folded
around the ankles, and the guards slipped
on to hold the folds in place.

FARMERETTE BEE-SUITS.

In many parts of the West, as well as in
some parts of the East, bee-women are
wearing regular farmerette suits, either

Peggy Janes " or one-piece overalls gath-
ered at the shoe-tops, such as were intro-
duced during the period of the Great War.
Several of these styles are worn, and most
of them are neat, safe, and sane. They
are now getting to be quite common.

Many women wear overalls or bloomers
when working in the apiary. If desired,

a full but short
the overalls.

apron may be worn over
or a short skirt over the

Miss Mary Culver of Calexico, Calif., in her farmer-
ette bee-suit. Her father is an extensive beekeeper.

VENTILATION

bloomers. High-top shoes will also add to
cue's feeling of security.

VENTILATION.— Bees that are out-
doors in their regular hives generally re-
ceive at the entrance all the ventilation
they requii^e. There should be, except in
very hot weather, no other openings. Oc-
casionally hives are so poorly made that
they wiU have gaping cracks; but these,
unless too large, will be closed up with bee
glue — usually along toward fall; and some
strains of bees, notably the Caucasians,
wiU close them up early in the season. In-
deed, they will sometimes obstruct the en-
trance by means of little chunks of propo-
lis.

In olden times it was customary for the
patent-right men to furnish their patrons
with hives having all kinds of ventilating
holes and little trapdoors; but the modern
hive, as a rule, has no openings of any
sort except at the entrance, which is con-
tracted or enlarged according to the season.
In hot weather it will be opened to its
maximum, and in cool weather it will be
reduced to one-fourth, or even less, of its
largest capacity. See Entrances to Hr-es
and WixTERiXG.

During extremely hot weather, especially
during swarming tune, it is sometimes nec-
essary to provide upward ventilation in
addition to that provided at the entrance.
The cover may be lifted up in such a way.
as to leave a crack at the back end. This
vvill allow a current of air to circulate from
the top clear down thru the hive. But
sometimes loosening the cover is insuffi-
cient. It is, therefore, necessary to provide
ventilation for one or more supers that
may be on the hive at the time. In that
case, the second super is shoved forward
on the lower one — just enough to leave a
crack, front and rear. If that is not
enough, the third super is staggered back
so as to be in a vertical line over the bot-
tom super ; and in rare cases it may be nec-
essary to go even further by tipping the
cover up in addition. It is much better to
provide ventilation in this way for extreme-
ly hot weather than to. bore holes in the
sides or ends of the hives or supers. The
amount of ventilation that may be required
thru the top of the hive by staggering the
supers back and forth will depend on how
hot the weather may be at the time, and

wJiether the hive in question is shielded
from the sun. So long as the bees cluster
out in front, it is an indication that there
is lack of ventilation. Sometimes a great
cluster of bees will be clear over a large
entrance, practically closing it up except
what little air can filter thru the mass of
bees. In cases like this, it is advisable to
lift the hive up on four blocks as shown
under the subject of SwAEiriXG_, subhead,
" Providing Abundant Ventilation.'' If
this does not draw the bees into the hive,
additional ventilation should be provided
at the top of the super or supers, in the
manner already explained. But one should
be careful not to overdo this, because comb-
building cannot progress very satisfactori-
ly in supers when chilling blasts go back
down over the bees, and this is liable to
occur at night, even after a hot day.

Under Stvaeaiixg it has been shown
that ventilation and swarming often stand
in the ratio to each other of cause and
effect; that is to say, not enough ventila-
tion overheats the brood, causes the bees to
cluster in front, induces loafing, cell-build-
ing, and finalh^ swarming. Time and time
again this loafing on the part of a big
bunch of bees in front has been stopped
by providing ventilation. When a colony
in the height of the season can earn at
least from five to ten dollars, it is folly to
compel the poor bees to loaf and cut down
their earning capacity simply because of a
lack of means to keep their hive cool
enough so that they can go inside and go to
work.

\T]NTrLATION DURING THE VTIXTER.

Under Wintering^ also under En-
trances;, it is explained that bees out-
doors on their summer stands do not re-
quii'e nearly the amount of ventilation that
is needed during the summer. Yet even in
cold weather a strong colony should have a
larger entrance than a weak one. See En-
trances to Hives.

When bees are wintered in a cellar it is
highly important that the atmosphere be
dry, and that there be means provided for
supplying with fresh air the room where
the bees are kept. Insufficient ventilation
causes uneasiness; uneasiness induces over-
eating, and overeating brings on dysentery.
(See Dysentery.) It is important, there-
fore, that the cellar have plent}* of ventila-

778

VENTILATION

tioii during the entire period of confine-
ment, and more air toward spring than late
in the fall.

Authorities disagree somewhat as to the
size of entrance that bees require while in
the cellar; but the author's experience in-
dicates that the same size of entrance that
is used during moderate summer weather is
better than a large one. When we gave a
large amount of bottom ventilation in the
cellar we had some severe winter losses, and
that was the experience of the late W. Z.
Hutchinson. Dr. C. C. Miller favors an
entrance two inches deep by the width of
the hive; but he maintains a relatively
high temperature in his cellar.

In severely cold weather it is highly im-
portant to see that the entrances of the
hives outdoors are not closed up with wet
snow nor ice. A dry snow does no harm.
A closed entrance closed tightly is almost
sure to be fatal to the colony sooner or
later if there is no upward ventilation. It
sometimes happens that dead bees clog
up the entrance, and the colony dies sim-
ply because a few of its dead shut off its
means of ventilation.

SMOTHERING BEES BY CLOSING THE
ENTRANCE.

Altho bees manage to get along with
even a very small entrance, one should be
on the guard against closing it entirely,
in warm weather, even for only a few
minutes. Many are the reports we get
almost every season, of bees destroyed by
simply closing their entrance while under-
taking to stop swarming for a few minutes,
until some other colony can receive atten-
tion. See Swarming and Entrances.

When bees have the swarming fever, as
a general thing they are gorged with
honey and in a feverish state. They are
like a man who has been taking violent
exercise after a hearty meal, and require
more than an ordinary amount of air.
Their breathing-tubes are in different parts
of the body, under the wings and on each
side of the abdomen (see Anatomy of the
Bee) ; hence as soon as the entrance is
closed, and they crowd about it, the heat
of so many becomes suffocating in a very
few minutes; the honey is involuntarily
discharged, wetting themselves and their
companions, thus most effectually closing
their breathing-tubes in a way that causes

death to ensue very quickly. Heavy swarms
have been known to be killed in the short
space of fifteen minutes, when the hive was
thus closed. The heat generated by the
smothering mass often becomes great
enough to melt down the combs, envelop-
ing bees, brood, honey, and all, in a mass
almost, scalding hot. Bees are sometimes
smothered in this way, in extremely hot
weather, even when the hives have very
large openings covered with wire cloth. In
fact, bees shipped by railroad, in July and
August, have been known to be smothered,
when the whole top of the hive was cov-
ered w4th wire cloth.

HOW BEES DO THEIR OWN VENTILATING.

If one wdll watch a colony of bees during
a warm day, he will see rows of bees stand-
ing around the entrance, and far inside of
the hive, with their heads pointing one
way, all making their wings go in a pecul-
iar manner, much as they do in flying ; but
instead of propelling their bodies along,
they propel the air behind them, and a
pretty strong " blow " they get up too, as
may be felt by holding the hand near them.
If the air is very hot and close inside the
hive, so that there is danger of the combs
melting down, they manage to send cool-
ing currents clear to the furthest parts of
the hive.

At the end of a hot day when the bees
have been working heavily in the fields, it
is very interesting to try the following ex-
periment: Hold the smoker, with a little
smoke issuing from the nozzle, near one
side of the entrance and then at the other
side. It will be noticed that there is a
strong draft of air on one side of the en-
trance into the hive, and an equally strong
blast of air on the other side of the en-
trance out of the hive. The direction of
the air can be easily determined by observ-
ing whether the smoke is sucked in or
blown out.

Sometimes the air will be sucked in on
both sides of the entrance, and blown out
from the center. At other times the re-
verse wdll'be the case.

If one does not happen to have a smoker
he can light a common match, when he will
notice that the flame will be sucked in on
one side and blown away on the other.
The draft, whether or.t or in, is so strong
that it will blow the match out.

VINEGAR

779

The most prosperous colony we ever
owned was one that was so completely
enveloped in chaif that during frosty
nights in March they sent a stream of
warm air out of their hive strong enough
to melt the frost about one side of the
entrance. Of course a stream of fresh air
went in at the opposite side as fast as the
warm air went out.

In the fall of 1916 there were a few
liives located near some big lumber piles
that were burned down. So intense was
the heat that one of the hives took fire,
with the result that it burned thru on one
side, and charred the boards under the
metal cover; and yet, remarkable to re-
late, the bees were all right after the fij-e.
It is presumed that some firemen, seeing
the plight of the bees, threw on a pail of
water; but how did the bees keep the combs
from melting down in the mean time?
There was no other way that they could
do it than b}^ their scheme of ventilation.
Fortunately the entrance was large and
wide open, so that they were able to venti-
late the hive fully; also the weather out-
side was cold. Now, combs sometimes melt
down when the weather is very sultry and
hot during the summer when the bees are
out in the hot sun ; but there is no cold air,
as there was that night in front of the
hive and away from the direct radiation
of heat from the burning lumber. The
photograph that is reproduced on page
797 shows that one side of the hive was
burned clear thru ; yet, except for the out-
side comb, no damage was done either to
the bees or to the other combs.

For further particulars on the subject
of ventilation, see Extraxces^ Cohb
HoxEY. SwARMix"G;, and Wixterixg.

VINEGAR.— This is one of the legiti-
mate products of honey; and when prop-
erly made from honey it has a quality quite
superior to any other vinegar, especially
for making pickles. It will not lose its
strength like most other vinegars ; and one
can have light or dark vinegar b}' taking
light or dark honey — at least so says R. R.
Murphy of Fulton, 111., who has made and
sold large quantities of honey vinegar.

G. W. Gates of Bartlett, Tenn., says:
" We have used no other vinegar for two
years; and nearly every one who tastes

our pickles asks my wife for her recipe for
making them. When told that we use noth-
ing but honey vinegar, they are surprised."

N. E. France of Platteville, Wis., asked
the wife of one of the merchants why she
always bought his vinegar: and her reply
was, that the stuff from the store always
ate up her j^iekles: but that, when she
used honey vniegar. her pickles kept, and
had a beautiful fine flavor.

Notwithstanding the fact that vinegar
from honey is the finest in the vrorld, the
very low price of the ordinary product
from cider makes it impossible to get a
very high price for honey vinegar. The
length of tin.e it takes to make it, and the
quantity of honey required, would make
the vinegar too high-priced to compete with
the other kinds on the market. But every
beekeeper has some poorer grades of honey,
some from broken combs, washings from
honey-barrels, honey-cans, etc., that will be
practically wasted unless made into vnie-
gar. Mr. France always used the wash-
ings of his honey-barrels; and this sweet-
ened water he converted into vinegar.
When one can utilize honey that would
practically all go to waste, and convert
it into cash, he is just that much ahead.

HOXEY VIXEGAR. HOW TO MAKE.

The honey-water and honey-washings
should be put into a barrel with the top
head taken out. To determine whether the
water is sweet enough, a fresh egg should
be dropped in. If the egg will just float
so as to leave a spot above the liquid,
about as big as a ten-cent piece, then it is
all right," according to N. E. France.
Another beekeeper, G. D. Black of Bran-
don, la., uses an ordinary hydrometer,
which he says he bought for 35 cents.
When this sinks into the liquid so the scale
registers at 11, it is of the right consistency.
The top of the barrel is covered with
cheesecloth, and the whole allowed to stand
in a warm place where it can work and
sour. In winter it should be put into the
cellar. It will take at least from one to
two years to make good vinegar. But the
jnocess can be greath* hurried by putting
in " mother " from another vinegar barrel.

VIRGIN QUEENS.— See Queexs.

w

WATER FOR BEES.— Like all other
live stock, bees need water. The amount
required depends largely on how much
brood-rearing is going on, and whether
nectar is coming in to a considerable extent
from the fields. Brood requires a great
deal of water as well as pollen and honey.
On the other hand, when new honey is
coming in but little water is needed.

About the time the bees are breeding
heavily they will be found around watering
places, ponds, creeks, and rivers, especially
during a dearth of nectar. They seem to
prefer to get water where they can take a
big drink without any
danger of being sub-
merged. Sometimes
when creeks, ponds, and
rivers are at some dis-
tance from the apiary
bees may be somewhat
of a nuisance around
nearby watering troughs
and outside pumps.
Hence it is important
for the beekeeper to
have a watering font in
the beeyard itself. A
tub of water with chips
or corncobs floating on
the surface, a Mason
jar filled with water inverted over a small
plate, or, better, a crock placed over a
dinner plate, will furnish bees water on
the atmospheric principle all day or sev-
eral days, in fact. A better arrangement
is a wooden block or board with transverse
saw-cuts as shown in the illustration. A
large glass jar filled with water and inverted
over one of these boards will keep the saw-
cuts filled with water, where the bees can
get all they require without even wetting
their feet. If one of these is furnished in
the apiary the bees will not be likely to
bother the neighbors. A closed vessel con-
taining water is much better than a tub or
pan of water, as the water cannot become
stale and bad. Sometimes when one of these

special fonts is first set out the bees will
pay no attention to it, especially after they
have been in the habit of visiting the
neighbors' pumps and watering troughs.
They can, as a rule, be started by sweeten-
ing the water or by adding a little salt,
for bees are fond of salt also. When bees
are compelled to go a distance for water
they wear themselves out unnecessarily,
and, during chilly weather in the spring,
many never get back.

The statement was made above that when
bees are in the fields, bringing in new
honey, they require less water than at
times when no honey is coming in. It is
probable that the excess of water removed
during the ripening process, as explained
under Ventilation, supplies the bees with
the proper amount of moisture.

Bees also need some water during mid-
winter; but usually the moisture produced
hy condensation from the breathing of the
bees will be sufficient. It was once argued
that they should be supplied with water
while in the cellar. If a wet sponge is
placed on a cluster they will take up the
water quite rapidly. This would seem to
prove that they should have an artificial
supply; but general practice has shown
that no special provision need be made.
It would be impracticable to give bees
water when wintered outdoors; and it
would hardly be necessary, because if one
will examine down into a brood-nest
during winter he will see considerable
moisture around the inside of the hive
and on the under side of the cover.

In taking carloads of bees from south
to north and from north to south, it will
be found impracticable to make these long
trips w^ithout a barrel of water in the car.
If the weather is hot and sultry, bees, on
account of their excitement, often require
a large amount of water. This water must
be supplied at intervals of every few hours
or many bees will die. In some shipments
of bees from south to north during hot or
warm weather, a carload of bees has been

WAX

781

known to take up seven or eight barrels
of water. The water allays thirst and
cools the cluster by evaporation.

While bees seem to gather water at .
times, they also appear to have a delicate
apparatus of some sort for extracting
water from nectar, and for discharging it
or a part of it in flight. When they are
fed outdoors with sweetened water, as de-
scribed under Outdoor Feedixg^ they will
immediately, on taking flight, discharge a
fine spray of water. If one will station
himself between the feeders and the sun-
light he will be able to perceive these bees,
on rising from the feeder, discharging this
thin fine spray.

That it is pure water and not sugar can
be proven by tasting it. That bees also
discharge water when gathering thin nec-
tar from the fields was proved by A. I.
Root many years ago. When bees are
gathering a large quantity of nectar from
a single blossom they will, on rising from
the plant, discharge the excess in the foi-m
of a thin spray. Enough of this spray fell
on some dinner plates to be distinctly per-
ceptible, but the taste showed nothing but
water.

WAX. — This is a term that is applied to
a large class of substances very much re-
sembling one another in external charac-
teristics, but quite unlike chemically. The
wax of commerce may be di^-ided into four
general groups: Beeswax, familiar to all;
mineral wax, or by-products from petro-
leum; wax from plants, and wax from in-
sects other than bees. But the fii'st two
are by far the most important commercial-
ly in this country. Of the mineral waxes
the most common are paraffin and ceresin.
Beeswax, the most valuable, has a specific
gra^dty of between .960 and .972, and
melting-point of between 143 and 145
degrees F. The mineral waxes, vary so
much in hardness, melting-point, and spe-
cific gravity, that it would be useless to
name exact figures. As a rule, however,
the fusing-point of paraffin is much below
that of beeswax, while that of ceresin may
be either above or below, or practically the
same. In general the specific gravity of
both commercial paraffin and ceresin is be-
low that of beeswax; which fact renders
it an eas3' matter to detect adulteration of
beeswax with either paraffin or ceresin. by

a method that wiU be explained further on,
under the subhead, *' How to Detect Adul-
terated Wax.'"

There are also known to commerce Jap-
anese wax and China wax, both of which
may or may not be the product of insects
or plants. As they are so much more ex-
pensive than either paraffin or ceresin, lit-
tle fear need be entertained of their use
as adulterants of beeswax.

BEESWAX.

For the bees and their keeper, no prod-
uct has ever been discovered that can take
the place of that which the bees themselves
fui'nish. Real beeswax retains ductility
and tenacity under greater ranges of tem-
perature than any mineral, plant, or insect
wax. Combs made from foundation con-
taining 25 to 50 per cent of adulteration
of paraffin or ceresin are very liable to
melt do^vn in the hive in hot weather.
Paraffin is ductile enough to make beauti-
ful foundation, but does not stand the heat
of the hive. Ceresin, on the other hand,
while more closely resembling genuine
beeswax in point of specific gravity and
fusibility, is too tough and brittle, under
some conditions, for bees to work. Work
it? Yes, they iciU. and construct combs;
and in Germany considerable ceresin
foundation has been and perhaps is being
sold; but experience shows that it is poor
economy, and that it will lead the bee-
keeper or the poor bees to grief sooner or
later. Practically, then, genuine beeswax
is the only product that ought to go into
foundation; and it is the only article that
foundation-makers in this country use.

BEESWAX IX THE AETS.

Under the action of the United States
pure-food law that went in effect June 30,
1906, beeswax has a much larger use. The
law will have no effect one way or the
other on the use of paraffin, ceresin, and
the like in any compound or mixture that
does not belong eithei' to the food or drug
classes. Electrotypers can use a substitute
for taking impressions, altho the great
majority prefer pure beeswax, even at a
higher price. IbTatural-wood finishers can
still use paraffin and ceresin : but most of
them assert that there is nothing to com-

782

WAX

pare for that purpose with pure beeswax.
The first mentioned gives a greasy, smeary
finish, while the product from the hive
yields a highly polished surface — one that
stands Avear as nothing else will; a finish
cheaper than hard oil — not the price by
the gallon, but cheaper to apply.

A very satisfactory floor finish can be
made by melting a pound of beeswax, and
while it is cooling, stirring into it some
turpentine. An exact proportion of the
two ingredients is not necessary — in fact
some workmen prefer the paste thick, oth-
ers want it thin. When cool, if the mix-
ture is too thick it is a simple matter to
thin it by working in more turpentine.

The Roman Catholic Church uses large
quantities of beeswax in the form of can-
dles. The Church does not tolerate par-
affin, ceresin, nor any of the mineral waxes,
all of which give off an offensive greasy
odor while burning, whereas candles made
of beeswax leave a delightful perfume.
Moreover, the burning of mineral wax
causes a deposit that injures pictures, while
beeswax mellows and preserves them.

Certain grades of blacking, harness oils,
and lubricants require pure beeswax in
their manufacture. A blacking containing
beeswax will withstand more dampness
than that made of any other substance.

The electrical-supply business is a con-
sumer of our product. The windings of
the wire are soaked in ~ paraffin or bees-
wax— preferably the latter, because it
seems less affected by extremes of heat and
by moisture. Pattern-makers also use
beeswax. The profession of dentistry con-
sumes large quantities of pure wax every
year to take impressions in the mouth,
Last, but not least, the beekeeper is a large
consumer as well as a producer of wax.

In all the arts, paraffin, ceresin, and cer-
tain other mineral waxes can be used;
none of them have all the desirable quali-
ties furnished by the product from the
hive.

HOW THE BEES " MAKE WAX.

If the bees are watched closely during
the height of the honey harvest, or if at
other times a colony of bees is fed heavily
on sugar syrup for three days during warm
weather, there will be found toAvard the

end of the second or the third day little
pearly discs of wax somewhat resembling
fish scales protruding from between the
rings on the under side of the body of the
bee. These when examined with a magni-
fier reveal little wax scales of rare beauty.
Sometimes these scales come so fast that
they fall on the bottom-board and may be
scraped up in considerable quantities,
seeming for some reason not to have been
wanted. During the season for the natural
secretion of wax where a colony has plenty
of room, wax scales are seldom wasted in
this way. At swarming time there seem
to be an unusual number of bees provided
with wax scales, for when the bees remain
clustered on a limb for only a few minutes
bits of wax are attached as if they were
going to start combs.

The way the bees remove these wax
scales from their bodies and construct them
into comb is not so easily seen. There
were many wild guesses as to how this was
done. The so-called " wax-pinchers " * on
the hind legs were supposed to play an
important part. The matter was definitely
cleared up by Sladen and Casteel. In
circular No. 161 Dr. D. B. Casteel of the
Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C,
made the whole process plain.

Briefly stated, it is this: The wax scales
are scraped off by one of the large joints,
or plantse, of one hind leg, the spines of
the planta piercing or catching into the
scale; then the leg, by a peculiar
maneuvering, is moved up to where the
fore legs may grasp the scale. At this
point of proceedings the scale is manipu-
lated or masticated in the mandibles, when
it is applied to the comb. During the
process, the bee stands on three legs (the
two middle legs on either side, and one
hind leg not in action), while the other
hind leg and the two fore legs, in connec-
tion with the mandibles, perform the
manipulation. Casteel says that the so-
called " wax-pinchers " in the hind legs
have nothing to do with the manipulation
of wax, but are designed for another pur-
pose, and that each individual bee removes
its own wax scale.

It has been popularly supposed that the
bees remove the scales from each other;

* The real purpose of these is explained under Pol-
I;BNj subhead " Behavior of Bees in Collecting- Pollen."

WAX

783

but Casteel shows that this is not the ease.
The scales are sometimes found scattered
thruout the hive and on the bottom-board
as already stated. In some instances they
show the marks of the spines of the planta
of the hind legs. In others they were
probably dropped accidentally by the bees
in that wonderful sleight-of-hand perform-
ance by which they transfer the scale from
one portion of the body to the other. In
still other cases the scales show no mark-
ings whatever, and the presumption is that
they simp]y fell off the bees when they
reached a certain stage of development.

Dr. Casteel also confirms the observa-
tion of Dreyling, that there are certain
ages and certain seasons when the bees
will develop these wax scales more than at
others. From this it would appear that
there are times when the bees cannot con-
struct combs to any great extent, even tho
they are liberally fed. In a practical way
it has been found that sometimes even
when the bees are fed they will not build
combs; and the probabilities are that they
simply can not, because the colony is made
up of bees too young, too old, or both.
Usually the condition of a honey flow can
be supplied artificially by feeding.

WAX-BENDERING.

SOLAR WAX-EXTRACTORS.

It is said the sun wax-extractor was
originated in California about the year
1862. At that time it was used for ex-
tracting honej' from the combs. The honey-
extractor of today being then unknown,
it is related that the early Calif ornians
extracted their honey largely by means of
the sun's heat. They simply placed their
cards of comb in large trays covered with
glass, where old Sol, by the mere beaming
of his countenance, did the work. As the
combs melted, the honey and wax ran to-
gether into a receptacle. In the evening
the wax, by reason of its lighter weight,
floated on the surface of the honey, and
hardened. The Californians thus practi-
cally accomplished two objects at one and
the same operation — extracting both honey
and wax — the latter already in marketable
shape. As to the quality of the honey so
separated from the combs, it is much bet-
ter than one would suppose, but inferior
to the ordinary extracted. In later years

the use of the solar extractor has been re-
stricted to the melting of wax.

To a casual observer it seems almost
incredible that wax can be melted by the

Doolittle solar \Yax-extractor.

aid of the sun. It is well known to the
beekeeper that little scraps of wax in
summer weather will melt on a hive-cover
exposed to the direct rays of the sun. If
a shallow box is covered with a sheet of
glass, and a piece of comb is placed there-
in, it will utilize a much larger percentage
of heat. Still further, by collecting more
rays of the sun, and casting them into the
box by means of a reflector (a sheet of tin,
for example), a correspondingly greater
increase of temperature may be expected.
The reflector, however, is unnecessary, as
sufficient heat is obtained without it.

THE DOOLITTLE SOLAR WAX-EXTRACTOR.

The general design of this machine is
after a pattern made and used by the
well-known beekeeper Gr. M. Doolittle. The
only objection to it is that it is rather
small, but just the right size to take pieces
of burr-comb and other bits of wax that
accumulate in the eveiyday working of
the apiary. These accumulations can be
thrown into the machine whenever one
happens to pass by it; and instead of
having a lot of little scraps scattered here
and there thru the apiary, to be melted
up at some future time, they may be con-
verted at once into a marketable product.

These small machines are not suitable
for melting up combs. For that, something
as large as the Boardman should be used.

784

WAX

THE BOARDMAN SOLAR WAX-EXTRACTOR.

This is built very much on the same gen-
eral plan as the one just described, but is
larger. The rockers, or runners, afford
facility for transportation, and also for
tilting the machine at the proper angle to
the sun. A common greenhouse sash may
be used; but a large glass, say 30 x 60, is
better for the reason that the sash cuts off
a good deal of the sun's rays, making
shade-lines along which the wax fails to

Fig. 1. — Boardman solar wax-extractor.

melt. The size of glass that one is able to
buy will, of course, regulate the size of the
extractor;* the depth of the box or tray
may be anywhere from 6 to 8 inches, the
bottom being made of cheap lumber. It
should be lined with commmon black sheet
iron. Tin should not be used, because it
reflects back too much of the sun's light.
The whole machine should be painted
black; and the glass, while the machine
is in use, kept scrupulously clean.

SOLAR WAX-EXTRACTORS NOT SUITABLE FOR
OLD COMBS.

Solar wax-extractors have their use to
handle new combs, particles of fresh wax,
pieces of burr-combs, and the like, and can
be used to clarify and bleach to a certain

* Three pieces 20 x 30 will answer in an emergency.

extent wax already caked, but are not
adapted to the handling of old black combs
that have several generations of cocoons in
them. Large sun extractors like the Board-
man will get the bulk of the wax out of
such combs, but they do not get all of it.
If sun heat is used at all for melting, the
refuse should be further treated.

RENDERING WAX PROM OLD COMBS.

For new combs the problem of rendering
wax is a comparatively simple one, since
the operation consists simply in melting
them in hot water and dipping the wax off
the top. This is true also of cappings
where the total amount of refuse or im-
purities is so small that there is practically
no difficulty in getting all the wax. Here
a solar wax-extractor is satisfactory, altho
not to be depended upon for speed nor
great capacity unless very large, which
would be expensive.

When old comb is to be rendered, on the
other hand, the problem becomes much
more difficult, as the many layers of
cocoons found in the cells used for brood-

FiG. 2. — A very crude and wasteful method of
rendering.

rearing confine the wax and make it hard
to remove. It can be readily seen that, if
old comb is simply melted in hot water or
steam, these cocoons will become saturated
with wax, making the loss very great. The
following discussion, therefore, will have
to do especially with the difficulties en-
countered in rendering wax from old
combs.

There are many different methods prac-
ticed by beekeepers all over the world to
obtain the wax from old brood-combs; and
it is needless to say that, in many of them,
the loss i$ considetable. One of the crud-

WAX

785

est methods is to throw the combs into a
large iron kettle of water and then build a
fire and boil the contents for several hours,
skimming the wax oft the top of the water
meanwhile. More comb is added from
time to time, and the process is continued
perhaps all day. Finally a piece of wire
screen is weighted down on the refuse to
keep it out of the way and facilitate dip-
ping the wax. Careful experiments have
shown that this method wastes from 25 to
40 per cent of the total amount of wax,

Fig. 3. — A popular but wasteful and slow method of
obtaining wax.

while a great deal of time is required to
clean and refine what little wax is secured.

Another plan which has been advocated
to some extent is that shown in Fig. 2. A
sack of comb is held under the surface of
the water, and agitated or punched with a
stick for a long time until much of the
wax is released and floats to the surface,
where it may be dipped off. This method
results in somewhat cleaner wax ; but there
is apt to be waste nearly equal to that in
the plan before mentioned.

There is another method that is used
more, perhaps, than the two which have
just been described. It is a somewhat bet-
ter plan, for the amount of waste is not so
great. It is shown in Fig. 3. In order to
get the best results the weights should be
so arranged that they can be lifted up a
few inches in order to give the refuse in
the sack a chance to become saturated again
with hot water. The weights should then
be lowered, and this process kept up for
several hours, the water meanwhile boiling
vigorously. The wax should be dipped off
almost as fast as it rises to the surface.

In 1904 T. J. Pennick of Williston,
Tenn., suggested the use of centrifugal
force applied to hot slumgum just taken
out of boiling water. It was his opinion

that the free wax, when hot, would by this
means readily separate from the solid mat-
ter in a very short time. Extensive experi-
ments have developed the fact that there
would be a great deal of wax which would
not escape from the refuse, no matter how
fast it might be whirled in an extractor,
showing that even great centrifugal force
could not separate the wax from the refuse.
Wax nearest the outside might be thi^own
out; but that nearest the center would be
held back and not escape.

A. C. Miller of Providence, R. I., some
time ago devised an agitator and applied
it to the rendering of wax. He claimed
it released all the wax and lots of dirt and
coloring matter. The old combs in such
an agitator are thoroly stirred and rubbed
under hot water so that the wax is lib-
erated, and rises to the surface, where it is
drawn off thru a spout. As will be seen,
this is somewhat similar to the plan shown
in Fig. 2, before mentioned, altho it would
be of course a great improvement on that
very crude method.

From experiments and from reports re-
ceived from hundreds of beekeepers, it
would seem as tho the wax-press were by
all means the most satisfactory wax-
extractor yet devised. It is doubtful
whether anything but pressure combined
with heat can remove all of the wax. In

Fici. 4. — An unhandy and unsatisfactory plan.

saying this, we realize that there will prob-
ably never be a wax-extractor of any kind
that will economically remove the last
particle of wax; but if the amount of
waste can be reduced to less than one per
cent, the loss is an item that can be neg-
lected.

786

WAX

Before entering the discussion of wax-
presses it may be well to add a word of
caution to beekeepers who are sure that
the particular method they are using
enables them to obtain all the wax or
practically all. If the refuse, when they
are done, has not been put thru a well-
constructed press there will be no way of
determining the amount of waste, for it
might contain as much as 20 per cent of
wax and still look perfectly clean and
show no traces of it when examined. On
a small scale it is possible to get some idea
of the amount of wax left in refuse by the
following very simple plan :

Thoroly heat in boiling water the ref us(;
to be tested, then allow it to cool slightly;
seize a large handful, and squeeze it as
hard as possible in the fingers. If fine

quite an advantage. The screw may then
be lowered, and this hot water forced out
of the refuse, carrying with it more of the
wax. This operation must be repeated as
often as found necessary by experience.
It is thus seen that there is no disagree-
able handling of the refuse until all the
wax is out. Furthermore, the work, if
necessary, may be confined to the one tank.

Orel L. Hershiser of Buffalo, N. Y.,
devised the hot-water press shown in Fig.
5. The capacity of this is large, so that it
is possible to obtain as much as 75 pounds
of wax in one day over a common stove.
One great objection to hot- water presses
heretofore has been their relatively small
capacity of wax per day. Mr. Hershiser,
by making the press very large, overcomes
this difficulty.

lines of wax appear in the creases between
the fingers a good deal of wax is left —
perhaps from five to ten per cent or more,
depending upon the amount of wax shown.
The hand will not be burned in the very
short time necessary to make this test.
But, as before stated — the most conclusive
method of determining the waste is to run
the refuse thru a well-constructed press.

HOT- WATER V^ AX PRESSES.

In these presses the pressure may be
continued without the least danger of chill-
ing the combs. This method has also a
decided advantage in that the screw can
be raised after having been turned down,
and the " cheese " allowed to become sat-
urated again with boiling water. This is

The quality of wax from hot-water
presses is usually not very good, because
of the long-continued high temperature.
In the Hershiser press more hot water is
introduced at short intervals into the lower
part, causing the melted wax to overflow
thru the outlet at the top. In this way the
wax is not left for any great length of time
on the boiling water, so that the color is
not darkened.

Perhaps one objection to hot- water
presses is the cost of the outfit; but for
extensive beekeepers they are the most
practical, as somewhat cleaner work can
be done, owing to the long-continued inter-
mittent pressure on the refuse surrounded
by hot water. In other words, old combs
I'endered in a hot-water press may be
pressed as many as fifteen or twenty times,

WAX

787

so that it is possible to reduce the final loss
to only a fraction of one per cent.

If one wishes to try the hot-water
method by using an outfit constructed at
home he can follow the plan shown in
Fig". 6. An ordinary kettle may be used,
altho it would be advisable to have one
with a flat bottom. As it would be rather
difficult to construct a crossbeam over the
kettle rigid enough to stand the pressure
exerted by a screw, a lever may be used as
shown, tho some means will have to be
employed to keep it from falling over
sidewise, such as a loop around a tree or
post. In using a lever it is important to
have it so adjusted that the pressure will
be uniform and directly downward. Any
pressure exerted from a point not directly
over the kettle will result in pressing the
refuse to one side, so that the " cheese "
will be very thin on one edge and very
thick on the other. If this were the case
there would, of course, be too much wax
left in the thick portion. To get the best
results the " cheese " should not be over an
inch or an inch and a half thick after
pressing.

Cleaner work can be done by an inter-
mittent than by continuous steady pres-
sure; and so, whether using a lever or
screw, it is well to relieve the pressure
about every ten minutes, allowing the
" cheese " two or three minutes in which
to become thoroly saturated again with
boiling water. Pressure should be applied
slowly at first in order to avoid bursting
the burlap.

With the outdoor kettle plan the wax
will be discolored on account of the long-
continued heat unless it is dipped off the
surface of the water almost as fast as it
rises. About three hours of intermittent
pressure for one batch of combs in a kettle
will render out the wax.

STEAM-PRESSES.

Methods of rendering wax, embodying
the principle of applying great pressure
to combs surrounded by steam, are quite
old, both in this country and in Germany,
where they originated. In many ways
steam-presses have advantages over other
methods ; but the quality of wax is usuallj^
not so good, because of the high tempera-

ture to which the comparatively thin sur-
faces of melted wax are subjected; altho
the wax, as it leaves the refuse, falls down
out of the way so that the work can be
much more conveniently carried on, since
there is no great depth of water in the
way.

A steam-press of popular design is
shown in Fig. 7. Steam is generated un-
der the false bottom G, of the compart-
ment. H, and, passing upward thru an
opening in the ^center of the false bottom,
surrounds the combs beneath the plunger
in the perforated metal basket. As the
wax falling from the refuse cannot get
into the water on account of the false bot-
tom, it passes out of the tube shown.

Fig. 7. — German steam wax-press.

Steam-presses are very convenient as
uncapping-cans ; for when the perforated
metal basket is full of cappings the cross-
arm can be placed in position, the screw
run down, and practically all honey forced
out. Then steam may be generated, and
the wax melted into marketable shape
without any second handling and with lit-
tle extra trouble ; or the " cheese " of
cappings, pressed nearly dry of honey,
may be stored away to be rendered into
wax at a more convenient time later.

These presses are also very useful in
pressing honey from broken combs, unfin-
ished sections, etc., and rendering the

788

WAX

pressed comb into wax. For the real busi-
ness of rendering old combs, the presses
using hot water as the heating agent are
much superior.

UNHEATED PRESSES.

C. A. Hatch of Wisconsin was proba-
bly the first one to make extensive use of
an unheated press for wax-rendering. He
had used for a short time a press designed
by W. W. Gary of Massachusetts in which
the combs were pressed while submerged
in hot water ; but he believed that he could
improve on this plan by applying pres-
sure in a different receptacle without the
use of so much hot water. Later, F. A.
Gemmell of Ontario, Canada, also used
such a press, which finally came to be
known as the Hatch-Gemmell wax-press.

Fig. S. — The original Hatch-Gemmell wax-press.

The particular form of press that is
sold largely is shown in Fig. 9. It will
be noticed that a round can, constructed
of tin, is used instead of the square wooden
box and tray. The principal reason for
this change is that it is easier to keep the
" cheese " from bursting out sidewise when
a round box or can is used, for the square
box tends to bulge out in the middle, thus
allowing the burlap to burst. If a round
can is used, the pressure sidewise is al-
ways in a direction directly away from the
center, and the horizontal pressure is thus
equalized.

THE BEST METHOD.

In using this press we formerly advised
a tube at the bottom of the can, left open
during the pressing so that the hot water
and wax would run away immediately. It
is better, however, to have no opening at
the bottom of the can, but to confine the
hot water and wax, thus preventing chill-
ing as much as possible.

If no heat is applied to the combs dur-
ing the pressing it is necessary to do the
work in warm weather or in some room
that can be kept hot by the heat of the
stove used for melting, for when the air is
cold the wax chills and the work is hin-
dered. The efficiencj;^ of the press is great-
ly increased, therefore, if a very small jet
of steam is introduced from a steam-knife
boiler or teakettle, carried by means of a
rubber tube to a one-quarter-inch copper
pipe about fourteen inches long, with a
right-angle bend five or six inches from
the bottom and with a long curve at the
upper end. This is applied to the wax-
press can as shown in Fig. 9. As will be
noted the pipe goes down between two of
the vertical cleats on the side of the can
and is then bent over toward the center
between two of the horizontal cleats at the
bottom, under the screen. While the pres-
sure is being applied the water and wax
keep up a gentle boiling — an ideal con-
dition. No matter how long the pressure
is kept on the slumgum, nor how many
times the screw is raised to allow the hot
water to saturate the refuse again, the
water keeps up this gentle boiling, so to
speak, and the wax on top shows no ten-
dency to cool. We formerly recommended
running the refuse thru the press a second
time; but if steam is introduced as ex-
plained, the second melting and rendering
is unnecessary unless the work has been
very carelessly done. If there is any doubt
as to the thoroness of the work, it is a good
plan to run the refuse thru a second time
to make sure that it is clean. The second
rendering takes about half the time that
the first did.

AN IDEAL EQUIPMENT.

Fig. 10 shows the small outfit which the
author recommends, including stoves, press,
cans for melting the combs, boiler for
steam, etc. A cook stove with a top large

WAX

.789

enough to hold two good-sized wash-boilers
is ideal, but frequently it is inconvenient
to provide such a stove in a basement or
out-building where the wax-rendering is
done. Two double-burner gasoline stoves,
one for each wash-boiler, will do as well.
Oil stoves would answer the purpose for
melting the combs but are not quite so
convenient owing to the difficulty in turn-
ing down the oil burners in case the combs
get to boiling too hard. Wash-boilers
cannot be cleaned very easily after being
used for melting combs, hence should be
kept for this purpose only. Many prefer

I

to use a large square tank of galvanized
iron, possibly over a brick furnace out of
doors. Or a stock-feed cooker may be
used, costing from $3.00 to $15.00.

The press should stand on a solid box
that is firmly secured to the floor, and it
should be hinged in front so that it may
be tipped over to run the hot water and
wax into the can beneath. A large box
or basket must be provided to hold the
refuse after it is pressed. An open-
headed barrel with a plug at the bottom is
the handiest receptacle for holding the hot
water and wax.

DIRECTIONS FOR RENDERING.

When ready to begin work light one of
the stoves and put on a boiler a little over
half full of water. If the water is very
hard add a little borax. When the water
boils throw in the old combs. Thirty-five
to forty combs (about half a barrel) may
be put in gradually, provided they are
carefully pushed down with a paddle and
stirred as they melt. When all the comb
that the boiler will hold conveniently has
been put in, place the cover on and allow
the mass to cook thoroly. About this time

light the other stove and put on another
boiler of water; also set going the burner
under the steam-boiler on a third stove to
supply steam to the press-can.

It facilitates the work if a quantity of
straw, preferably rye straw, is cut up in
two-inch lengths and stirred into the
melted combs. It makes the " cheeses "
more porous so that less wax is left in the
slumgum.

It is a mistake to begin pressing as
soon as the comb is melted. Continue the
cooking process with frequent stirrings

Fig.- 9. — Steam from a small boiler introduced between the slats in a wax-press can. The water and wax
keep up a continual slow boiling, insuring constant circulation.

WAX

791

until the combs are reduced to a steaming
mushy mass. There must be no hard
(hunks.

When the contents of the tirst boiler are
ready for pressing- and the steam begins
to issue from the pipe in the bottom of

Fig. 11. — The pre.-s can pulled forward readv for
filling.

the press-can, pull the can forward on the
platform, holding it in position by means
of the spider on the lower end of the screw
resting on the top of the can, as in Fig.
11. Have read}' a few pieces of good
strong burlap, at least 40 inches square.
Place one of these in the press-can; put
the follower on top of it and throw a few
dipperfuls of hot water from the other
boiler into the can to heat thoroly all the
parts. Pour this off and spread the bur-
lap down into the can as in Fig. 12. Dip
about two gallons of the melted comb and
water into the press and fold the burlap
neatly over it, as carefully as tho tying up
a package. This is very important; for if
there are thick rolls of the cloth in any one
part of the " cheese," other parts of the
refuse will not receive as much pressure as
needed. To fold the burlap over, fold the
back edge over toward the front, being
careful to get the sides straight, then push
the front edge over on top of it; lastly,
fold in the sMes neatlJ^ Place the cleated
circular follower m position (cleats down,

of course) ; push the can back exactly
in the center of the platform and run the
screw down xery slowly — Fig, 13.

At this time it metj be necessarj' to turn
down the gasoline burners under the first
boiler in order that the contents may not
get too hot; or, if it is on a stove, pull it
over to the edge. Always use the utmost
care to prevent the wax from slopping
over. If it does, there is danger of having
a serious fire. As soon as the water in the
second boiler boils, begin filling that with
combs.

Always turn the screw down slowly. If
it is run down rapidlj' before the liquid in
the mass inside the burlap has time to
squeeze out, the burlap and the contents
inside are likely to squash up around the
follower, interfering seriously Avith the
escape of the water and wax. Turn the
screw onl}^ when it turns easily. Of course,
when it is clear down it may be turned
tight; but there is really more danger in
apph^ng too much pressure than in not
apph'ing enough.

Fig. 12. — A large piece of stout burlap is tne best
material to use for holding the melted comb.

Suflicient water should have been dipped
in with the comb so that the water and
wax, when the screw is clear down, will
just about submerge the iron spider on the
end of the screw. It ought to take two or
three minutes to get the screw clear down.

792

WAX

When it is down about as far as it will go,
release the pressure until the east-iron fol-
lower is nearly out of the liquid; pull up
on the rope handle of the wooden follower
until it is free from the burlap, thus al-
lowing the hot water to saturate the refuse
again. After a minute or so apply the

Fig. 13. — Applying- the pressure. TTie wax rises to
the top of the water. As much time may be given to
the pressing as desired — no danger of chilling, because
of the jet of steam.

pressure slowly once more. This process
should be repeated two or three times.

Instead of using a jet of steam as rec-
ommended, an extra can may be used, one
to be on the stove being reheated while the
other is under the press.

When the screw is finally down as far as
it will go, place a washtub or a large can
on the floor in front of the press and tip
the latter over, pouring all the water and
wax out. Leave the press tipped over a
few moments until the wax drains out —
Fig. 14.

When no more wax will drain out, tip
the press back into its regular position and
pour the hot water and wax into an empty
can or barrel having a faucet at the bot-
tom. If a barrel is used which is smaller
at the top, the hot water must first be
drawn off after the work is over, and the
wax run into previously soaped molds to
harden. It is more convenient to use an
oval-shaped can or round can that is larger

at the top, so that the wax may be left
right in it to harden in one large cake.
There is no difficulty in lifting the cake
out even tho it be 8 or 10 inches thick.

The idea of the faucet at the bottom is
to permit drawing off. the hot water, so that
it may be used over and over agam. There
is no object in using fresh water each
time; therefore when the first boiler is
empty, enough hot water may be drawn
off from the supply-can to fiU it half -full
again for a fresh lot of combs. When first
starting out, it is a good plan to fill the
boilers a little more than half -full so that
there will always be enough water for sub-
sequent meltings.

If the work has been carefully done,
when the screw is raised after the water
and wax have been drained off, and the
follower taken out, the " cheese " will be
dry, comparatively speaking ; and when it
is dumped out into the box or basket, if a
handful is taken up and pressed momen-
tarily between the fingers, no great amount
of wax will show. If only a very fine line

Fig. 14. — When the pressing process is completed the
whole outfit is tipped up on its hinges to pour off the
hot water and wax.

of wax appears in the ridges between the
fingers the work has been done thoroly. It
is convenient, if not absolutely necessary,
to wear a pair of canvas gloves during the
whole process ; for when the burlap is shaken
out the refuse is exceedingly hot. When
shaking out the burlap, if the refuse does not
shake out clean, lay the cloth 'over the box,
inside down, and quickly rub it between the

WAX

793

hands. This will dislodge the refuse still
clinging. Now place the burlap over the
press again and repeat the process. The
same burlap should last for a dozen press-
ings. Each time, however, look it over
quickly to see if there is any sign of a
weak spot or the beginning of a tear. If
there is, discard it and use a new cloth.

A heavy cloth or old sack should be
thrown over the unheated can containing
the supply of hot water and wax poured
in from the can under the press; for the
more this heat can be conserved, the shorter
time it will take to start a new boilerful
of combs.

The final waste of wax by this process
need not be over 3 per cent. There is no
practical process that we know of that
secures all the wax.

RENDERIXG WAX FROM OLD COIIBS IX LARGE
QUAXTITIES.

The foregomg plan is eutirel}^ adequate
and satisfactory for a moderate amount of
rendering; but when, for example, Amer-
ican foul brood has obtained a strong foot-
hold thruout the apiary or several apiaries,
a larger outfit is required. There are like-
wise those who make a business of melting
up old combs for a given locality, and for
such a more elaborate outfit is required.

It is not practicable to build a wax-
press of a large size on the precise model
just described, for the reason that the
larger " cheeses " are not as easily handled,
nor will they receive the same amount of
pressure. Practice shows that it is much
more satisfactory to use two screws over
an oblong " cheese " in an oblong tank or
boiler. The subjoined illustrations will
show a type of double-screw press with
which the author turned out 142 pounds
of wax from old combs on the first day's
trial, getting practically all the wax. With
more practice he could turn out a larger
output.

It is not practicable to heat the larger
press with a small jet of steam from a
small boiler, such as one could rig up for
himself. However, where one can have
access to a larger boiler, steam heating is
all right; but as the great majority of the
readers of this w^ork will not be so situated
they will have to employ other means. It
has been found entirely practicable to put

the press upon four short legs so its plat-
form will be on the same height as a small
two-burner gasoline or kerosene stove.
When this stove is placed in line with the
press, to heat or reheat its contents it is
an easy matter to slide the boiler from
under the press to the top of the stove and
back again. There is no need of having
heat when pressure is being applied. After
several successive squeeziugs the boiler or
tank can be slid over, emptied, and a fresh
batch reheated while on the stove. This
obviates entirelj^ the nuisance of applying
the pressure with the press on the stove,
and at the same time provides a stable
foundation for the press while the screws
are being turned down.

THE EQriP:HEXT X^EEDED.

There should be three tin wash-boilers,
a water-tight barrel with a one-inch auger-
hole close to the bottom containing a well-
fitting plug,, and two two-burner gasoline-
stoves or their equivalent. A cookstove
would answer the purpose just as weU,
altho, being higher, it would not be quite
so convenient. A large dipper is also
needed, and this can easily be made by

Fig. 15. — When the press is drawn out over _ the
stove, the screws are entirely out of the way and it is
therefore an easy matter to refill. A burlap 40 x 70
inches is used in order that the edges may be long
enough to fold over and pin.

nailing a wooden handle to the side of a
10-lb. pail. The burlap used for holding
the melted combs should be strong- and
without holes or weak places. The. size
best suited for the purpose is 40 x 70
inches. Half a dozen pieces should be
sufficient for 500 or 600 pounds of wax.
Half a barrel of water is needed. This can
be used over and over again for several

794

WAX

days if desired. If the barrel is kept cov-
ered up at night the water will still be
quite warm in the morning, so it does not
take so long to heat up as at first. If the
water is hard, it pays to soften it with
powdered borax, altho rainwater is best.

HOW TO PROCEED.

Fill two wash-boilers two-thirds full of
water and put them over the stove to heat.
When the water in both boilers is boiling,
start putting combs into one, which I shall
call No. 1, two or three at a time, poking
them down in with a stick. Pour the boil-
ing water in No. 2 into the barrel and
cover with an old piece of carpet to pre-

FiG. 16. — After folding over and pinning the sides
with five large nails, fold over the ends of the burlap
and pin with two nails. As soon as the follower is laid
on the press can and its contents are slid under the
screws. Being hot, the can slides as easily as the it
were on rolls.

vent loss of heat; then fill No. 2 again two-
thirds full of cold water and put on the
stove as before. Continue putting the
combs into No. 1, poking each two or three
down carefully. If the combs are old and
tough the boiler will not hold more than
35 or 40. If the combs happen to be fairly
new, as many as 50 or even 60 can be put
in at a time on account of the fact that
there are fewer cocoons. When all the
combs are in, cover the boiler by putting
over it a few thin boards cleated together.
Do not attempt to start pressing before
the contents have come to a boil. The mere
fact that the comb seems to be melted and
mushy is no indication that it is hot
enough. Stir occasionally; and when the
boiling commences, take the cover off to
prevent the wax and water from boiling
over. If it starts to boil over, stir it a

little with a stick; or, in an emergency,
lift it off the fire altogether. Usually,
however, this is not necessary.

Put the cleated follower into the press-
can; push the can under the press and
turn the screws down. Draw off a couple
of pails of hot water from the barrel and
pour into the can so as to heat thoroly
every part. Take boiler No. 2 (containing
water only) off the stove and put the
stove in a position in line with the press
and eight or nine inches from it. Draw off
the water in the press-can; pour it back
into the barrel, close the gate on the end of
the can, and, after raising the screws, draw
the can out over the stove. There will be
enough water in the bottom to prevent
burning. Take out the follower; spread
one of the pieces of burlap evenly over the
can, tucking it down into the corners, and
dip about half the melted combs in boiler
No. 1 into the burlap. Then pick up the
whole boiler and pour in the rest. If there
is a great wad of wires, as there will be if
the frames were wired originally, pull these
apart with a stick enough so that they will
not all be in one place. Fold over the
sides of the burlap, pulling over enough so
that the mass is perhaps two inches away
from the edge of the can, and pin with
five large nails; then fold over the ends
and pin with a couple of nails. It is bet-
ter to double the edges so the nails will not
tear the threads. Be sure that there is no
wad of burlap in any one place, and that
the edges lie smoothly. Put the follower
over the burlap, screen side down, and
quickly slide the can under the press. The
can being hot it slides almost as if it were
on rollers, especially after a few drops of
wax have dripped on to the platform, thor-
oly lubricating every surface. The longer
the can is used, the easier it slides back and
forth.

With the can in position, turn the screws
down slowly. Especially at the start, do
not make the fatal mistake of turning the
screws down to the limit without stopping,
for it is almost sure to burst the burlap.
(If you burst the burlap just once you will
always afterward be careful.) Turn the
screws down only as fast as they turn easi-
ly, therefore. As soon as they turn a lit-
tle hard, wait until some of the wax and
hot water have had a chance to ooze out.
It is all right to apply considerable pres-

WAX

795

sure when the screws have been turned
down nearlj^ to the limit, for then the
" cheese " contains so little liquid that there
is practically no danger of bursting the
burlap.

As soon as the can has been slid under
the press, fill the empty boiler (jSTo. 1) two-
thirds full of hot water again from the
bottom of the barrel and put it on the
stove by the press. Put boiler No. 2 (which
should now be full of partly melted comb)
on the other stove to finish heating for the
next pressing.

In order to make the process continuous,
start putting comb in boiler No. 1 again,
now on the stove by the press. Two lots of
comb are thus in the process of heating at
the same time, the one to be pressed next
being the nearest finished, while the other
is just starting.

As soon as the screws are down practi-
cally as far as they will go, release the
pressure, turning the screws up out of the
way; lift boiler No. 1 temporarily off the
stove and pull the press-can out on to it.
Cover it with short boards cleated together

and leave it in this position until it comes
to a boil, then quickly slide back under the
press and press again. Repeat this process
until the batch has been pressed three
times. Between pressings always draw the
can out over the fire to come to a boil. The
object of this is to permit the refuse to
become saturated again with boiling water.
Heating to the boiling-point between each
pressing makes possible a sa™g of about
two per cent of wax. Whenever the press-
can is not occupying the stove the boiler
should be put back over it, so that the heat
will not be wasted. The contents of this
boiler, therefore, has the intermittent heat-
ing while one batch is pressing, then dur-
ing the. pressing of the next batch it is
transferred to the other stove where it has
constant heating so that it will be ready by
the time the press is empty again.

As soon as the screws have been turned
down for the third time, practically as far
as they will go, place a third boiler under
the gate while the screws are still down and
open the gate. Catch a dipperful of the
water as it first comes out of the press and

Fio. 17. — While it sounds like a tedious process yet as a matter of fact it is possible to press a batch of 40

combs ever\' 45 minutes. Thirteen batches were pressed in a single day yielding in all 142 pounds of clean

yellow wax. The small cake on top about % inch thick represents the amount of wax. in a boiler after one
batch is pressed — about 10 pounds.

796

WAX

set it on the floor. When all the wax and
water have run out, splash the hot water
in the dipper over the follower while the
screws are still turned down, thus rinsing
off the coating of hot wax. Then tip up
one end of the press so as to drain out the
last of the water and wax into the boiler.
Pour this hot water and wax immediately
into the barrel and cover with the old car-
pet. The wax will rise to the top; and,
when more hot water i« wanted a little
later, another boilerful may be drawn from
the hole at the bottom.

As soon as empty, draw the press-can
out over the stove. Take out the follower
and the " cheese " and put the latter to
one side for the present. If there is not
enough water in the can to prevent burn-
ing, throw in a couple of quarts with the
dipper. Spread a fresh burlap over the
press-can and proceed as before. Later
on, when there is time, the first " cheese "
set aside may be unpinned and the refuse
shaken out. The burlap should be rubbed
between the hands so as to remove the
cocoons that have imbedded in the cloth.
Much depends on having the burlap clean
when it is used over again.

A little experience will determine how
much water to put in the boilers. There
should be enough so that the surface of the
liquid will be about an inch from the top
of the press-can, when the follower is sub-
merged by the screw. If the press-can is
too full it makes it difficult to slide back
and forth without slopping, and if there is
not enough, it detracts from the efficiency
of the method. During the pressing, it is
a good plan to cover the can with four
boards, notched at one edge, to surround
the screw. This confines the heat and
makes it possible to do faster work.

The process as described in detail sounds
complicated, but is really very simple. It
is easy to finish a batch every 45 minutes.
The average amount of wax secured each
time is 10 pounds. As mentioned in the
early part of this article, we pressed 13
batches in a day and secured 142 pounds
of wax in all. The refuse, moreover, when
we were thru with it, contained less than
two per cent of the original amount of
wax.

Before starting work the second morn-
ing the cake of wax on top of the water in
the barrel should be broken up and taken

out. The pieces require only a little scrap-
ing on the bottom to be ready for market. ; f
The water, still warm, is quickly heated so n
that the work can be resumed very shortly. |i
When diseased combs are rendered, es- |i
pecially those containing some honey, fj
every precaution should be taken to pre- |j
vent the bees from robbing. If the build-
ings cannot be made bee-tight, the work ^
must be done at night, and every tool and I
utensil used thoroly scalded. The refuse
from the diseased combs should be burned,
and the water which was used poured
where the bees cannot possibly get access
to it.

THE AMOUNT OP WAX IN COMBS.

The question is often asked how much
wax can be rendered from comb holding
a given amount of honey; but it is quite
difficult to answer such questions, as it
makes considerable difference whether full
sheets of foundation were used, and also

\

Honey pressed from a section ; result — over 14 ounces
honey, V2 ounce of wax, and 1 ounce of wood.

whether such foundation was thick or thin.
In general, however, it requires about 4
lbs. of wax in comb to hold 100 lbs of
honey, or, in other words, a pound of new
comb will hold about 25 lbs. of honey.

A sixteen-ounce section of honey con-
sists approximately of 14^2 ounces of
honey — a little over one-half ounce of wax
and about one ounce of wood. Above is,
shown the result after separating the
honey, wax, and wood, in a sixteen-ounce
section. Of course, these results, as be-
fore mentioned, are not always the same,
and the different amounts vary consider-
ably.

On one occasion we melted over 600 lbs.
of candied comb honey. Keeping careful
account of the weights, we found that the
percentages of honey, wax, and wood were
approximately 88, 5, and 7, respectively.

WAX

797

REFINING BEESWAX.

Wax cakes, as they are bought up, are
usually of all grades and colors. The dif-
ference in color is due largely to the
amount of impurities the wax contains.
With all of the plans for bleaching or clar-
ifying there seems to be no practical or
satisfactory way of bringing a small
amount of wax to a yellow color.

Acid for refining wax on a small scale is
not to be recommended, for, without
proper receptacles and facilities for heat-
ing, the wax is more often injured than
benefited.

BLEACHING BEESWAX.

There are methods by which beeswax
can be bleached by the use of chemicals;
but for practical purposes it is unwise to
attempt them. Moreover, it has finally
been discovered that, for the economic uses
of the beekeeper, foundation made of
■bleached wax is no better than, if as good
as, that having the natural j^ellow color.
Yellow wax is more ductile, and therefore

more easily worked by the bees; and ev^n
when used for section honey-boxes, the
combs from yellow wax are about as white
as those from the bleached; so that when
capped over no one can tell the difference.
But very often dealers have a call for
bleached beeswax; and the only practical
way of getting it is to convert the product
into thin sheets or small particles, and then
subject them to the sun's rays for a suit-
able length of time. When sufficiently
bleached they may be melted up and caked.

HOW TO DETECT ADULTERATED WAX,

Mention has already been made that
beeswax is liable to adulteration with par-
affin or ceresin, and sometimes with ordi-
nary grease or fat. Some unscrupulous
box-hive beekeepers, after brimstoning
their old " skeps," and melting up the
wax,* add just enough tallow to increase
the weight, because grease is cheap com-
pared with the ordinary product of the
hive. But such adulterations are very
easily detected, both by smell and sight.

* See Box Hives.

A hive of bees nearly burned up by the heat from an immense lumber yard fire close by. See page 779.
Someone threw a pail of water over the hive and put the fire out. During all this heat, the bees, by vigorously
fanning with their wings, kept the hive ventilated so that the combs did not melt! Combs made from paraffin
or any substitute for beeswax would melt even with the heat of the sun. Beeswax has the highest melting
point for its ductility of any wax known.

798

WEIGHT OF BEES

The cakes have a greasy smell and feeling ;
and when subjected to the float test, pres-
ently described, will immediately rise to
the top of the liquid. Paraffin and ceresin
adulterations are not so easily recognized;
but nearlj' all pure beeswax, w^hen chewed
for a few minutes, will crumble in fine
particles, while wax containing a small
percentage of paraffin or ceresin will chew
like sealing wax and chewing-gum.

The simj)iest and most reliable test is
the float or specific-gravity test. The spe-
cific gravity of our ordinary commercial
paraffins and ceresins is below that of
beeswax. As an ordinary article of pure
beeswax is lighter than water (wax stand-
ing 965 and water at 1000), of course it
will fioat in water.

Into a ,iar partly filled with water pour
alcohol until a small piece of beeswax of
knovm purity settles to the bottom, taking
care not to pour in too much alcohol, for
the wax should barely sink to the bottom;
that is, the alcoholic liquid and the wax
should be of the same specific gravity. If
a piece of adulterated beeswax containing,
say, 50 per cent of paraffin or ceresin is
now put into the liquid it will float on the
surface of the liquid. Another piece of
wax that contains only 10 per cent of adul-
teration should be tested. It still floats,
but has a tendency to sink almost under
the surface. If another piece containing
onl}^ 5 per cent is tested it may float or
gradually settle to the bottom of the jar,
perhaps standing upon a single point.

For all practical purposes this float is
entirel}"- reliable; that is, it has so far
shown every adulterated sample. A large
shipment of beeswax was sent in. It was
very beautiful, and the cakes were all of a
uniform size; but the price was very low.
It was suspicious, and accordingly it was
subjected to the float test. Sure enough,
a small piece of the wax stayed on top of
the test liquid. It was then put into a
liquid that would let a 25 per cent ceresin
adulteration sink. After hovering near the
surface it gradually sank, and acted like
the piece of wax that was known to contain
25 per cent of ceresin.

We wrote to the shipper that we did not
want adulterated wax; that we must have
the pure article; that he would have to
take the stuff off our hands. He did it
very promptly, without even trying to de-

fend himself, any more than to say that he
thought W8 were not very particular. He
knew better, but thought he could unload
the stuff without our being any the wiser.

j

CLEANING WAX FROM UTENSILS. ij ^

Perhaps the readiest means is to im- ;

merse the utensils in boiling water until all I
the wax is thoroly melted off, then drain,
while hot. They can then be wiped off

with soft newspaper. Where the article j

cannot be easily immersed, benzine or a '

solution of salsoda will readily dissolve ^

the wax so it can be cleaned off with a '

cloth. Gasoline dissolves wax almost as \
readity as water dissolves sugar,

WAX WORMS,— See Moth Miller.

WEIGHT OF BEES.— Some very in-
teresting experiments were conducted by
Prof. B. F. Koons, of the Agricultural i
College, Storrs, Ct., to determine the
weight of bees and the amount of honey l|
they can carry. The results of these ex-
periments were given in Gleanings in Bee
Culfure; and the article is so valuable
that it is given here:

Some two years ago, in a leisure hour I
went to my apiary and captured one outgo-
ing bee from every hive and subjected them
to fumes of cyanide of potassium for a few
moments to render them inactive, and then
weighed each bee upon our chemical balances
— a pair of scales so delicately adjusted that
it is an easy matter to weigh the one-mil-
lionth part of a pound or the one-thousandth
part of a bee. From the weight of each
separate bee it was a very simple problem
in arithmetic t'o compute the number of bees
in a pound. The results showed that mine,
which perhaps are a fair average in size and
weight, ran from 4,141 to 5,669 in a pound.
These results you published in Gleanings,
and there expressed a wish that I would also
determine the amount of honey carried by a
homing bee. In my research for the weight
of bees I took those just leaving the hive,
which naturally would represent the normal
weight, without extra honey or pollen.

During the present summer (when the bees
were very active) I have undertaken to carry
out your request as to the amount of honey
carried by a bee. My method was this:
From the chemical laboratory I secured a
couple of delicate glass flasks with corks,
marking them A and B. Each was very
carefully weighed, and the weight recorded.
I then went to a hive, and, with the aid
of a pair of delicate pliers, or pincers, I
captured a number of incoming bees and
dropped them into flask A. I then secured

WEIGHT OF BEES

799

about nil ecjual number of outgoing bees in
flask B. These were then taken to the lab-
oratory immediately, and each flask again
weighed, after which the bees were carefully
counted and released. This operation was
repeated quite a number of times, not on the
same day, but as opportunity offered, and
when the bees were bringing in an abundance
of honey. I captured from 20 to 45 bees for
each flask at each trip, aiming to have, as
nearly as might be, the same number in each
flask on any particular trip. I always weighed
the flasks before starting out, lest some little
bit of soil or stain, or even moisture on the
glass, would render the results less accurate ;
I also always allowed any moisture condensed
upon the inside of the flasks, while the bees
v^eve confined, to evaporate iDefore weighing
for another trip. I then treated my results
as follows: From the weight of flask and
bees I deducted the weight of the flask; the
remainder I divided by the number of bees
confined on that trip. This gave me the
average weight of the bees captured at that
time. The average weight of the bees in flask
A, or loaded bees, was always greater, as it
should be, than the average weight of the bees
in flask B, or unloaded bees. The difference
between these two w^eights gave me the aver-
age amount of honey carried by that lot of
bees.

Mine are Italian and hybrid bees, but I
made no attempt to determine the difference
in the amount carried by the different swarms
or breeds. I kept no record of the swarms
except that I guarded against going to the
same hive for a second lot of bees. A con-
siderable difference does appear, but probably
that arises in part from the abundance or
scarcity of honey on any particular day when
the colony was visited. My aim was to secure
reliable results, as nearly as possible repre-
senting the average amount of honey carried
by bees.

The following is the result of weighing
several hundred each, of returning and out-
going bees. The smallest number of bees nec-
essary to carry one pound of honey, as shown
by my results, is 10 154; or. in other words,
one bee can carry the 1-10,154 (one ten thou-
sand one hundred and fifty-fourth) part of a
pound of honey; and the largest number, as
shown by the results, required to carry a
. pound is 45,642 ; and the average of all the
sets weighed is 20,167. Perhaps, then, it is
4 approximately correct to say that the average
i load of a bee is 1-20 000 (one twenty-thou-
^ 3andth) of a pound; or, in other words, if a
>^olony has 2-0 000 bees in it, and each one
ipakes one trip a day, they will add the pound
to their stores. Of course, not all the bees in
H colony leave the hive, the nurses remaining
at home, hence necessitating more trips of
those which do " go a-field."

I also repeated my ob!=ervations of two
years ago on the weight of bees, and found
that my numbers ran from 3. 680 to 5 495 in
a pound, and the average about 4.800, the
same as in my former test. I likewise secured
the following on the weight of drones : Of a

dozen or more Aveighed, the largest would re-
quire 1,808 to make a pound and the smallest
2,122, or an average of about 2,000 drones iu
a pound, over against nearly 5,000 workers.

B. F. Koons.
Agricultural College, Storrs, Ct., Sept. 3,
1895.

In a nutshell, and speaking in round
numbers, it may be said that it takes 4,800
bees to make a pound; and that, while
10,000 bees may carry a pound of nectar,
twice that number, or 20,000, is probably
more nearly the average. During bass-
wood bloom, the first figure should be con-
sidered as the nearer correct one because
the bees drop dow^n at the entrance; but
from almost all other sources of nectar the
tw^enty-thousand mark is the one to accept.

These interesting figures may be looked
at another way: A bee can carry half its
weight in nectar; and perhaps, under cer-
tain circumstances, a trifle more; but, gen-
erallj' speaking, one-fourth its weight is
the amount. We had a colony that brought
in over 43 lbs. in three days ; and Doolittle
had one that brought in 66 lbs. in the same
time from basswood; but usually four or
five pounds is considered a remarkably hig
day's work. (See Scale Hivt:.) In the
last instance in which 20 lbs. were gath-
ered in one day, if we estimate there were
8 lbs. of bees, then there would be 38,400
bees. If 20,000 of these were field bees
(estimating 10,000 necessary to carry a
single pound of basswood nectar), those
bees must have made ten trips. On the
same basis of calculation, a colony of
equal strength that brought in 5 lbs. would
make one-fourth as many trips, or two and
one-half trips. This would leave one hour
for each trip in case 20 lbs were gathered ;
or, in the case of 5 lbs., two and one-half
hours.

Both Profs. Gillette and Lazenby, the
former of the Colorado Experiment Sta-
tion and the latter of the Ohio State Uni-
versitj^ conducted a series of experiments
which closely approximate figures of Prof.
Koons, so it may be assumed they are
correct.

WEAK COLONIES, TO STRENGTHEN.

— See Uniting^ sub-head "Alexander Plan,"
also Nucleus and BuiLomG up Colonies

WHITE CLOVER.— See Clovee.

WHITE HOLLY.— See Gallberry.

800

WILLOW

WILD CHERRY {Prunus serotina) ,
known locally as black cherry. Few trees
of Florida are more stately and more sym-
metrical in their growth than the wild
cherry. It is native all over Florida, on
high pine lands and in low hummocks.
The wood is a beautiful red, with a fine
grain, and is very valuable for cabinet
purposes. The wood is, however, somewhat
softer than that of the wild cherry of the
North (Prunus pennsylvanica) . In ap-
pearance it closely resembles the wild
cherry of more northern latitudes. It sel-
dom fails to jdeld honey, and bountifully
too. Coming as it does just before the
orange trees bloom, it gives a final spurt
to brood-rearing that is valuable indeed.
As a surplus honey it is more of a pest
than a benefit, as the honey is dark red,
and as bitter as wormwood. The flavor
of a cherry pit is about that of this honey.
It does not take a great deal of it to spoil
the flavor and color of the first orange
honey of the season, and many beemen in
orange sections must extract their supers
of all traces of wild-cherry honey or have
their fancy orange honey touched and
tinged. In the vicinity of DeLand, Fla.,
it is a real nuisance after the orange honey
commences to come in. Up to that time it
is a bonanza and a blessing to the apiarist.
The writer has in many cases placed a
half-depth super on the strong colonies
when they were storing from wild cherry,
which was removed when the wild cherry
was over and orange began. Then he
would extract the supers and put back on
the hives for the flow of orange honey.

WILD SUNFLOWER.— See SuNPLOv^ER.

WILLOW {Salix). —Thi^ is a very nat-
ural or clearly defined genus of shrubs
and trees found chiefly in the north tem-
perate and arctic zones. Of the 161 de-
scribed species, about 78 occur in North
America, more than 30 of which are in
eastern America. So variable are the spe-
cies, and so freely do they hybridize, that
any entirely satisfactory treatment from a
systematic standpoint is impossible. The
Swedish botanist Anderson, whose mono-
graph, published in the Prodromus of De
Candolle, was the work of nearly 25 years,
declared that of Salix nigricans, which has
120 synonyms, he never saw two specimens

that were exactly alike. In Great Britain
the number of species of willow has been
placed all the way from 12 to 80.

The very small flowers are naked, or de-
void of both sepals and petals, and are
crowded together on an elongated stem or
axis forming a cluster called an ament or
catkin. The stamens and pistils in all spe-
cies are in separate flowers, which are
borne on different individual plants, some
producing only staminate flowers, others
only pistillate ones. In a staminate ament
of the pussy willow {S. discolor) the writer
has actually counted 270 flowers, and in a
pistillate ament 142 flowers. The multi-
tude of bright-yellow anthers render the
staminate blossoms very conspicuous. As
an evidence of their attractiveness, it may
be mentioned that they are used in Eng-

Pussy willow in seed.

land for decorating the churches on Palm
Sunday, and are offered for sale in New
England cities by street flower-venders.
The flowers are formed the preceding sea-
son, and appear in early spring before or
with the leaves.

All of our species furnish both pollen
and nectar, but it would, of course, be
useless to look for pollen on pistillate
shrubs or trees. The nectar is freely se-
creted in both kinds of flowers on the tips
of minute flat glands, which in the pistil-
late flowers may be found at the base of
the ovary. As our early willows attract
great numbers of insects, the supply of
nectar may be temporarily exhausted; but
it should not be concluded, therefore, that
it is wholly absent. If a branch of flow-

WILLOW-HERB

801

ers be broken oft and carried into the bouse
and placed in water, and the nectaries ex-
amined after 24 bours under a microscope,
nectar will probably be found in abun-
dance.

The earliest willow to blossom in New
England is the glaucous or pussy willow
(Salix discolor Muhl.), On a calm warm
day the sweet odor may be detected several
rods away, and a swarm of insects may be
seen hovering about the bright-yellow
sprays of bloom. Besides honeybees there
are female bumblebees, the only form of
bumblebee then on the wing, and great
numbers of wild bees belonging to the
genus Andrena gathering pollen for brood-
rearing. Several species of these bees are
never found on any other flowers than the

Golden willow.

willows. Then there are many flies and a
few butterflies and beetles. Ants often
climb the stems and rob the flowers of the
nectar, which is quite plentiful. In Eng-
land some willows are said to be visited by
moths in the evening.

The early-blooming willows are visited
by large numbers of honeybees, both for
pollen and nectar, and are of great value
to the beekeeper. One of the commonest
willows in the Eastern States is the pussy
willow, which is a large shrub growing on
river banks. In Massachusetts it blooms
along the last of March and early in April.
In Georgia the black willow {S. nigra
Marsh) grows along the streams thruout
the State. It blooms in March, and in a
few localities yields a surplus of honey of
26

medium quality. The black willow is also
common in Texas, where it is valued both
for pollen and honey. Other willows
which are common in the Eastern States
are S. sericea Marsh (silky willow) ; S.
rostrata Richards, and S. cordata Muhl.
In California, Richter says, the willows
yield a surplus in several counties. It is
a dark-amber, bitter honey.

Among the willows introduced from
Europe, and cultivated, are the osier wil-
low {S. viminalis L.) ; the Kilmarnock
willow (S. caprea L.) ; the white willow
{S. alba L.), of which there is a variety
with yellow twigs called viellina, and the
weeping willow {S. hahylonica L.).

A honey flow from the willows at Boro-
dino, N. Y., was described by G. M. Doo-
little as follows :

We have three kinds of willows — the golden,
the white, and the weeping willow, which are
of much value as honej-producers in the order
named. When these willows are in bloom,
and the weather warm, the bees rush out of
their hiA^es at early dawn, and work on the
flowers all day long as eagerly as they do on
clover or basswood. The blossoms often se-
crete nectar so profusely that it can be seen
glistening in the morning by holding the blos-
soms between you and the sun, while the trees
resound with that dull busy hum from morn-
ing till night, so often heard when bees are
getting honey. As this is the very first honey
of the season, I consider it of the greatest
value to the bees, for brood is now crowded
forward with great "vim," giving us the
bees which work on white clover, while the
honey often very greatly helps the depleted
stores of the hive.

From the few trees along a small ereek near
here, my bees frequently make a gain of from
six to ten pounds of honey while the willows
are in bloom, and one season they made a gain
of fifteen pounds. This spring some of my
best colonies gained eight pounds from wil-
low, while on apple bloom they did not get
more than a living from apple orchards white
with - bloom all about. The honey from the
willow is quite similar to that from the apple
bloom, and has a nice aromatic flavor. As the
willows give the first pollen, and also the first
honey each season, it will be seen what a
great help they are to all who have them in
profusion near their bees. The only draw-
back is the weather often being unfavorable,
for I do not think that more than one year in
three gives good weather all thru the time wil-
lows are in blossom. As it is often too cold,
rainy, cloudy, or windy for the bees to get to
the trees at this season of the year, honey and
pollen from this source are not at all certain.

WILLOW-HERB {Epilohium angusti-
folium L.). — Also often called fireweed,

TTne wlilow-herb of northern Michigan. — No. 1. the blcssom ; No. 2. the nlant : Nos. 3 and 4. its habitat.

WINTERING

S03

aud sometimes Indian pink and rose bay:
occurs in the northern part of Europe.
Asia, and North America; in eastern
America it extends south^vard along the
Appalachian Chain to North Carolina, and
in the "West it follows down the Rocky
^Mountains to California. Its gi'owth is
eon&ied, however, largely to the lumber-
ing regions of northern Wisconsin, Min-
nesota, Michigan, Canada, Washington,
and New England, upon areas that have
been burned over ; hence the name, " fii'e-
weed." After forest fires it seems to spring
up spontaneously, monopolizing the soil it-
self. Sometimes it grows in localities never
so devastated.

It is a handsome plant, usually only a
single stalk growing from two to six feet
high. The flowers are dark pink, arranged
in clusters aroimd the stalk. As the season
advances, the fii-st bloom goes to seed; and
as the stalk extends upward, more blos-
soms appear, so the plant keeps in bloom
from July till frost. Thus appear on each
stalk b^icls. blossoms, and seed pods at the
same time.

Willow-herb, or fii-eweed. yields large
quantities of white honey. Some of it is
so light-colored as to be actually as clear
and limpid as water, having a flavor sim-
ply superb — at least so we thought after
eating some at one of the Michigan con-
ventions which we attended at Grand Rap-
ids. Mr. Hutchinson styled it the whitest
and sweetest honey he ever tasted, and said
the flavor, while not very pronounced, is
suggestive of spice. The quality of the
honey, its unfailing supply from year to
year, following right after clover and bass-
wood, and blooming from then till frost,
make it one of the most valuable honey
plants known. Unfortunately, its growth
is confined almost exclusively to the regions
where forest fii^es occur. But beekeepers
situated in its vicinity are enabled to se-
cure immense crops of fine white honey.
Another remarkable feature of the plant
is, it ^^eld3 every year — at least so contin-
uously that a failure has scarcely been
known, even by the oldest inhabitants in
the vicinitv where it grows.

Mr. Hutchinson estimated that in north-
ern Michigan, where this plant grows,
there are thousands of acres without bees
to gather its delicious nectar. But this
condition certainly can not long exist; for

where one can produce anywhere from 100
to 125 pounds of comb honey per colony,
unoccupied fields will soon be covered by
beekeepers, after the manner of the rush
of the gold-seekers to the Ivlondike.

In Figs. 2, 3 and 4 will be seen the
straight black shafts of dead pine trees
that stand out alone as the only survivals
of their class from the fii'e.

Probably more than half of northern
Michigan was once covered with white and
Norway pine, which has now been nearly
all cut off for lumber. During the fij'st
di-y season after the cutting, fii'e burns
OA'er this stump land, and two or three
years later the willow-herb comes to matur-
ity. There was a time when this produced
large quantities of very fine honey; but as
the pine is now all cut. or nearly so. the
prospect is that willow-herb in Michigan
has had its day.

WINTERING.— Whoever has gone over
faithfully the preceding pages is now
nearly ready to sum up the matter of win-
tering. Under the head of Abscoxdixg
SwAEirs. in the opening of the book, and
under the subject of Uxitixg. he has been
cautioned against dividing, and trying to
winter weak colonies. See "Absconding in
the Spring." under the head mentioned.
In regard to keeping bees warm thru the
winter with Aktificial Heat, see that
head : also Temperature. Concerning the
efiects of difii'erent kinds of food or stores
on the welfare of bees during winter, see
Asters. Dysextery, Hoxeydevt. Speixg
Maxagz:mext. Feedixg axd Feeders^,
Caxdy for Bees, and Sprixg Dvtixdlixg.
On the subject of fixing the size of the
entrances, see Extraxces to Hrts. Vex-
TiLATiox, and Swarmixg. Some very im-
portant information is given under Ex-
traxces : and it would be advisable to re-
read that article before one takes up the
matter further here. For management in
the spring, see Sprtxg Maxage:^iext.
Dysexteey. and Sprixg Dvtixdlixg. For
a consideration of the difterent sizes and
shapes of frames for wintering see Hives.
also Fraates. For the discussion of
double-walled or chaff hives, see Hrts.
For stimulation in the spring, see Feed-
ixG,. subhead " Feeding to Stimulate."' For
the consideration of windbreaks, see
Windbreaks,'- under Apiary. For the

804

WINTERING

effect of honeydew on wintering, see

HONEYDEW.

TWO METHODS FOR WINTERING BEES.

There are two methods in vogue. One is
called the indoor plan and the other the
outdoor. Which one the reader shall use
depends entirely on the locality — that is
the climate and kind of winter stores.
Where the winters are extremely cold, with
continuous freezing weather, without a
break thru the months of December, Janu-

I

ary, February, and March, the indoor plan
prevails. The ordinary double-walled hives
are hardly warm enough in these very cold
localities unless such hives are covered with
deep snow that does not thaw and freeze
during winter. Thruout Canada there is a
tendency to use large winter cases capable
of holding four or more hives with at least
six inches of packing all around; and
the bees are kept in these cases till some
time in May.

In the milder climates, such as may be
found south of the Great Lakes and north
of the Ohio River, outdoor wintering is

almost universal. In such localities the
ordinary double-walled hives give excellent
results, altho there is a tendency at this
writing toward the large winter cases
already mentioned. In a general way it
may be said the indoor plan should never
be used where the fall flow is of inferior
quality or where the winters turn from
mild to severely cold, the variations taking
place every week or two weeks, unless the
cellars or repositories are wholly under-
ground, with three or four feet of earth
on top.

The Bureau of Entomology, in Bulletin
1014 on Wintering Bees in Cellars, gives
the accompanying map showing regions
where cellar wintering may be practiced
with profit. Where the average tempera-
ture is 25° F., or slightly lower, the bees
may be wintered profitably in the cellar,
provided the stores are good; where the
average winter temperature is as low as
15° F., cellar wintering is preferable.

Thruout the Southern States it has been
the practice to winter bees in single-walled
hives on their summer stands. It has gen-
erally been considered that extra packing

WINTERING OUTDOORS

805

or double-walled hives are a useless ex-
pense; but experiments conducted by the
Bureau of Entomolog}^, Washington, D. C,
in 1913 and 1914 go to show that some
packing, even in the Southern States, may,
in some cases, be used to advantage. Ref-
erence to this will be made further on.

Altho cellar wintering requires less ex-
pensive hives, it involves more skill — espe-
cially so if the cellar or winter repository
does not afford all the favorable conditions.
Just what these are will be referred to
later. While the outdoor method, on the
other hand, demands double-walled hives,

late, with a warm spell followed by a very
severe cold one, losses are likely to be
heavy, even among the most experienced
beekeepers. But these losses can, to a very
great extent, be minimized, even during
very cold winters, provided one makes a
study of his locality, regarding the aver-
age weather conditions that prevail. It
will be the object of the articles that fol-
low to set forth as nearly as possible some
of the difficulties to be encountered, so that
the reader may intelligentlj^ undertake the
problem. It is well to state, tho, that the
very severe winters referred to do not occur

Map of the United States showing zone 1 where cellar wintering is profitable, and zone 2 where cellar
wintering is preferable. This map is based on temperature as well as the quality of winter stores. — Map used
from Bureau of Entomologj^ Farmers' Bulletin 1014.

winter cases, or something to protect the
hives on their summer stands, and a
shielded location protected from the pre-
vailing winds, it does not require that de-
gree of skill made necessary when the bees
are confined in the cellar. For these rea-
sons the majority of beginners, especially
where the climate is not severe, are advised
to winter outdoors. It is important to ob-
serve, however, that the spot where the
bees are kept must be sheltered from pre-
vailing winds.

With the outdoor plan it is fair to state
that, after a very severe winter in which
the mercury stays below the zero-point for
weeks at a time, and when spring is very

more than once in 10 or 20 years, when
for some reason the whole year seems to
be thrown entirely out of balance; but, at
all other times, if one follows carefully the
directions here given, his losses will not
exceed ten per cent, and he may keep them
down as low as two per cent. Indeed, some
have wintered their bees winter after win-
ter with a loss not exceeding five per cent,
if the one year in ten which proves abnor-
mally severe is left out of the calculation.

WINTERING OUTDOORS.— As al-
ready explained, this is simpler for most
beginners, and the principles involved help
to lay the foundation for the more difficult

806

WINTERING OUTDOORS

problem of indoor or cellar wintering. The
prime requisite for both methods of win-
tering is a large force of young bees reared
during the latter part of summer or early
fall. A colony, no matter how strong, if
made up of old wornout bees with very
few young, may die before spring, or reach
such a weakened condition as to become
practically worthless for the following sea-
son. As a rule, in the Northern States
brood-rearing, unless there is a young lay-
ing queen, ceases right after the honey
flow. This is perfectly normal where there
is no late summer or fall pasturage as in

It is unwise to attempt to winter bees
outdoors in single-walled hives north of 40
degrees north latitude. While the colonies
may come thru after a fashion, the shock of
the exposure will be so great that they
probably will not be good for much to
gather honey. It is also highly important
that the hives be protected from high
winds, and that the walls surrounding the
hive be double and warm. Colonies in
double-walled hives out in the open, and
where there is a strong winds weep, may
not survive, while those in single-walled
hives screened by buildings, woods, or
dense shrubbery, may whiter
well. It would appear that pro-
tection from the prevailing
winds is just as important as
having the walls of the hives
double. Special double-walled
hives are manufactured, having
the space between filled with
chaff, planer-shavings, leaves, or

Fig. S— '

Fig. 2. — A deep telescoping cover to
set over the packing-trays for outdoor-
wintered colonies is preferable.

the case of buckwheat; but
during the latter part of August
and the early part of Septem-
ber, brood-rearing should begin
again; and unless there are nat-
ural sources of nectar the bees
will require feeding with thin
syrup given in small quantities
daily to stimulate. This stimulative feeding
should be continued long enough to get a
lot of brood in the hive so there will be a
strong force of young bees to go into win-
ter quarters. In many localities colonies
will be able to gather enough nectar daily
to supply themselves with young bees with-
out any special feeding. So far the scheme
of raising a large force of young bees is an
important requisite for either method of
wintering, but especially important where
bees are wintered outdoors subjected to ex-
tremes of temperature.

The top packing consists of a tray filled with planer
shavings. Buckeye hive.

other suitable material. The hive is so ar-
ranged that a tray of packing under the
cover helps to retain the heat of the clus-
ter, thus causing a smaller consumption of
stores in order to keep up the necessary
animal heat; for it should be remembered
that, the warmer and better protected the
cluster, the less honey they require to eat.
It is desirable to have the bees, so far as
possible, enter a state of quiet. But an
extremely cold spell will make it necessary
for this cluster to raise the temperature as
explained under Temperature of the

WINTERING OUTDOORS

807

Cluster in Winter. When, therefore, a
colony is so poorly protected that it has to
go into a state of activity and overeat, the
bees will become distended, and dysentery
or purging is almost sure to follow. This
condition occurring in midwinter or early
spring means the death of the colony, as
there is no cure for it but warm weather.

WINTERING WITH LITTLE PACKING.

The question of how to pack, and how
much packing to give bees, will depend
very largely upon the climate. South of

author believes, further, tJaat the use of
protecting cases or a moderate amount of
packing would save a great deal of chilled
brood, save stores, and prevent the bees
from flying out during the middle hours of
the day, only to be chilled and never re-
turn. Colonies without protection in the
St mi-tropical States sulfer because the tem-
perature goes up high during the middle
hours of the day, and drops down to freez-
ing or below during the night. Such a
rapid change in 24 hours is very hard on
bees. If the temperature inside the hive
could be equalized by packing so that the
sunshine during the middle of
the day and the cold of the night
would not penetrate the wallls of
the hive, a more even tempera-
ture within the hive would be
mantained.

One thing is important: The
entrance should be contracted to
the space only large enough for

Fig. 4. — The super-cover i# made of
% lumber, tin-bound at the ends. This
is put on the hive, and covered with the
tray shown in 1-ig. 3.

the Ohio River, in the Eastern
States, thruout California, south-
ern Nevada, Arizona, New Mex-
ico, and Texas it is not custom-
ary to give the bees any more
protection than is afforded by a
single-walled hive; but the api-
cultural experts in the Bureau of
Entomology at Washington,
D. C, believe that some protection could
be given to advantage. After having trav-
eled over a large portion of these States
the author feels inclined to agree with
them. Just how much packing to give, and
in what form, is rather difficult to say. In
localities where bees can fly out almost
every day in the year, breeding goes on
more or less, and very often the accession
of 3"oung bees does not quite make up for
the loss of old bees that go to the fields,
become chilled, and never return. The

Fig. 5. — iliinner of pouring- feed from a common water-
ing pot into a Doolittle division-board feeder. After sufficient
syrup is given, the feeder is removed, the combs are shoved over,
a division-board inserted, and hive closed for winter.

the passage of two or three bees at a time.
The purpose of this is primarily to keep
the cold from entering the hive, and sec-
ondarily, to prevent robbing.

In many localities where the winter is
not very cold, it would be an advantage to
lay folds of newspaper crosswise over the
hive, then slip over them a telescoping
case as shown in the accompanying illus-
tration. Another plan, costing somewhat
less, involves the use of heavy manila paper
like flour-sacking, that has been treate-J

808

WINTERING OUTDOORS

Fig. G. — Telescope Cap.

with grease or linseed oil to make it water-
proof. This is folded around the hive and
tied in the manner shown in the accom-
panying illustration. Neither of these

Fig. 7. — Paper Wrapped Hive.

forms of protection would be suitable for
the colder climates. It should be strictly
understood that their use is recommended
only for the Southern States.

WINTERING IN DOUBLE-WALLED HIVES.

For the northern climates that are sub-
ject to zero weather at times, that have
more or less snow and a large amount of
frost extending perhaps two feet into the
ground, nothing short of double-walled
hives, such as are described under the head
of Hive-making^ or packing-cases, should
be used. There are two forms of these
double-walled hives, one having bottom
packing and the other a removable bottom-
board which is made of single-thickness
%-inch lumber.

There has been some discussion as to
whether these winter hives should have
bottom packing or not. From some ex-
periments with electric bulbs apicultural
experts in the Bureau of Entomology came
to the conclusion that there is a great
advantage in having the bottom packed, as
well as the ends, sides, and tops. In a cli-
mate not generally subject to continued
zero weather these double- walled hives with
two inches of packing on the sides and ends
and four inches on top, with a properly
restricted entrance, give very good results ;
but in such hives a ten-frame colony should
be squeezed down to eight frames, and an
eight down to seven. The space should be
filled on either side with division-boards
or packing. A very good way is to wrap
a comb, preferably one containing honey,
in a newspaper in such a way that when it
is inserted in the hive it will close up the
space between the end-bars and the ends of
the hive, the bottom-bar, and the bottom,
and the top-bar and the cover. One of
these frames should be put on each side.
The purpose of these wrapped frames is
to reduce the size of the brood-nest; for
the smaller the room in which the bees are
confined the better. Moreover, the wrapped
.frames will increase the thickness of the
side protection. The top of the hive should
have a tray containing four or five inches
of planer shavings or leaves as shown on
the previous page. During the coldest part
of the winter the entrance should be con-
tracted (provided there is bottom pack-
ing) to a space one inch wide by three-
eighths inch high. If bottom packing is
used, the experts of the Bureau of Ento-
mology recommend a single I/2 or %-inch
hole. There are two forms of these double-
walled hives, one having bottom packing
and the other a removable bottom-board
made of single-thickness Vs-mGh lumber.

wintering bees under a shed.

Some beekeepers practice putting their
colonies under a shed or a series of sheds,
packing straw between the hives, on top of
them and behind them. It is customary to
have the front of the shed face south or
east, leaving the back toward the north or
west, or toward any direction from which
the prevailing winds come.

WINTERING OUTDOORS

809

The objection to the plan is the expense
and the trouble of moving the bees out of
the shed for summer handling. There is a
further objection, that it is not practicable
to pack the front of the hives that are left
exposed. Taking it all in all, the arrange-
ment, including the cost of the shed, is
about as expensive as the double- walled
hives, and not nearly as convenient.

WINTERING BEES IN TENEMENT OR
QUADRUPLE CASES.

In climates where the winters are very
severe, where the temperature goes down to
zero and stays around that point for weeks
at a time, much more protection is required
than those methods already described.
There should be at least six inches of pack-
ing around the sides and ends of the hives
— at least four inches under the hives and
ten inches on top. While one hive can be
packed in a winter case, it is more econom-
ical to make the case hold four or more
hives. Some use the plan of packing ten
hives in a case — cases long and large
enough to take ten colonies in a row, placed
side by side and in close contact. This ten-
hive tenement does not conserve the heat
quite so well as where the hives are packed
four in a group, side by side and back to

back. The four-colony tenement, or what
is generally called the quadruple case, has
come into quite general use among the
beekeepers of Canada and where the cli-
mate is very severe, and where, too, cellar
wintering is practiced.

So far as can be ascertained, Ira Bart-
lett of Michigan was the first to suggest
and use in a large way this method of win-
tering, for he began using the plan over
25 years ago. The illustrations herewith
show the original Bartlett winter case made
up of panels. The only change that has
been made during later years is to leave off
aU porticos and doorsteps. These extra at-
tachments, it has been found, are worse
than useless. Instead of having a sort of
storm door, it has been found better to
have the entrances restricted without any
roof or doorstep. There should be noth-
ing to catch snow or ice, which, when there
is a ledge or projection, lodge and thus
close the entrance.

R. F, Holtermann, who has been one of
the strongest advocates of this system of
outdoor wintering, and who by writing a
series of articles practically introduced the
plan into the United States and Canada,
recommends three %-mch holes for en-
trances instead of a slot. George S. De-
muth of the Bureau of Entomology like-

810

WINTERING OUTDOORS

■'

Fig. 9.— Bartlett's winter case for holding four ten

wise recommends a series of five or six
%-incli holes, all of which, except one, are
closed during the coldest part of the win-
ter. Both the Government experts in api-
culture and Mr. Holtermann say that a
hole is far better than a slot for a winter
entrance. Thru the latter the cold air can

frame colonies; lower illustration showing interior.

go in on one side and the hot air out of the
other. A slot is the thing during late
spring and summer, but all wrong, say
these men, during winter.

The author has met quite a number of
others, notably B. F. Kindig, State Apiarist
of Michigan, who have been using these

WINTERING OUTDOORS

Sll

Fig. 10. — The Holtermann foiir-hiTe packing case. Notice the three %-inch entrance holes. Notice also
that there is no projecting ledge or door step to catch snow and ice, thus closing the holes, causing the death of
the bees.

one-hole entrances during winter, and al-
ways, he says, with the most gratifying re-
sults.

These restricted entrances should be used
only where there is an ample amount of
packing — not less than six inches — and
where the bottom is packed with not less
than four inches. The line drawing on the
next page shows the plan recommended by
the Government experts. Two changes,
however, are recommended. The first is, that
provision should be made for more packing
under the hives. To that end the cross-
cleats secured to the bottom-board of the
packing-case should be four inches wide
instead of two inches. The hives are then
placed upon the bottom-board as shown in
Fig. 11, after which the side and end panels
are put in place and held together with
common wood screws. Moreover, instead
of slots for entrance thru the case sides,
the Government men say that it is safer to
use a series of five or six %-inch holes.
Some feel that one hole is not enough dur-
ing the coldest of the winter. This is a
question that will have to be decided by
each individual beekeeper, altho the author
has seen some most excellent results where
the one hole was used. Holtermann states
that he does not think he would dare to
close down to less than three, and he leaves
his bees for six months at a time. As

something will depend upon the locality
and the man, the individual beekeeper will
have to settle this for his own locality.

The plan shown above contemplates
single-story hives, four inches of packing
under the hives, hives packed in close con-
tact, back to back and side by side. A
bridge connects the inner entrances to the
outer entrances, after which planer shav-
ings are poured in around the sides and on
top. In the illustration above, common
forest leaves are used instead of shavings.
There should be a space of at least two
inches between the leaves and the cover.

Speaking of covers it is important that
they should be securely fastened down.
Winter winds will sometimes lift them off
and blow the packing out, with the result
that the colonies will be killed by the ex-
posure. Covers should be either wired
down or held down by hooks and eyes.
There should not be less than four stout
hooks — one at each corner.

WINTEEIXG TWO-STORY LANGSTROTH HIVES
IX QUADRUPLE CASES.

The Government experts recommend
wintering in two-story hives instead of
single stories. There are some reasons for
this. One reason, and the principal one, is
to provide stores and breeding room in tho

812

WINTERING OUTDOORS

Fig. 11. — This is the plan recommended by Dr. E. F. Phillips and by a good many other beekeepers for
wintering bees outdoors in single-walled hives. It contemplates a winter case made up of panels which are
held together by means of screws or nails at the corners. This case should provide six inches of packing
around the sides and ends, at least four inches under the bottoms of the hives, and at least ten inches
on top. Dr. Phillips particularly recommends wintering in two-tsory hives. First, a double-brood nest makes
a relatively deep wintering space. Second, it. provides ample room for breeding in the spring. Third, it
provides ample stores. Fourth, no attention is needed during spring. Spring management is practically
eliminated. Attention is drawn to the five-hole entrance. All the holes except one in the center, according
to Dr. Phillips, should be closed during cold weather. As spring approaches, one or more holes are opened
up. Tlie only objection to the plan here shown is the expense.

spring when the queen needs more room
than the one story will supply. When two
stories are used it is recommended to put
the hive containing the brood-nest or bees
on top and the hive containing the stores
beneath. Phillips says to have not less
than 45 pounds of honey or syrup distrib-
uted in hoth stories. When the bees are
put upstairs, the main cluster or breeding
room is at least ten inches distant from the
entrance, and away from the cold.

In the way of packing material, some
will find planer shavings available, and
others will use forest leaves. These lat-
ter should be raked up as they fall, and
should be thoroly dried. Usually one can
get aU he needs by going to his neighbors
and asking them to save their leaves instead
of burning them on the pavement. The
one trouble with planer shavings is the
sawdust that litters everything up. In the

spring, when one desires to look into his
packed colonies, it is almost impossible to
get at the brood-nests for examination to
see what the bees are doing, without let-
ting a quantity of sawdust or shavings get
down between the frames. For that rea-
son the author favors the use of forest
leaves ; but when leaves are used they must
be well packed down, as they are not quite
so dense as planer shavings.

When the bees are unpacked in the
spring, the hives are lifted out and the
cases are carried to the outside of the
apiary. The hives are then placed where
the case was, and in the same relative posi-
tion, but ten or twelve inches apart for con-
venience in summer working. This posi-
tion should not be changed ; and when it is
time to pack, the hives are moved to one
side, case set in place, and the hives set in
and packed as before.

WINTERING OUTDOORS 813

OBJECTIONS TO QUADRUPLE PACKIXG-CASES.

The chief objection, tho not a serious
one, is the expense of these big eases.
Their life ought to be 10 years, and with
reasonable care 25 years. On the basis of
10 3'ears they would cost only 90 cents
apiece or 22^2 cents per eolom^

Objection has been raised that it takes
40 or 50 pounds of stores; but Phillips
argues that this amount insures a strong
colony that may get twice that next year.
But suppose the season is a failure, and
the bees have eaten 45 pounds of good
honey. This is one of the hazards of bee-
keeping: and the only remedy is to winter
in the cellar provided one is willing to as-
sume the first cost. Bees indoors will con-
sume nearly half as many stores that those
outside require. See TVixterixg ix Cel-
LAR.s_, fui^ther on.

Another objection has been the tendency
of bees to drift when the two entrances
are side by side. On the first warm day
when the bees can fly, one entrance may

Figs. 12 and 13.— The Demuth plan of wintering
is made so as to hold fight Langstroth frames stood c
During the coldest of the winter- the bees will -cluster i

have twice or three times as many bees fly-
ing as the one right next to it. Unfortu-
nately the bees of the latter are inclined to
join the bees of the former. The net result
is that the weak become weaker and the
strong stronger. This has happened more
than once in the author's apiaries.

The difficult}^ can be overcome to a great
extent by packing the bees very early so
that they wiU become accustomed to their
respective entrances in the fall previous.
If packed late, when they come out in the
spring thej" are liable to become confused.

THE demuth PLAX OF WIXTERIXG.

When the fii^st cost of the packing-case
becomes a consideration, or where there is
very much ti^ouble from bees drifting, one
may find the solution of his problem in the
Demuth method of packing. If one is
equipped with extra hive bodies or supers,
a verj" small additional outlay will cover an
inner case to hold the bees and combs stood
on end. The whole is slipped inside of the
three hive bodies and packed.

bees outdoors in common hives or supers. An inner case
in end. This makes a winter brood-nest relatively deep, .
in the top where it "is warm.- ' .

814

WINTERING OUTDOORS

The inner case is made up of %-ineh
lumber large enough to receive eight Lang-
stroth frames on end and leave a space of
about two inches at each end. There
should be a clearance of at least one-half
or three-eighths of an inch so that the
eight frames on which the bees are to win-

FiG. 14. — Method of pouring packing material
around the inner case.

ter can be slid into the case endwise, as
shown in Fig. 16, and wedged fast. A cleat
at the bottom thru the center supports the
frames up about two inches from the end.
The case is then set down on a regular
hive bottom, as shown in Fig. 1. The en-
trance from the inner case is formed by
means of a bridge that communicates with
the outer entrance. Regular hive bodies,
ten-frame size, are then slipped over the
outside. Two hive bodies and one shallow
extracting-case or three hive bodies, full
depth, can be made to form the outer wall
to receive the packing. When in place,
packing material is poured in around the in-
ner case, as shown in Fig. 12. The sectional
drawings, Figs. 15 and 16, will perhaps
show more clearly the relation of the outer
walls tod'e up t)f thVe'e hiVe bo'die's an'd tla'Q

inner walls. The diagram, Fig. 16, shows
the relative amount of packing between the
inner and outer walls.
. As in the other outdoor-wintered colonies
the author recommends the use of five
%-inch holes, all of which, except one or
two, may be closed during the coldest part
of the winter. But when single holes are
used it is necessary to have bottom pack-
ing.

Mr. Demuth, who devised this system of
wintering, recommends putting three or
four inches of packing in the lower hive
body before the inner case is inserted;
then for an entrance he runs one %-inch
tube thru the side of the hive and thru the
side of the inner case, this tube being
located about two inches from the bottom
of the inner case. He used this scheme

Fig. 14. — Demuth method of winteoring, using two
hive bodies and one super.

of a single entrance at the Government
apiary with the most gratifying results.

The author has used the Demuth form
of packing bees, and so far it has given
as good results as the quadruple case.
In some respects it is better, particularly
in the matter of drifting when by itself.

It is generally conceded that, for win-
tering only, a tall or deep chamber is bet-
teir than due that is db'lo'ng sljull'ow^j

WINTERING OUTDOORS

815

like the Langstroth hive. Heat naturally
rises, and during the very coldest of the
weather the bees will Be found in the top.
If a cake of hard candy (see Candy) is
put on top, as shown in Fig. 16, there will
be no danger of starvation.

Mr. Demuth, while admitting that his
plan has less of packing space, says less is
needed, because the bees will nearly fill
the whole top of the inner case instead
of being off at one end of a shallow cham-
ber near the entrance, as in the case of the
Langstroth hive. From the tests that we
have made we are inclined to think that he
is right.

The objection to the Demuth plan is
that it involves a considerable amount of
work, but no more than the quadruple case.
Another and more valid objection is that,
after the bees begin to build up in the
spring, there is no room for further ex-

pansion. The eight frames will soon be
filled with brood and bees; and when that
time arrives it has been argued that it is
a little too early to unpack. If the colony
croivds the space of the eight combs, no
harm will be done to unpack and restore
the frames to normal position with two
more combs.

RECAPITULATION OF OUTDOOR VS^INTERING.

The system of outdoor wintering one
should use will depend largely upon the
climate. In the Southern States wrappings
of paper may be sufficient, or perhaps one
can practice the manner of packing de-
scribed and illustrated in Spring Manage-
ment.

In the colder climates, where the tem-
perature seldom goes down to zero, double-
walled hives with two inches of packing

/• / /

EA/TRANCES

Figs. 15 and 16. — These two figures represent the Demuth method of wintering a single-storv colony of bees on
Langstroth frames. It consists of an inner case large enough to take seven and eight frames — ureferably eight
— placed on end instead of the way they hang in summer. The outer case consists of two Langstroth hive-bodies
and a super, or three hive-bodies. The hive stand may be packed full of dry leaves and set on a platform a
few inches from the ground. The inner case, containing preferably eight frames, is then set down in the center
of the two hive-bodies. Dry leaves packed solid, or planer shavings, are then filled in between the inner case
and the regular summer hive-bodies surrounding it. A bridge connects the inner case to the outer for the
entrance. The entrance consists of five %-inch holes, all but one of which mav or mav not be closed during the
coldest part of the winter. It is important that there be no ledge to catch snow and ice under the entrance;
so the bottom-boards and hive-stand are turned around to leave an entrance at the rear as shown. A cake of
candy, if there is a shortage of stores, is put on top. The cost of this arrangement is only about one-fourth
of that shown in Fig. 11, and the amount of stores will be onlv a little over half as much The amount of
packing to the case in this way between the walls will be 2% inches on the sides, and 3 inches on the ends.
While this is less than recommended in the Government case, the form of the winter chamber is such that less
packing is required. Tlie objection to this general plan is that it must be unpacked earlier than the hiv?"
shov/n in Fig. 11. '

816

WINTERING OUTDOORS

space between the walls give excellent re-
sults; but the colonies should be con-
tracted down to six or seven frames, and
the space on either side filled with packing
or dummies.

Where the climate is so cold that the
mercury goes down to zero and stays there
for weeks at a time the quadruple winter
case is undoubtedly the only thing that can
be used for outdoor wintering. However^
if there is a large amount of snow every
winter, and all winter, a double-walled hive
can be used.

Whether Demuth's plan of wintering will
be equal to the quadruple scheme has not

will have a disastrous effect on the bees.
Many of them, lured out by a bright sun-
shine on certain days, will be caught by a
chilling blast. They w:ill drop to the
ground; and, unless there is a change in
the temperature or the wind within a few
days, they will never come back. On the
other hand, a yard screened in by farm
buildings, by a growth of woods or dense
shrubbery, will be able to withstand the
cold much better. While the bees may
fly but on bright sunny days, experience
shows that they quickly seek the protected
inclosure where their hives are, and soon
enter.

Fig. 17. — Pete Sowinski's windbreak made of fence boards spaced about two inches apart and nailed horizon-
tally on to fence posts eight feet above the ground. Open spacing breaks the force of the wind better than a
solid fence.

yet been proved. So far with the author
it has given better results than the quad-
ruple case, and the expense is only a frac-
tion of the big packing-cases.

IMPORTANCE OF WINDBREAKS.

In various places leading up to this has
been mentioned the importance of wind-
breaks to screen the hives from a strong
windsweep. A bad location for wintering
bees outdoors is on top of a hill with a
clear stretch of country for a mile or two
in the direction of the prevailing winds.
Altho the bees may be nicely housed in
double-walled hives, the high winds during
cold or chilly weather may and probably

Likewise there are certain spots in an
apiary where some hives are exposed to a
long windsweep, while others are in a more
protected position. Observation covering
a period of years has shown that the lat-
ter winter much better than the former.

Again, it has been shown that colonies
in single-walled hives may winter com-
paratively well in a sheltered location,
while those in double-walled hives out in
the open air will die. To say the least, the
matter of protection and the matter of
prevailing winds are of vital importance
in outdoor wintering.

Windbreaks of woods or dense shrub-
bery ten or twelve feet high are better than
high board fences. Farm buildings like

WINTERING OUTDOORS

817

barns and sheds at least twelve or fifteen
feet high afford excellent screens. The ob-
jection to a high board fence is that the
wind strikes it and glances upward, when
it is caught by the blast of air from over-
head. It may then dive downward and
strike the third or fourth row of hives
from the fence. Repeated observation has
shown that this row of colonies may die
when other rows winter comparatively

well. In the case of woods or shrubbery
the wind cannot glance upward and dive
downward. The blast filters thru, and by
the time it penetrates the inner inelosure
its force is broken.

The question has been often asked,
Which is more important — a sheltered
location or winter packing?" If the bee-
keeper can have only one he should select
the former; but it is better to have both

Figs. 18 and 19. — Twelve-foot fence windbreak used by R. F. Holtermann. The boards are nailed ver-
tically on to horizontal cross pieces nailed or bolted on to the posts. This construction can be madei up
in panels so thfit the fence can be moved in sections if necessary.

818 WINTERING OUTDOORS

packing and windbreaks to shut off the
prevailing piercing winds. When bees are
well packed and are in a sheltered loca-
tion, with plenty of good stores, the
chances of loss will be very slight.

CONSTRUCTION OF WINDBREABIS.

The objection to having the wind strike
the side of a fence and glancing down
among the hives can be overcome by put-
ting the boards a little way apart. Mr.
Sowinski of Michigan places boards hori-
zontally, as shown in the illustration. The
boards are eight inches wide and placed
from one-half to two inches apart.

R. F. Holtermann of Canada nails his
boards vertically on the cross-pieces reach-
ing from post to post. He goes further
than most of the beekeep'ers by having his
apiary entirely surrounded. The usual
plan is to have the windbreaks on the side
from which the prevailing winds come;
but experience has shown that during some
winters and some springs there may be
heavy and killing winds from the east or
south. It is therefore advisable, if one has
a good location and expects to use it for
the next ten years, to place a high board
fence clear around the apiary. Whether
the boards are nailed vertically or horizon-
tally there should be a space between them
of about an inch, and the higher the fence
can be the better. If one can get 20-foot
lumber he could cut it in two, and thus
have a fence ten feet high, on the Holter-
mann plan. If inside the inclosure one
can put a few fruit trees to provide shade
during the hottest of the weather, it will
be aU the better, for the trees will help
to break up the diving winds that may
come down into the enclosure.

Mr. Holtermann has been one of the
most successful beekeepers on the conti-
nent, and there is no doubt but that a
large part of his success is due to his
method of wintering and to his form of
windbreak that entirely surrounds the
apiary.

IMPORTANCE OF LETTING BEES
FORM A WINTER NEST.

What is meant by " winter nests " ? A
space of empty brood-cells in one or more
combs, such space approximating the form
of a flattened sphere in ordino^ry Lan^-

stroth brood-nest. These empty cells sur- 1 1
rounded by sealed stores constitute the I ol
winter nest where bees cluster when condi- '| h
tions are ideal. As the stores are consumed, ! t!
the number of empty cells increases either | n
backward or forward, but always upward. tl
As a general thing, the ball of bees will \\i
be located near the front of the hive and j, \
regularly over the entrance. As the stores || [
are consumed they move upward and back- \ f
ward; but the cluster in no case extends jj l
over the sealed honey when the bees can j \
have their own sweet will. (

Very often a well-meaning ABC scholar
finds three or four combs in the center of i
the hive, having a space of empty cells as | ,
large as the hand spread out. He thinks j ,
this is all wrong and will remove the
combs containing such spaces, and put in :
their place solid combs of honey. What
has he done? He has compelled the bees I
to cluster upon sealed honey. The cluster
is broken up into slabs approximately %
inch thick, each slab of bees separated by
approximately an inch of solid honey. In-
stead of having one solid cluster separated i
by only the midrib of the combs, he has
made a series of clusters, each within itself i
trying to maintain its own body heat but
at very great disadvantage. \

To illustrate: Two people on a cold
winter's night require less bed clothing
than one person would in the same bed.
Suppose that, instead of having those two j
bed-fellows separated from each other by
only their night clothing, we have a slab
of metal or even wood between them. If
they are compelled to place their warm
bodies in contact with that cold surface,
they lose a great deal of their body heat
because the cold surfaces carry away (that
is, dissipate) the warmth.

There is precisely that condition when i
combs of sealed honey are set down into a
bunch of bees. They are compelled to
divide up into four or five clusters. The
result is, that colonies tampered with in t
this manner perish or come out in the
spring very weak because of their inabil-
ity to maintain the requisite temperature.
Where outside bees become stiff with cold
they can not long endure that condition.

If a colony is fed gradually during
October and November, they will form this J|
winter nest. If, however, they are on the J
ver^e of starvation they are fed 80 ||

WINTERING OUTDOORS

819

lbs. in a single night toward the last end
of the fall, or when it is quite cold, they
do not have the opportunity of forming
this nest. They will carry the syrup down
while it is hot; then for a few days after
that, if it is so they can fly, or, rather, so
the cluster can move freely about the
brood-nest, they may or may not rearrange
the stores. The cluster, when it actually
forms up for winter, will be practically one
homogeneous mass of bees separated only
by thin cell walls and the midribs of the
combs.

If anybody doubts that bees try to have
a winter nest, let him break into several
clusters of bees (if he wishes to take a
chance) when the temperature is 5 degrees
above zero. The author has done this re-
peatedly. If the arrangement of combs has
not been disturbed in the fall, one will
probably find the bees tightly jammed into
the cells. And, again, he will often dis-
cover as he goes over his colonies in the
late winter or early spring, that some of
them have actually starved to death. In
all such cases he will see dead bees tightly
packed in the cells of the winter nest, and
a solid mass of bees between the several
spaces between the combs. Starvation is
often due to the fact that cold weather has
continued so long without a let-up that the
bees are left high and dry, so to speak, in
the center of the winter nest. They actual-
ly starve, notwithstanding sealed honey is
within two inches of the cluster. The long-
continued cold has given them no oppor-
tunity to warm up and shift the cluster
over in contact with the sealed honey. We
have seen this condition almost every win-
ter in our yard.

Still again, we have often found dead
colonies where some of our newer men in
the bee-yard had disturbed the combs, put-
ting a solid comb of honey down thru
the center of the winter nest. This made
two bunches of bees; and both, being too
small, died.

When it comes to indoor wintering, espe-
cially where the cellar temperature does
not go below 40 F., a winter nest is not so
vitally necessary. But if the temperature
goes down below 40, then the absence of a
winter nest may mean the death of a col-
ony.

Nature has worked out this problem of
winifeh^in*^ IMef^ ; aoH wl^eu thfe beeman tam-

pers with her plans he tampers w^ith his
pocketbook. While he can do certain
things contrary to nature, he can not in-
terfere with her plan in the arrangement
of the stores.

NON-POROUS COVERS OR
ABSORBING CUSHIONS.

There has been considerable discussion
in the bee journals over the question of
whether there should be loose porous ab-
sorbing cushions or other material placed
above the cluster of bees so that the mois-
ture from a cluster can pass up into the
packing; or whether, on the other hand,
the top of the hive should have a thin
board or super cover on top. In the
milder climates it seems to be pretty well
proved that the wood cover over the bees
brings the bees thru in better shape. In
the colder climates, such as northern Mich-
igan, Canada, northern Wisconsin, Minne-
sota, and northern New York, a porous
covering seems to have somewhat the pref-
erence, altho there are advocates of the
solid-cover principle in these localities. If
there is danger of the entrance becoming
closed by deep snows or ice for weeks at a
time, upward ventilation thru porous pack-
ing would probably be safer, for bees must
have air.

When the top of the hive is closed tight,
moisture from the bees may collect on the
under side of the cover, drip down, and
pass out at the entrance. The absorbing
cushions, on the other hand, in our cli- .
mate often become damp and soggy before
spring. When in that condition they will
sometimes freeze; and, so far from being
a protection, they are a positive detriment.
But where the climate is cold and dry, the
temperature going down to 10° or 20°
below zero, the absorbing cushions will be
less damp than in a milder climate subject
to more or less humidity on account of
moist or rainy weather. When absorbing
cushions are used, there must be a space of
at least one inch over the top of the pack-
ing. In addition^ there should be ventilat-
ing holes so that the moisture can escape.
But these holes should be so situated as to
prevent rain or snow from blowing in.

When non-porous covers are used, it
takes less packing than when the absorb-
ing plan is e-mp^l'of/e'd ; b'ut the entramfe's

820

WINTERING OUTDOORS

must be kept clear. If one has not de-
cided which scheme to adopt, let him try
the two side by side. The author has tried
sheets of glass the exact size of the tops
of the hives. These are imbedded in putty,
making a tight sealing between the glass
and the hive. The packing material is
then placed on top. We have wintered
most successfully anywhere from one to a
dozen colonies, during successive winters,
under these sealed glass covers — not be-
cause there was any merit in the glass, but
because we could better observe conditions.
We could never see that this moisture that
collects and drops at the corners ever did
any harm.

WINTER STOBES— QUALITY AND
QUANTITY.

Having now considered the inclosure,
and the hives themselves, something should
be said about the quality and quantity of
the stores. It is fair to say that bees out-
doors consume more than twice as much
as those indoors; but it is argued, on the
other hand, that while the former consume
this larger proportion of food they keep
stronger numerically and will be in better
condition at harvest time than those win-
tered indoors on half the amount. The
opinion of the beekeeping world is some-
what divided on this whole question ; but
certain it is that he who winters out-
doors should provide twice the amount of
stores, or at least see that his colonies,
after the main brood-rearing has ceased,
have from 25 to 30 lbs. of sealed stores
and in very cold climates from 30 to 40
lbs. may be needed. The beginner will
need to weigh his combs for the first colony
or two, to be able to estimate approxi-
mately the stores of other colonies.

As a general thing an eight-frame colony
should be crowded on six combs, and a ten
on an eight. The division-board must be
ishoved up close to the frames, and the
empty space, if any, filled with leaves, or
other packing material. It is desirable
that bees have stores given to them at least
a month before they go into their winter
rest, so they may have a winter nest
around which will be sealed stores within
easy reach. As to quality, there is nothing
better than good honey. If there is a
shortage, thick ' granulated sugax' syrup

should be given. It is believed by some
good beekeepers that honey will go fur-
ther pound for pound than syrup. Honey
is a natural food, and, besides, contains
other food elements such as protein for the
bees. Many beekeepers pursue the policy
of extracting all the honey and feeding
sugar syrup. At the 1919 price of sugar
and honey one can well afford to do this.

Altho a colony may have sufficient stores
by the middle or latter part of August it
may run considerably short by the first of
November, especially if a fall flow induces
brood-rearing. In anj case it is well to sro
over the colonies just prior to the final
preparation for winter, and make sure they
do not run short. This is very important
as many a colony has been lost thru star-
vation when their owner supposed they
had enough to last till spring. See Feed-
ing AND Feedees.

BEES FLYING OUT ON CHILLY OR
COLD DAYS AND APPARENTLY
DYING ON THE GROUND.

In a late fall or early spring, in climates
subject to snows and alternate freezing and
thawing, bees will very often fiy out on a
bright day, whether it is very warm or not.
They alight on the ground or some object,
become chilled, and apparently die. Cases
are on record where bees have flown out.
alighted on the ground, become still and
cold, and were apparently dead. There
was one instance in particular of this kind
in the author's apiary late one fall, where
thousands of bees had flown out and lay
on the ground apparently never to return.
A cold rain set in and then it began to
f reeze^ followed by some snow. This freez-
ing weather lasted for a couple of days.
This was followed by warm sunshine, when,
wonderful to relate, those dead (?) bees
came to life, took wing, and flew back to
their hives. Other authentic reports, show-
ing something similar to this, have been
sent in. It seems almost unbelievable, but
the facts are, that bees can fly out, alight
in the snow, chill thru, and seem to be dead.
If the snow is not too deep it melts away
so that the bodies of the bees can become
warmed up, when they will often revive;
they always revive, if it is warm enough,
and they have not been chilled- too long. .

WINTERING m CELLARS

82i

Beekeepers have written in at many dif-
ferent times, fearing that their bees hav-
ing flown out in late fall, and, becoming
chilled on the ground, were utterly lost.
Fortunately when a warm day comes on
a little later, these bees, if it has not been
too cold, will return to their hives.

Old Dame Nature seems to have made
some wonderful provisions to preserve bee-
life. We are therefore constrained to be-
lieve that bees can stand, under some con-
ditions, chilling cold for some days with-
out being killed.

with little or no loss. After consulting
some of our best beemen, and especially
Government experts, we were particularly
directed to one man, said to understand
with special thoroness the subject of in-
door wintering. He has wintered bees for
the last 12 or 15 years in a cellar of his
own design, with a loss of less than one
per cent. This man is David Running of
Filion, Mich., — ex-president of the Michi-
gan State Beekeepers' Association, and ex-
president of the National Beekeepers' As-
sociation. He agrees as to wintering in

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Bee Cellar w

PASSAGE

Fig. 1. — This is a diagram of the ground plan of the David Running bee-cellar which has wintered bees
for the last 12 years with a loss of less than one per cent. The cellar proper is built in a side hill. The
bottom of the cellar is on a level with the ground in front. The walls are 6 inches thick, of concrete, with
a concrete ceiling on top. Directly above the cellar is a concrete workship and extracting house. Be-
tween the ceiling of the cellar and the floor of this building above there is packing material of one foot of dry
sawdust and one foot of air space ; and then another set of joists covered with matched flooring. Between the
ceiling and cellar roof is 6 feet, and the cellar is capable of holding between 300 and 400 colonies. It will be
noticed that there are three doors to shut out the outside cold. The hives are piled as shown in the diagram.
The ventilator, or chimney, has a 9 x 13 flue which extends clear up thru the building above. The outer cellar
is sometimes used for wintering bees in double-walled hives.

WINTERING IN CELLARS.— In dis-
cussing methods for wintering bees out-
doors, some principles have been given that
apply to cellar wintering. However, bees
indoors do not require more than 10 or
15 lbs. of stores per colony, altho it is an
advantage to have more, because it is dif-
ficult to feed bees in the spring. With a
strong force of young bees and good stores,
one is well equipped to winter bees in the
cellar, provided he has reasonable control
of temperature and means for ventilation.

The author has been giving the matter
of cellar wintering special consideration;
and with that end in view he has traveled
some hundreds of miles visiting some of
the best beekeepers of the United States —
especially those who wintered in cellars

almost every detail with that veteran
authority, the late G. M. Doolittle. The
fact that these two men came to precisely
the same conclusions 30 years apart, the
one without the knowledge of the other,
makes the information now about to be
given very important.

Mr. Running specifies that the whole
bee-cellar must be well protected from both
cold and dampness. It is not enough, he
says, that the whole of the cellar be under-
ground and the ceiling on a level with the
ground, unless between the ceiling and
roof there is three or four feet of saw-
dust. Many and many a good bee-cellar
gives poor results because the temperature
of the inside ceiling varies with the out-
side temperature. A cellar where frost

I

Fig. 2. — This is a bee-cellar belonging to Leonard Griggs, Flint, Mich. It is a type of an above-ground
cellar embodying the ideas of David Running. The cellar proper extends into the ground about 3 feet. TTien
there is a three-foot embankment about 3 feet wide around the upper part of the cellar. The ceiling is covered
with about 3 feet of sawdust. To keep the side embankments dry and frost-proof the roof extends entirely over
the cellar, and the embankment, except in front ; and Mr. Griggs thovght it would be a good idea to cover this
also. He has been uniformly successful in wintering bees in this cellar.

during severely cold weather can be
scraped off the ceiling is badly designed
and can not be expected to give good re-
sults.

On account of the difficulty in obtain-
ing proper drainage it is not essential, the
same authority says, that the whole cellar
be submerged 2% to 3 feet below the gen-
eral surface of the ground to get below the
frost-line. In the great majority of cases
the cellar will have to be partly above
ground and partly below. But the import-
ant thing is to remember that the part
above the general level must be protected
by three or four feet of embankment of
dry earth. The ceiling of the cellar proper
must be covered with at least three or four
feet of dry earth or sawdust. Mr. Run-
ning has a workshop directly above his bee-
cellar, making only a foot of sawdust above
the cellar ceiling necessary. In order to
keep the side embankments dry as well as
the space over the cellar proper, it is im-
portant that the roof itself cover not only
the width of the actual inclosure, but the
embankment at the sides and ends. A wet
or frozen embankment means a low tem-,
perature in the cellar and that is often
fatal.

Mr. Running told the author that he be-
lieved he could winter bees in a properly
constructed winter bee-cellar even in Ten-
nessee or in any of the Southern States

with a great saving of stores. " For," he
said, " it is acknowledged that where bees
can fly one or more times during every
week of the winter they will consume any-
where from two to three times the amount
that bees in the North will eat." He would
put them where the inside temperature of
the cluster would be at the point of the
least activity, or 57 degrees F.

Regarding the amount of ventilation,
our Michigan friend has been successful in
the use of one ventilator, about 9 by 13
inches, in the back end of the bee-cellar,
extending thru the roof, and surmounted
at the top by a chimney. This shaft should
extend down to the level of the cellar floor.
This is for the outlet of foul air. The
inlet consists of a sewer pipe running un-
der ground, opening into the front end of
the cellar. Altho he has not used it, he be-
lieves it would be an advantage to have the
inlet of this sub-earth ventilator continue
in a vertical pipe to within a few inches
of the ceiling. This would bring about a
thoro circulation of air from top to bot-
tom.

An electric fan can very often be used
to good advantage, where electric current
is available, to force fresh air into a cel-
lar; or, better, foul air out of the cellar.

The entrance to the cellar is effected by
means of double (or better, triple) doors
thru a narrov/ passageway leading from the

WINTERING IN CELLARS

823

level of the ground to the bottom of the
cellar. If the cellar is halfway below
ground and halfway above, the entrance
and exit are made easy bv means of steps.
If it is located under a sidehill, so that
the bottom of the cellar is on a level with
the ground in front, the conditions are
ideal.

To recapitulate : " The important thing
to remember," said Mr. Running, " is to
make the cellar room so that it will not be
subject to any outside variations of tem-
perature; and to prevent these variations
the sides, ends, and ceiling must have
enough protection of dry earth or sawdust
to keep the bee-cellar at the right tempera-
ture." In localities where there are deep
snows less insulation would be needed;
but, as there are some winters with little
snow, it is well to have a large dry dirt
embankment.

The temperature of Mother Earth, ac-
cording to Mr. Running, is about right for
cellar wintering. Mother Earth varies all

1-5 seems to be the average. It is evident
in some cases that a high temperature is
better, and in others a low temperature. If
the entrances are large, yg ijich deep by the
full width of the hive, a higher tempera-
ture may be maintained than where the en-
trances are contracted to, say, % inch deep,
by 6 inches wide. In the latter case the
internal temperature of the hive itself, the
colony being of the same strength, would
be higher than where the entrance is %
inch deep by the full width of the hive.
The real consideration after all is the tem-
perature of the cluster of bees. That tem-
perature should be approximately 57 de-
grees. Large powerful colonies would
probably require a lower cellar tempera-
ture, other things being equal, than weak
ones. Again, a cellar that has powerful
colonies with contracted entrances should
doubtless have a loAver temperatui^e ; and
the same colonies with a large entrance or
bottoms removed entirely might have a
temperature of 50 or even higher.

Fig. 4. — This cellar belongs to L. C. Grordou, of Bellaire, Mich. According- to David Running's idea the
roof (Should havei extended over the side embankment. But these embankments are made up of sand that
dries out very quickly ; and in spite of the fact that it is not covered, it makes a good insulator. Mr. Gordon
once told the author that in this 12x20-foot bee-cellar the preceding winter he wintered 151 colonies with-
out the loss of a colonv. This cellar has the ventilation recommended bv Mr. Running.

the way from 41 to 50 degrees. He said
the best results in a cellar would be where
the variation of the temperature is between
43 to 47 degrees.

While 45 degi-ees F. seems to be the
nearest right point according to most au-
thorities, there are some who hold that it
may be as high as 50, and others as low as
4H or even 40. Taking the two extremes.

Taking all of these factors into consid-
eration, it is easy to see how some, without
knowing why, would favor a comparatively
high temperature, and others a low one,
and yet both would be right for their re-
spective conditions. If we come back to
the fundamental principle, that the tem-
perature of the cluster should be, as near-
ly as possible, 57 degrees thruout the pe-

824

WINTERING IN CELLARS

riod of confinement, we shall then natural-
ly regulate the size of the entrance or the
temperature of the cellar, or both, so the
temperature of the cluster shall be, as near-
ly as possible, 57 degrees.

Unfortunately, not all the colonies of the
cellar will be of the same strength. If the
temperature is nearly right, say around 45,
the internal temperature of individual

Fig. G. — Another oi Mr. So\viii>ki s Ijeo-ci-ll-

clusters can be regulated by the size of the
entrances.

To determine the temperature, it will be
impracticable and entirely unnecessary to
stick a thermometer into a cluster. For all
practical purposes, if a thermometer placed
on the bottom-board, inside of the entrance,
shows a temperature of about 52, it may be

surmised that the temperature of the
cluster will be about 57. Let us suppose,
for example, that there are two small colo-
nies in a certain cellar. The average tem-
perature of the cellar is somewhere around
45. If we shove into the entrances of colo-
nies of ditferent strengths an orc&inarj^
dairy thermometer tested for accuracy, or
even a common house thermometer (if it
can be shoved into the entrance), we shall
be able to determine in these colonies the
temperature of the bottom-board. If the
variation is not very gTeat, and the tem-
perature stands around about 52 a few
inches back from the entrance, we may take
it that the cellar temperature is about
right. But if we find that one colony has
a bottom temperature of 47 or 48, and an-
other one a temperature of about 55 to 56,
it is obvious that the entrance of the first
named should be contracted to a point
where the temperature will be about 52.
The other entrances should be enlarged
until the mercury in the thermometer drops
down to the required point. In a word,
the temperature of the cellar should be at
a point that will give as nearly as possible
the proper temperature of the cluster, and
that is 57. See Temperatuee.

If when one puts the bees in the cellar
he marks on each hive its relative strength,
he will be able to determine the degree of
contraction for each entrance; but, before
he determines the right contraction, he

Fig. 5. — This cellar (7% x 25) belongs to Peter Sowinski of Bellaire, Mich. ; so also does the cellar (7 x
30) shown in Fig. 6. Mr. Sowinski wintered 285 colonies in these two cellars without loss. The embankment
in Fig._ 6 appears to be covered. The home cellar, Fig. 5, embodies all the ideas of David Running. We went
into this cellar at the time of our visit, and, notwithstanding the temperature was 80 degrees in the shade out-
side, it was down to 45 in the cellar. Mr. Sowinski keeps his vegetables, butter, eggs, and other food stuffs in
this cellar. The drinking-water, kept in jugs here, seems to be as cold as ice. TTie scheme of ventilation was
the same as Mr. Running's.

WINTERING IN CELLARS

825

should use thermometers in a few test colo-
nies.

So far neither the question of food nor
that of the age of the bees has been touched
on. Mr. Running said that, of course, he
would much prefer good stores ; for, when
good stores are used, there is no spotting
of the hives when the bees are taken from
the cellar in the spring, even if they have
been confined from four to five months.
But tho the bees will not winter as well on
poor stores as on good, still if they arc
wintered in a properly constructed cellar,
the amount of stores consumed by the
bees is so small that no serious conse-
quences occur.

He says that many times the beekeeper
can not have young bees, and many times
he will have to put up with inferior stores.
But he is strongly of the opinion that if

experience has shown that where the tem-
perature inside is variable — from 40 to 60
— there must be a large amount of ventila-
tion, especially at the higher points. We
have had good results with the temperature
ranging between 55 and 60 ; but when it is
as high as this there will be a loud roar
from restless bees, unless there is a con-
stant interchange of air. It is a little
difficult to bring this about in an ordinary
house ceUar, unless one can use an electric
fan so placed as to bring about a change of
air. Where there are a few colonies — 10 to
15 — in a room 10 x 12, the matter of venti-
lation is not hard to overcome, especially
if the door leading from the bee-cellar into
the furnace-room is left slightly ajar. It is
put down as an axiom that 10 colonies in a
house cellar will winter better than 50 or
75 colonies, provided the temperature does

Fig. 7. — E. G. Brown's upground cellar constructed by setting four fence posts about four feet into ground
at the four corners of the proposed cellar. The portion of the posts above ground are boarded up on the outside.
The dirt on the inside is shoveled out, forming an embankment around the board fence. The ^^hole is covered
with a roof as shown.

bee-cellars are built right — and that, of
course, means proper drainage and protec-
tion— one could winter any kind of bees.
When the cellars are not properly pro-
tected, good stores and young bees are
almost a necessity.

WINTERING IN AN ORDINARY HOUSE CELLAR.

Wintering in an ordinary house ceUar is
possible and practicable ; but it should be
understood that a house cellar is much
more subject to variations of temperature,
either on account of the presence of a fur-
nace in the adjoining room to heat the
house, or because of the exposure of the
walls above ground to outside temperature,
which is always very variable. The author's

not go below 40. If the cellar is not frost-
proof— that is, will not prevent vegetables
from freezing — it will be a very poor place
for bees. A cellar reeking with dampness
is also bad, altho bees have wintered well
in house cellars where there was a large
amount of dampness; but it was because
there was a temperature not lower than 45.

The question of whether the hives should
be carried into the cellar without the
bottom-boards w^ll depend on conditions.
In cellars of the David Running type the
bees should be put in with hive-bottoms
snd covers sealed down. Mr. Running uses
an entrance 1^/4 inches deep running the
w^idth of the hive.

826

WINTERING IN CELLARS

STORES.

Usually a single" brood-nest will have
enough stores to carry the colony thru win-
ter in the cellar; but some beekeepers —
notably Leonard Griggs, who is one of the
most successful producers in Michigan and
who follows Mr. Running in the construc-
tion of his bee-cellar — give to every colony
they put into the cellar a half-depth super
of natural stores. This is in addition to
what the lower story happens to have. See
Fig. 2. Also see Feeding and FeederS;
subhead, " Feeding for Winter."

HOW TO BUILD A BEE-CELLAR.

So far no specific directions have been
given on how to build a David Running
cellar. See Fig. 1 and legend beneath.
AYhere the clay is firm and will not cave
in, sustaining walls are not necessary. But
in most" localities a wall or board siding is
very essential. Concrete walls are prob-
ably cheapest in the end. Where the cel-
lar is temporary or on rented land very
good bee-cellars have been built by using
cheap boarding nailed against wooden
posts. Mr. Brown, of the Western Honey-
producers, Sioux City, Iowa, makes four
holes in the ground with a post-auger.
These holes are deep enough so that an
ordinary fence-post will stick above the
ground three or four feet. ■ The boarding
is then nailed outside of the posts above
ground. The man then gets inside of the
inclosure, digs an oblong pit deep enough
so that he will have about 6^2 feet between
what is the top of the ceiling of the cellar-
fco-be and the bottom. The inside dirt is
thrown outside of the wooden barricade.
This leaves an embankment of four or five
feet of earth. He uses no sustaining walls in
the lower half of the cellar. A ceiling is
then put on, and then a gable roof is made
to cover the embankment as well as the cel-
lar proper. On top of the ceiling and
under the gable roof is put from three to
four feet of sawdust.

From the general investigations that the
author has been able to make and from the
results of his own experience, he comes to
the conclusion that the ordinary bee-cellar
should be relatively long with the entrance
in one end. The temperature of Mother
Earth in most localities where cellars are
used is between 40 and 50 Fahr. — just

about the right range to have inside a cel-
lar. The walls next to Mother Earth be-
come radiators of heat and cold because
they draw from an enormous reservoir, so
to speak. The larger the amount of wall
surface exposed below ground, the more
even the temperature in the cellar. A rel-
atively long narrow cellar submerged three
or four feet below ground, thru which cold
can not penetrate, gives the largest possi-
ble amount of wall and a temperature of
approximately 45 degrees — just where we
want it for good wintering in a cellar.
The author's cellar is 12 feet wide by 60
feet long, by 6V2 feet high inside, whoUy
submerged beneath the surface, with con-
crete walls, sides, ends, and ceiling. This
cellar is covered with some four feet of
clay closely packed. The cellar opens up
into the basement of a main warehouse
building, from which ventilation is se-
cured by means of an electric fan. Up
thru the ceiling and earth, at the back end,
is an 8-inch sewer-pipe chimney thru which
the air is forced by the fan when there is
not a natural draft. During a very warm
winter, the first year this cellar was tried
it gave excellent results in spite of the fact
that the temperature outside was around 60
and 65 degrees for many days.

It was also found that sudden changes of
temperature have very little effect on the
cellar. About Jan. 9 the mercury outside
dropped over 40 degrees in 24 hours; yet
this did not change the temperature of the
cellar one degree. Not until spring did the
temperature go above 50 degrees and then
only a few times; 44 is the lowest mark
registered, and this only three times. The
average daily variation in the bee cellar
was less than 2 degrees and the greatest
change in one day was 3 degrees.

Where the soil is not impervious to
water there should be a roof over the three
or four feet of clay top. In our Ohio soil
the clay is impervious to water and no roof
is used.

SUB-EARTH VENTILATORS.

The sub-ventilator should be from four
to six inches in diameter, made of glazed
tile, about 100 feet long, and from four
to six feet below the surface of the ground.
The outer end is brought to the surface of
the ground, and the inner opens near the
bottom of the cellar. Cold air entering the

WINTERING IN CELLARS

ventilator is warmed in passing under
ground to the cellar, and not only sup-
plies the latter with pure air, but at the
same time raises its temperature several
degrees.

Sub-earth ventilators are not used to any
great extent at this writing. The plan of
using a furnace under the house, placing it
in a room by itself adjoining the cellar, is
preferable, provided, however, that outdoor
air is allowed to go into the furnace room
from a door or window.

AKRAXGEMEXT OF HIVES IX A BEE-CELLAR.

The hives may be piled up one on top of
another in such a way that any one can be
removed without disturbing more than the
one or two above it. The reason for this
will be apparent later. Strong colonies
should be put in first, and placed on a
2x4 scantling. On top of these may then
be placed the weaker ones. This has no
special advantage except the convenience
of having the heavy ones at the bottom and
the light ones on top. The entrances of the
hives should be left about the same as they
were during the late fall — % inch deep
by 8 inches wide. Some consider it essen-
tial to remove the bottom of the hives en-
tirely. Others consider it good practice to
have a deep space under the frames by
raising the hive off the bottom in front and
supporting it there by a couple of blocks.
But some disastrous results in wintering
seem to show us^ at least, that too much
bottom ventilation is bad unless the cellar
is kept at a temperature of about 60 de-
grees and thoroly ventilated. We have uni-
formly secured the best results with a rea-
sonably small entrance, or one about the
size used during the fall or late spring.
The larger the colony, of course the larger
the entrance that will be required. In the
case of a strong populous colony the en-
trance should be % inch deep by the full
width of the hive. The colonies of medium
strength should have the entrance reduced
according^.

IXSPECTIXG THE BEES DLT^IXG illDWIXTER ;
AXD DEAD BEES OX THE CELLAR BOTTOM.

Experience has proved that, when the
temperature is maintained at 45 degi'ees,
very little attention need be paid to the

bees, especially in the fore part of the win-
ter. But dui'ing the last month or two of
confinement the bees require watching more
carefulh'; for if they get to roaring many
of them will be lost. It then becomes nec-
essary to make frequent examination to de-
tennine the temperature and the quality of
the air. It will also happen, perhaps,
that a good many dead bees will be found
on the ceUar bottom. While this is not
necessarily a cause for alami, it is not as
it should be. If the cellar and temperature
are right there will be very few dead bees;
but if they accumulate, their dead bodies
should not be allowed to taint the hive, but
should be swept up perhaps every two or
three weeks and removed.

A disposition to roar should be met by
more ventilation, and at the same time the
temperature should be reduced. If all the
colonies ui the cellar should become uneasy
during midwinter it is evident that some-
thing must be done at once or the whole
lot of bees will be lost. They ought not to
become uneasy imtil late in the spring. If
they can not be quieted by infusion of
fresh air, it may be best to give the uneasy
colonies a flight on the first warm day by
setting them outdoors and letting them
stay there for 24 hours or until they can
clean themselves. Dysentery or diarrhea
in the bee-cellar is generally the result of
too much cold air or too high a tempera-
ture, either of which will induce too large
a consumption of stores; and where bees
are not able to void their feces, the intes-
tines become distended, resulting in
purging. A colony so affected should be
removed as soon as a warm day comes and
given a flight, when it may be put back.

WHEX TO PUT BEES IX THE CELLAR. AXD
WHEX TO TAKE THEM OUT.

This is a question that depends entirely
on locality. Most bees go into the cellar
in the Northern States anywhere from the
last of November until the fii-st of January ;
but usually it is ad^^-isable to have all bees
in before Christmas. As to when the bees
should be taken out of the cellar, authori-
ties differ. Some set them out in March,
and then put on winter cases. Others be-
lieve it is better policy to keep bees in late
or until the last cold weather is past, and
then set them out. The author advises tak-

828

WINTERING IN CELLARS

ing the golden mean, waiting until the time
natural pollen comes, or, in our locality,
soft maples bloom. But when bees are un-
easy in the cellar it is advised to set them
out earlier than would be done otherwise.

TIME OF DAY TO TAKE BEES OUT.

The usual plan for taking bees from a
cellar in the spring is to wait until fairly
settled warm weather has come, and then
on some warm bright day all the colonies
are removed at once. The difficulty with
this method is that the bees are likely to
become badly mixed, owing to their eager
flight without carefully marking the loca-
tion. This results in a bad state of affairs,
and should be avoided. Another method
followed to some extent is to put some of
the colonies out during an evening when all
appearances indicate that it will be warm
and bright the next day. A third of them,
perhaps, are taken out, and these fly quite
well the next day. The next evening an-
other third is removed, and the last third
the night following. The objection to this
plan is that the bees removed first get to
flying well and then start to rob colonies
taken out later, thus making a fearful
uproar.

E. W. Alexander, in Gleanings in Bee
Culture, page 286, Vol. XXXIV., gave
a plan open to none of these objections.

" First, get everything ready for a big
job, and watch the weather closely, espe-
cially after a few nice days, for it is quite
changeable at this time of the year. Then
when the wind gets around in the east, and
it commences to become overcast with heavy
clouds, and has every appearance of bad
weather lor the morrow, we commence
about sundown and carry out all our bees
— yes, even if it takes not only all night
but into the next day ; and if it commences
to rain before we are done, all the better,
for we don't want any to try to fly until
they have been out two or three days if we
can help it. By this time they will have
become nice and quiet; and when a fair
day arrives they will commence to fly, only
a few at a time, and get their location
marked, so th€re will be no mixing up or
robbing, because they all have their first fly
together. Then when the day is over we
find b}^ examining our hives that nearly
every one has apparently retained all its
bees."

The plan here given avoids " drifting "
on the part of the bees. (See Drifting.)
When bees drift from one hive to another
it means that the strong become stronger
and the weak weaker. Moreover, there is
danger of robbing. When bees are set out
two or three different times, those first set
out having marked their locations, and hav-
ing quieted down, are quite liable to rob
those set out afterward, because the last lot
of bees are more or less demoralized until
they can mark their locations and recover
from their excitement.

SHALL WE PUT THE. COLONIES BACK ON THE
OLD STANDS IN THE SPRING?

After bees have been shut up in the
cellar over winter they can be placed back
on the old stand they formerly occupied
or they can be put anywhere in the yard,
or, in fact, anywhere on the premises.
Bees after long confinement apparently
lose all knowledge of their former location,
and will stay anywhere they may be placed.
If one finds it necessary or desirable to
move his bees a short distance, it is a good
time to wait until they are taken out of
the cellar the following spring, when they
may be placed anywhere.

CARRIERS FOR HIVES.

A wheeled vehicle is not as good for
moving bees in and out of a cellar as some
sort of carrier.

A wheelbarrow, if the paths are smooth,
does very well. If the cellar steps are not
too steep, a plank runway can be provided
so that the load of bees can be delivered
into the cellar itself. There are several
good carriers. For hives without projec-
tions a pair of U-shaped wires bent to form
a sort of bail with hooks on the ends an-
swers nicely. The bottom hooks catch on to
the bottom of the hive. Dr. Miller uses a
rope carrier so that the weight of the hive
is divided between two people. The par-

Greiner's hive-carrier.

WINTERIXG IN CELLARS

829

ticular form of hive-carrier preferred by
many is the one described by G. C. Greiner
and several others in Gleanings in Bee Cul-
ture. This is presented in the preceding
il]usti*ation.

Two men can easily caiTj^ as many as
five hives in this way. Where the cellar is
located some little distance from the apiary
this is the most convenient method yet de-
vised.

Instead of constructing a regular hive-
carrier as shown, it is possible to get along
quite weU by the use of two poles, but they
are by no means as good. These should
be about two inches square and six or eight
feet long. They are placed on the gi'ound
in a parallel position, and as many hives
placed on them as can be carried ; perhaps
three hives would be aU that could be man-
aged easily with the poles. It is much
more satisfactory, however, to have the
poles nailed together with a framework,
making a regular hive-carrier.

SOME THIXGS TO REMEMBER IX CELLAR.
WIXTERIXG,

1. The temperature of the bee-cellar
should be approximately 45 degrees.
TMiether it should be higher or lower will
depend on the size of the colonies and the
entrances of those colonies.

2. An excess of dampness in the cellar
does no harm provided the temperatiu'e of
the cellar is such as to make the tempera-
tare of the cluster approximately 57 de-
grees F.

3. A low temperature in the cellar, say
35 to 40 degTees, or any temperatui'e at
which the heat of the cluster is much above
or below 57, with an excess of dampn^s,
is a very bad condition.

4. Bees can be wintered in a cellar with-
out much ventilation, provided the tem-
perature of the individual clusters is ap-
proximately around 57 degrees. With
average-sized colonies and average-sized en-
trances, a constant temperature of about
45 degi'ees in the cellar will not require
much ventilation.

5. Ideal conditions for cellar wintering
are — the right cluster temperature, a slight
amount of moisture, a moderate amount of
ventilation, and absolute darkness.

6. A very bad combination is a constant-
ly varying temperature that goes down

nearly to the freezing point, and then rises
to 55 or 60 degrees. Such frequent changes
are very hard on the bees.

7. A high cellar temperatiu'e will require
very much larger entrances, or possibly the
removal of the bottom-boards entirely,
leaving the whole bottom of the hive open.
There are some ceUai^s where the tempera-
ture can not be held down, and in such
cases more ventilation is required as well
as larger enti'ances.

8. Occasional disturbances by the bee-
keeper himself in the cellar do no harm;
but these disturbances should be as few
as possible, and with no jar and as little
uoise as possible. Xo brighter light than a
hand pocket electric lamp should be used.
With this, one can easily make his way
thru the cellar, taking a glance at the en-
trances and also a glance at the thennome-
ters in the entrances of some of the hives.
A more durable and lasting light is an
electric lamp attached to a fuU-sized dry
batteiy. Small pocket lamps are usually
short-lived.

9. When good colonies winter well the
dead bees do not collect on the hive floors
nor are they scattered over the cellar floor.
The live bees remove the dead ones, leaving
them on the cellar floor just below the en-
trances. If scattered aU, about, it is plain
that they have flown from their hives and
have not wintered well. ^Moreover, if there
are several inches of dead bees on the cel-
lar bottom in the spiing, the owner of that
cellar ought to investigate and ascertain
the trouble. Xo matter if he does bring
his colonies thru alive, it could hardly be
said that he is winteiing his bees success-
fully. An ideal cellar is one that will bring
the colonies thru the winter in? practically
the same sti'engih as when they went luto
winter quarters. Xo colony should lose
more than one-sixth of its bees, and well-
wintered colonies will have much less loss
than this — in some cases as low as 100
bees.

10. Honeydew, unsealed aster honey, mo-
lasses, or S}T*up from brown sugar, makes
a poor feed for indoor wintering. It is
much better to have a good honey, well
ripened, or syrup made of white granulat-
ed sugar.

11. Pollen in the combs does little or no
harm. Indeed, it is an advantage to have

How R. F. Holterniann carries his twelve-frame hives into the cellar. He lifts the hive as shown in 1- ig.
2, and then brings it up against his body as in Fig. 5. Positions in 4 and 6 put an unnecessary strain on the
back, and interfere with walking.

WINTERING IN CELLARS

831

some of it reattv for next spring after the
bees are set out. The old theoiy that an
excess of pollen in the combs was the cause
of dysentery is now an exploded myth.

12, Shutting bees in the hive with wire
cloth, or closing the entrance in any way, is
usually attended with disaster.

13. Bees can be wintered in a common
house cellar provided there is not too much
variation of temperature. The trouble with
most house or vegetable cellars is that they
become too warm or too cold. This makes
it necessaiT for the beekeeper to enter the
cellar, often opening and closing the cellar
windows at night. The disturbance is a
bad thing, and the variation of temjDerature
is still worse.

M. A cellar wholly under ground and
frost-proof is much safer than the average
house cellar.

15. "When one has from 100 to 300 or
more colonies and the winters are so cold
that there are many days of zero tempera-
ture, especially if the locality is subject to
high winds, it would be well to build a
special bee-repository under ground, large
enough to accommodate as many colonies
as one would be likely to own. The mis-
take should not be made of building it too
small. It should be constructed on the
lines indicated b}^ David Running, as speci-
fied in previous pages. Its shape should
be long and narrow and whoUy under-
ground. That means that the roof should
either be below the frost Ime by three or
four feet, or that the portion of the re-
pository above ground should be covered by
an embankment of thi'ee or four feet for
the sides above ground and three or four
feet on top. Err on the side of having the
repository covered too deep rather than
not deep enough. If the earth covering
it is not a pure yellow clay that is imper-
vious to water, it is better to make a special
roof over it. Sand or gravel should always
be covered to keep it from freezing.

16. An electric fan can very often be
used to good advantage in ventilating a
bee-cellar. Where a cellar under a dwell-
ing house becomes too warm, an electric
fan can be stationed in such a way as to
force air from outdoors into the room.
Bees will stand a comparatively high tem-
perature provided the air is fresh and
sweet.

HOW AND WHAT TO FEED BEI^S
DURING MIDWINTER.

It is advisable to avoid feeding any
syrup during midwinter, because it has a
tendency to stir up the bees, causing them
to consume too largely of their stores;
and, as they can not take a cleansing flight,
dysentery is likely to follow.

When an outdoor colony is running short
it should be given a comb of sealed stores.
To avoid disturbing the whiter nest this
should be given directly on top of the
brood-frames laid upon a couple of sticks.
On top of the comb should be placed two
other strips and then the packing-material.
A comb may be given in the same way in
the cellar, but it would be more practicable
to take out an empty frame and put the
one containing the stores in its place.

If one does not have any combs of honey
he may give rock candy, or any kind of
candy, provided it has not been scorched or
burned. If the candj^ is the same as that
used in queen-cages, or what is called Good
candy, it should be put in shallow trays
like paper or wooden pie-plates, so that,
in case it becomes soft, it will not run
down over the combs, thus daubing the
bees, and ultimately destroying the colony.
There is always danger that a soft candy
may do this, and hence the advice to use a
hard candy. The use of a little honey,
but not too much, makes a better candy.
One pound or a pound and a half of honey
to 20 pounds of sugar will be about the
right proportion. It is very important
that the mixture be not heated to a higher
temperature than 280° : and for this pur-
pose a candj'-thermometer should be used.
See Candy for Bees.

It is a nice art to make hard candy, and
perhaps some would not care to undertake
it. One or two reports seem to show that
loaf sugar may be laid on top of the
frames. In winter there would be enough
dampness to keep the sugar moist. For
summer feeding it would have to be damp-
ened perhaps.

The feeding of a single colony in a cel-
lar is apt to stir up by its roar the other
colonies near it. Moreover, the giving of
candy to bees in a cellar has a tendency
to start brood-rearing. If the cellar is
well ventilated, no harm will be done. If

832

DO BEES HIBERNATE?

the ventilation is poor, with a tempera-
ture below 40° F., it may result in dys-
entery. One year the author placed a
yard of bees in the cellar, the colonies of
which were weak and short of stores. Each
was supplied with a slab of hard candy.
Brood-rearing started up, and, remarkable
as it may seem, those colonies built up to
fair size by spring and were as nice bees
as we ever had. But cellar brood-rearing
is attended with many dangers, and should
usually be avoided by beginners, for some-
times it induces 'dysentery, especially when
cellar conditions are not ideal.

DO BEES HIBERNATE?

The quiescent state or sleep into which
bees enter when the wintering conditions
are ideal, has been mentioned. In this
period the bees seem merely to exist. With
no activity the consumption of stores is
very light.

As shown under Temperature^ partic-
ularly the temperature of the winter clus-
ter during winter, bees are the quietest
when the thermometer is about 57° F.
If it goes below 57°, the bees, instead of
clustering, become active, and in the man-
ner explained under Temperature they
raise the heat of the cluster sometimes
almost to the brood-rearing point. When,
therefore, the temperature is either below
or above 57° F., the bees are in anything
but a state of sleep or what some have
caUed semi-hibernation. Strictly speaking,
bees do not hibernate, and perhaps do not
even enter into the condition called semi-
hibernation when they are the quietest.
It all depends on what is meant by that
term. But there are some interesting facts
showing that bees can for a short time
stand low temperatures, and revive like
ants and flies that are true hibernators.
In the discussion which follows, however,
one must not be misled. Yet it is evident
that nature has provided means by which
bees can stand the temperature of freezing,
or below, for a short time. In order that
the reader may understand what hiberna-
tion really^ is, a few facts should be pre-
sented.

Hibernation was exploited about 30
years ago, when it was generally decided,
and rightly too, that bees do not hibernate

in the ordinary sense of the term (see
American Bee Journal for 1885): But
they do enter a quiescent state when the
temperature has been lowered; and this
state is somewhat analogous to the torpor
experienced by some animals in a state of
true hibernation, during which no food is
taken, and respiration is considerably re-
duced. Dr. Marshall Hall has stated that
" respiration is inversely as the degree of
irritability of the muscular fiber." If the
respiration is reduced without this irrita-
bility being increased, death results from
asphyxia. Hibernation is usually induced
by cold, and the animal under its influence
attains nearly the temperature of the sur-
rounding atmosphere, yet can not resist
any amount of cold, altho its capacity for
doing so varies according to the animal. ||
Some animals bury themselves in holes,
like snakes and frogs ; others, like the bear,
crawl under a pile of leaves and brush
where they are still further covered with
snow. Thus buried they will go all winter
without food or water ; but there is a waste
of tissue. Fish may be incased in ice and
still live, it is said. A lively frog may be
dropped into a pail of water, four or flve
inches deep, and exposed to a freezing
temperature. Indeed, there may be a thin
coating of ice formed over the animal. The
next morning, that frog, though stiff and
cold, can be warmed up into activity, but
to freeze solid will kill the creature.

Flies, as is well known, will secrete them-
selves in window-frames and other hiding-
places, subject to cold atmosphere, for
weeks at a time, and yet revive on ex-
posure to warmth. As is well known, also,
ants have been repeatedly dug out of logs,
frozen solid — in fact, fairly enveloped in
frost : yet on exposure to warmth they will
revive. Some hibernators can endure a
freezing temperature, while others, like the
bear, woodchuck, and the like, can not.
Other very interesting incidents may be
taken from natural history; but the pur-
pose of this article is to consider whether
bees go into a quiescent state that ap-
proaches hibernation, in which there is low
respiration and a small consumption of
stores.

Two or three years ago the author put
a number of cages of bees with some queens
(laying the cages down on cakes of ice) in

DO BEES HIBERXATE?

833

a refrigerator. The bees were chilled to
absolute stiffness. Every day a cage was
taken ont and each time the bees would
revive, including the queen. This plan was
continued for several days, and 3'et the
bees would " come to " each time.

The strange part of it was, that the
queens went on laying normally when put
back in the hives, instead of laying drone
eggs as expected. Just what was the tem-
perature to which these bees were sub-
jected can not be told, but probably
below 40° and above 35°, for the doors of
the refrigerators were frequently opened,
and the ice was constantly melting.

During one winter, when a very cold
snap came on — the temperature going down
to zero — the author put out some cages of
bees, exposing them to the cold wind, which
was then blowing a pretty good gale, when
the temperature was 5 above zero. It was
expected that the bees possibly might be
able to survive the shock for a number of
hours, and yet revive; but 20 minutes of
zero freezing was sufficient to kill them
outright. If the bees had been gradually
acclimatized to the cold, fii'st being sub-
jected to 40°, then to 35°, and gradually
down to the zero point, they would pos-
sibly have withstood the shock.

When the weather warmed up a little
several cages of bees were taken and buried
in the snow, with a thermometer so that
the absolute temperature might be known.
A cage of bees was taken about every two
or three hours, and it was found that they
could be revived without difficulty; but
at the end of 24 hours the bees, when they
" came to," seemed somewhat the worse for
the experience. The temperature in the
snow plaj^ed around the 32° mark. But
the experiments conducted during the sum-
mer would seem to show that bees might
stand a temperature of 38° for a number of
days.

Bees on the outside of the baU or cluster
in an outdoor-wintered colony, wiU often
be chilled stiff while those inside have
almost a blood temperature. During very
severe weather, the outside bees may be
gradually replaced by those within the clus-
ter; for bees are in constant movement.
Experiments show that a starved bee will
not stand as much cold as one that is well

filled. Beekeepers who have had' any ex-
perience in wintering outdoors know how
repeatedly they have taken clusters of bees
that seemed to be frozen stiff, yet when
warmed up before a good fii'e would revive
and appear as lively as ever.

In view of the experiments thus far re-
corded it would appear that bees might be
able to stand a temperature of 40°, or •
slightly below that, for a number of days;
but if a warm speU does not come within
a week, or less, those bees in their chilled
condition may starve to death. But if it
warms up, the cluster will unfold and the
bees take food, and so be ready for an-
other " freeze." The author has repeat-
edly seen clusters of bees, after a zero spell,
lasting a couple of weeks, that were stone
dead; but the honey had been eaten from
all around them within a radius of an inch
or more. If a zero speU of weather con-
tinues more than a week or ten days, some
of the weaker colonies will be found in the
spring frozen to death.

If the bee were a true hibernator it
would save the beekeepers of the world
millions of dollars, because then all that
would be necessary would be to establish
a sort of cold-storage plant, where the
climate was open or mild, and put the bees
away for winter. In cold climates it would
not be necessary to have cold-storage
plants. The bees could be placed outdoors
without protection, and left aU winter ; yes,
they could easily be put on dry combs.
Like the ants and flies they would remain
in a dormant state; and when warm
weather came on they would revive and re-
sume their former activity. But, unfortu-
nately, bees are not that kind of insect.
That they wiU go into a quiescent state, or
a kind of suspended animation, at a tem-
perature of 57 degrees Fahr.. has been
clearly proven. During that period they
consume the minimum of stores. If the
time ever comes when we shall know
enough to provide conditions so that a
cluster wiU remain thruout the greater part
of the winter at a temperature of
about 57 degrees F., it will certainly save a
large amount of stores. But whether those
conditions would indicate a state of semi-
hibernation, or even an approach to it, the
author is not prepared to say.

■34:

WINTERING IN THE SOUTHERN STATES

WINTERING IN THE SOUTHERN
STATES. — Where bees can fly almost
every day in the year, and for ten months
are able to gather a little honey or pollen,
no special protection other than single
walls has hitherto been considered neces-
sary. The fact that the wintering problem
in the South is not serious would seem to
indicate that no special precaution is
needed; but some experience that the
author has had in wintering bees in Cali-
fornia, Virginia, and Florida indicates
that, even where the bees can fly almost
every day in the year, a moderate amount
of protection can be given to advantage.
This should be in the form of light pack-
ing cases and of windbreaks to shut off the
prevailing winds. While this may seem
to be an imnecessary expense, the sav-
ing in brood and stores will pay for it in
time. As will be seen under Temperature,
bees, in order to keep up the proper
amount of heat, must exercise, and this
means a consumption of stores. Such ac-
tivity causes the bees to fly out on a chilly
day, and many never return. Again, where
clusters are not large there is considerable
brood in the Southland which chills and
dies. This is a heavy drain on the colonies.
While a colony can survive it, the bee-
keeper could well afl'ord to furnish a little
protection to save this brood. See Win-
tering Outdoors and Spring Manage-
ment.

As has been pointed out elsewhere under
Wintering Outdoors and Spring Man-
agement the rapid changes of temperature
from morning until night — warm sunshine
during the middle hours of the day, low
temperature or freezing at night — are very
hard on bees in many of the Southern
States. The hot sun beating on the walls
of the hives forces the bees out, and in an
hour or so there may be a cold chilly wind
that will prevent them from getting back.
They get some pollen or nectar, which
starts breeding. As the cool nights come
on the survivors attempt to hover this
brood and failing to do so on account of
so many bees being lost in the fields, some
of the brood is chilled.

A little protection in the form of paper
wrappings or an outside protecting case
would save heavy losses of bees. In the
Southern States, and particularly in Cali-
fornia, winter losses — uot of colonies bnt

of bees— are as great as in some of the
Northern States. The author feels very
certain that a moderate amount of protec-
tion would mean thousands upon thou-

FiGS. 1 AND 2. — Method of packing bees with news-
paper for semi-tropical states. The brood nest is re-
duced down in a ten frame hive to six or seven
frames, using those that contain the most stores.
Tliese are placed centrally in the hive and covered
with newspaper. The space on either side is then filled
with folds of newspaper, after which the cover is put
on. The smaller brood nest with packing on the sides
is better protected and will consume less stores.

sands of dollars of saving to the beekeep-
ers in the warm States, where it is thought
that there is no wintering problem.

Dr. E. F. Phillips, in charge of api-
culture in the Bureau of Entomology,
Washington, D. C, also believes that some
winter protection in the South will prevent
some loss of bees, if not of colonies.

Altho the advantages would seem to
favor some packing in the Southland, it
will probably be some time before its bee-
keepers below the Ohio River will realize
its importance enough to provide the neces-
sary winter protection.

One serious difficulty in wintering in th*-
South is starvation. Bees require mo- '
stores per colony than in the North, -rhen
they can fly almost every day in the
ter, breeding will be kept up )riore or
with the result that the coiooy

XYLOCOPA

835

twice as much honey during the winter as
a similar colony in the North, packed. It
is important, for one to examine his colo-
nies occasionally to see if they are running
short; and, if so, he should feed them
with sugar syi'up or honey.

The fact that so many colonies become
weak in the Southland makes it possible
for European foul brood to make rapid
headway. This disease is being scattered
rapidl}^ all over California and the South-

ern States. It thrives on weak colonies,
and the reason colonies are weak is because
the bees have insufficient stores or because
they are improperly packed or both.

WIRING FRAMES.— See Comb Foun;

DATIOls^.

WOMEN AS BEEKEEPERS. — See

BeEKEEPIXG for WOiTEX.

WORKER COMBS.— See CoiiBS.

X Y Z

XYLOCOPA.— To this genus belong the
carpenter bees, among which are the larg-
est bees in the world. They are so called
because they excavate with their power-
ful jaws tunnels a foot in length in solid
wood. The cells are about an inch long,
and are separated by partitions made of
small chips cemented together in a spiral.
The eggs are laid on masses of pollen,
moistened with honey, the pollen masses be-

ing about the size of -a bean. A common
species in the eastern United States is X.
virginica.

YELLOW SWEET CLOVER. — See

SvTEET Clover.

ZINC, Perforated.— See Drones, Ex-
tracted Hoxet, and Swarmixg.

Beekeepers' Dictionary

Abdomen. — The posterior of the three parts into which
a bee is divided. See AyATOMT in text.

Absconding suarni. — A swarm which leaves for new
quarters. See ABSCoyDiXG Swaems in text.

Absorbents. — Materials more or less porous placed over
the brood-chamber in winter, thru which moisture
may escape without much heat escaping.

Adair frame. — 13% inches long, 11 ^4 inches deep.

After -SIC arms. — Swarms which leave a given colony
after a swarm of the same season has already left it.

Albino. — A bee in which the coloring matter is defi-
cient, making it lighter in color.

Alighting -board. — The projection before the entrance
to a hive.

American foul brood. — See ForL Brood.

American frame. — 12 inches long, 12 inches deep.

Antenna (plural antennae). — Feeler; a horn-like ap-
pendage attached to the head of a bee ; the organ
of touch, and possibly also of other senses. See
AXATOiiT in text.

.■inther. — The upper part of the stamen normally con-
sisting of two sacs called the pollen-sacs, in which
the pollen is produced. The anther at first is com-
posed of four spore-cases or chambers, which at
maturity are reduced to two by the breaking- do\\Ti
of the partition between the two spore-cases on each
side.

Aphis. — A plant louse which secretes honeydew.
Apiarian. — Pertaining to bees or an apiary.
Apiarist. — A beekeeper.

Apiary. — A collection of colonies of bees ; also the
yard or place where bees are kept. See Apiary in
text.

Apiculture. — Beekeeping.

Apidae. — The family to which the honeybee belongs.
See Solitary Bees in text.

Apis. — The genus to which honeybees belong.

Artificial fecundation. — The impregnation of ^-irgin
queens in confinement.

Artificial fertilization. — (Xot correct term.) See Ar-
tificial Fecundatiox.

Artificial pasturage. — Plants purposely cultivated for
their nectar.

Artificial pollen. — Rye meal, pea flour, or other sub-
stances fed as substitutes for the pollen of flowers.

Artificial swarm. — A swarm made by di%*iding a colony
of bees.

Automatic hirer. — See &SVAEMIXG.

Ba-cillus larvae. — Cause of American foul brood.

Balling a queen. — A number of bees clustering about
a queen, sometimes making a ball an inch or more
in diameter, sometimes releasing the queen un-
harmed; oftener continuing to ball her till she is
dead.

Bar-frame. — A name sometimes applied to a movable

frame in Great Britain.
Bee-bread.— -The pollen of flowers gathered by the bees,

mixed with a little honey, and deposited in the

comb. See Pollex in text.
Bee-brush. — A brush used in removing bees off their

combs. See Pollex in text.
Bee culture. — The care of bees.

Bee-dress. — A suit or dress to wear while working with
bees.

Bee-escape. — A device to get bees out of supers of
buildings, so constructed as to allow bees to pass
thru in one direction, but prevent their return. See
Comb Hoxet in text.

Bee-gloves. — Gloves worn to protect the hands from
stings and from propolis.

Bee glue. — See Propolis.

Bee-gum. — A very poor bee hive with immovable
frames. Originally gum referred to a section of a
gum tree used as a hive.

Beehive. — A box ur other contrivance for holding a

colony of bees. See Hives in text.
Bee-house. — A house constructed to contain colonies of

bees. See HorsE Apiary under Apiary in text.
Bee line. — The shortest distance between two points.

See Bee-hunting in text.
Bee louse. — A commensal parasite common in Europe,

and practically unknown in America ; Braula coeca.
Bee metamorphoses. — The bee passes thru three stages

before becoming a perfect insect — first the egg, then

the larva, and "next the nymph. The following will

serve to show how this is accomplished :

Queen, Worker, Drone,
days. days. days.

Incubation of the egg 3 3 3

rime of feeding the larva 5 5 6

Larva spinning cocoons 12 3

Resting period 2 3 4

Passing from larva to nymph_ 111
Time in the n\-mph state 3 7 7

Total period of grovrth 15 21 24

Hatching takes place on 4 4 4

Bee leaves its cell 16 21 24

Bee flies 21 33 38

See Development of Bees in text.
Br^ II, nth. — A moth whose larvte destroy honeycombs.

eating the wax ; a wax moth.
Bee paralysis. — A disease of adult bees in which the

wings have a trembling motion, and the bees have

a shiny appearance ; of little account in the North,

but sometimes severe in the South. See Diseases of

Bees in the text.
Bee pasturage. — Flowering plants from which bees

gather nectar.
Bee-pest. — Foul brood.

Bee plants. — Flowering plants which produce nectar
for bees.

Bee-space. — A space in which bees put the least amount
of wax or propolis — about of an inch or a trifle
more. See Frames in the text.

Beeswax. — The wax of which bees make their combs ;
excreted in small scales from the abdominal rings.

Bee- tent. — Tent of wire cloth or netting large enough
to contain a hive and the operator, in which bees
m.ay be manipulated without being troubled by rob-
bers. See Robbing in text.

Bee-tree. — A hollow tree occupied by a colony of wild
bees. See Bee-hunting in text.

Bee-veil. — A net veil for protecting the head from the
attack of bees.

Beeway sections. — Sections having insets at the edges
so as to make passages for the bees when the sections
are crowded close together.

BlacJ: bee. — The German or brown bee : the bee fiorst
introduced into this country.

Bottom-board. — The floor of a beehive. See HrvES in
text.

Box hive. — A plain box used for housing a colony of
bees.

Box honey. — Honey stored in small boxes.

Black brood. — See EtmopEAX Foul Brood.

Brace-comb. — The terms " brace-comb " and " burr-
comib " are often used indiscriminately as meaning
the same thing. More exactly, a brace-comb is a bit
of comb built between two combs" to fasten them
together, or between a comb and adjacent wood, or
between two wooden parts, as between two top-bars ;
while a burr-comb is a bit of was built upon a comb
or upon a wooden part in a hive, seeming to have
no object but to use up wax. See Hives in text.

Linmstoning. — The operation of killing a colony of
bees with sulphur fumes. See Box Htves in text.

British standard frame. — A frame 14 inches long bv
8% deep.

Brood. — Young bees not vet emerged from their cells.
See Brood in text.

838

BEEKEEPERS' DICTIONARY

Brood-chamber. — ^That part of the hive in which the
brood is reared.

Brood-comb. — One of the combs in the brood-chamber.
See Brood and Combs in text.

Brood-nest. — That part of the brood-chamber occu-
pied by eggs and brood. The term is also used to
apply to that part where the bees are clustered when
they have no eggs or brood.

Brood-rearing. — Raising bees from the egg.

Brushed swarm. — An artificial swarm made by brush-
ing or shaking part or all of the bees of a colony
into an empty hive, thus anticipating and prevent-
ing a natural swarm. It is also called "shaken
swarm " and " shook swarm," altho some object to
'* shook swarm " as being ungrammatical. See Ar-
tificial SwAEMiNG in the text.

Bumblebee. — A large hairy social bee of the genus
Bombus; bumblebee.

Burr-comb. — See Brace-comb.

Button or bouton. — The enlarged part at the tip of a
bee's tonerue.

Candied honey. — Honey that has granulated and be-
come solid.

Cap. — 1. The covering: of a cell containing brood or
honey ; the capping ; the sealing. 2. To cover a
cell with a capping; to seal. 3. A hive cover.

Capped brood. — Brood sealed over by the bees 8 or
9 days after the egg is laid; sealed brood.

Carniolan bees. — Bees obtained from Carniola, Austria.
They resemble black bees with somewhat distinct
whitish bands. —

Carton. — A pasteboard box for holding a section of
honey. See Comb Honey, to Produce, in the text.

Cast. — A second swarm ; also applied to any swarm
after the first.

Cell. — One of the hexagonal compartments of a honey-
comb.

Cell-cup. — A queen-cell when it is only about as deep
as it is wide. Artificial cell-cups are made as well
as natural. See Queen-rearing in the text.

Cell-protector. — A receptacle made of wire cloth,
which protects the sides of a queen-cell from the
attacks of bees, but leaves the apex of the cell un-
covered.

Chaif hive. — A hive having double walls filled between
with chaff.

Chorion. — The reticulated membrane or network that
covers a bee- egg.

Chrysalis. — See pupa, the more usual name.

Chyle. — A milky substance prepared in the chyle-
stomach of the nurse bees, and fed to a young queen
during its whole larval existence, and to other larvae
during their first three days of feeding.

Chyme. — Partially digested food to be further elabo-
rated into chyle.

Clamp. — A winter repository for bees, made in sandy
soil by digging a trench in which the hives are
placed, and then covered with straw and earth.

Claustral hive. — Having a covered-in entrance with
ventilator for winter. See Cloister Hive.

Cleansing flight. — The flight of the bees from the hive
after long confinement, as in the spring, when they
void their feces in the air.

Cloister hive. — A hive provided with a cloistered en-
trance, which excludes the light in winter weather
to prevent the bees from flying.

Closed-end frames. — Frames with end-bars so wide
that no space is left between them.

Colony. — A community of bees having a queen, some
thousands of workers, and during part of the year a
number of drones ; the bees that live together as
one family in a hive.

Comb. — An assemblage of hexagonal cells made of wax
to contain eggs, brood, honey, or pollen ; honey-
comb. See Combs in text.

Comb-basket. — That part of a honey-extractor in which
the combs are held. See Extracting in the text.

Comb-carrier. — A receptacle in which one or more
combs may be placed and covered, so as to be
easily carried, and protected from robbers.

Comb foundation. — Thin sheets of beeswax stamped
to imitate comb, forming a base on which the bees
will construct a complete comb.

Comb-foundation machine. — A machine for stamping
the foregoing.

Comb-guide: — Strips of wood used as a guide in the
construction of combs.

Comb honey. — Honey in comb together with the comb.

Cross. — When races of bees are bred together the re-
sulting progeny is called a cross.

Cyprian bee. — The native bee of the island of Cyprus.

Decoy hive. — A hive placed with the object of attract-
ing passing swarms.

Dequeen. — To take the queen from a colony of bees ;
to unqueen.

Dividing. — Separating a colony in a manner to pro-
duce two or more colonies.

Division-board. — A thin board of the same size as the
inside length and width of the hive, used to con-
tract the size of the brood-chamber or to divide it
into separate compartments; often called dummy;
see Dummy.

Dovetailed hive. — A hive with Langstroth frames, the
hive having interlocked corners after the manner
of dovetailing. See Hives in the text.

Drone. — Male bee.

Drone brood. — Brood which matures into drones, bred

in larger cells than worker bees.
Drone comb. — Comb having cells which measure 4 to

the inch. Drones are reared in drone comb ; also

honey is stored in it ,but not often pollen. Drone

comb is about one inch thick when used for brood ;

when used for honey it may be very much thicker.

Drone comb has about ISVz cells to the square inch

on each side.

Drone egg. — The egg from which a drone hatches —

an unimpregnated egg.
Drone-trap, see Queen-trap.

Drumming. — Pounding on the sides of an inverted hive
to make the bees ascend into another hive placed
over. In England it is called " driving." See
Transferring in the text.

Dummy. — A thin board of the same size as a frame,
or a little smaller, having a top-bar nailed on top.
See Division-board.

Dysentery. — Diarrhea or an affection in which an ac-
cumulation in the intestines causes the bees to dis-
charge watery feces in the hive or on the outside
front of the hive.

Dzierzon theory. — A set of 13 propositions put forth
by Rev. John Dzierzon (pronounced Tseer tsone) in
the middle of the 19th century, propounding the
then novel idea of parthenogenesis. See Dzierzon
Theory in text.

Egyptian bee. — Apis fasciata. A smaller and naore
beautiful bee than the Italian, but exceedingly cross.
See Races of Bees in text.

Embryo. — The germ of the bee in the egg.

Entrance. — The opening at the front of a hive to
allow the bees to pass out and in. In America the
entrance is almost universally at the bottom of the
hive. In Europe it is often higher up.

Entrance blocks. — Pieces of wood for regulating the
size of the entrance.

European foul brood.— See Foul Brood.

Excluder. — See Queen-excluder ; also Drones in text.

Extracted honey. — Honey obtained from combs by
means of a centrifugal extractor.

Extractor. — :See Honey-extractor and Wax-extractor.

Extra-thin super foundation. — Comb foundation run^;
ning about 13 V2 square feet to the pound. See
Comb Foundation in text.

Fdn. — An abbreviation for the words comb foundation.

Feces. — Excreta of bees.

Fecundate. — To fertilize; to impregnate. The_ queen
is fecundated upon meeting the drone, and is then
capable of laying eggs that will produce workers or
queens.

Feeders. — Appliances for feeding bees artificially.
Femur. — Thigh of the honeybee. See Anatomy in
text.

Fence. — A slotted separator resembling an ordinary
wooden fence. It is used as a guide to compel the
bees to build combs that are straight. See Comb
Honey, Appliances for.

Fertile. — A fertile queen is one that has mated with
a drone.

BEEKEEPERS' DICTIONARY

839

Fertilize.— A queen's eggs that are to produce workers
or queens are fertilized on their outward passage by
receiving one or more of the spermatozoa contained
in the spermatheca of the queen. Drone eggs are
unfertilized.

Field bees. — "When worker bees become about 16 days
old, they begin the work of flying abroad to collect
nectar, pollen, water, and propolis, and are then
called field bees.

Fielders. — Field bees.

Fixed frames. — Frames that do not hang loose in the
hive, but touch at one or more parts of the end-
bars ; self-spacing frames. See Frames^ Self-spac-
ing, in text.

Formic acid. — A colorless corrosive liquid compound
(HCO.OH), forming a very small but important part
of honey.

Foul brood. — A malignant contagious disease of bees
affecting the brood. See Foul Brood in body of the
work.

Foundation. — See Comb Foundation.

Foundation splints. — Wooden splints about 1-16 inch
square, embedded vertically in the foundation of a
brood-frame to prevent sagging. See Comb Foun-
dation in the text.

Frame. — Four slats of wood to hold a comb, invented
by the late Rev. L. L. Langstroth of Oxford, 0.
This frame requires a bee-space ^4 of an inch on all
sides to be effective. See Frames in text.

Fumigate. — To submit to the fumes of sulphur, carbon
bisulphide, or other disinfectant. Combs are fumi-
gated to kill the eggs or larvae of the bee moth, and
bees are sometimes killed by fumigation. See Moth
Miller in the text.

Galleria mellonella (formerly Galliera cereana). — The
scientific name of the wax moth. See Moth Mil-
ler in text.

Ganglion (plural, ganglia). — A nodular enlargement
consisting of an aggregation of nerve-cells that re-
ceives and sends forth nervous impulses and serves
to stimulate organic and psychical action ; a nerve
center. See Anatomy in text.

Go-backs. — Unfinished sections which are returned to
the hive to be finished.

Golden bees, or Goldens. — Colonies in which many of
the workers show four or five yellow bands.

Good candy. — See Queen Candy.

Grafting. — Applied by beekeepers to the process of re-
moving a worker larva from its cell into a queen-
cup, with the view of having it reared into a queen.
See Queen-rearing in text.

Green honey. — Unripe honey.

Hatching brood. — Young bees just emawinar their way

out of the cells.
Heddon frame.— 5% inches deep by 18 1-16 in length.

Ilive. — 1. A home for bees furnished by man ; 2. To

put a swarm in a hive or to induce it to enter a

hive. See Hives in text.
Hive-tool. — A tool used to pry up supers, pry frames

apart, etc. See Manipulation of Colonies in the

text.

Holy Land bees. — A variety of bees from Palestine.
Somewhat resemble Italian bees, but are more ir-
ritable.

Honey. — The nectar of fiowers gathered by the bees,
and so changed by them that it becomes honey.
According to the national pure-food law, ** Honey
is laevorotatory, contains not more than 25 per cent
of water, not more than 25 per cent of ash, and not
more than 8 per cent sucrose (cane sugar.)"

Honeybee. — The honeybee belongs to the class Insecta,
order Hymenoptera, superfamily Apoidea or Antho-
phila and family Apidae. In 1758 Linnaeus named
the honeybee Apis mellifera (honey-bearer), and
three years later (1761) changed the name to Apis
mellifica (honey-maker). A. mellifera has, therefore,
the right of priority. Dalla Torre recognizes in the
genus Apis over 180 species, of which A. mellifera,
dorsata, florea, and A. mellifera are fasciata, caffra,
adansonii, japonica, ligustica, and unicolor. Races
or varieties of the domestic bee are also distinguished
by the names of the geographical localities in which
they occur and from which they have been exported,
as Italian, Carniolan, Syrian, Cyprian, B^nat, Cavj^
pasjan, Tumsian,

Honey-board. — A slatted board placed between the
brood-chamber and the honey-chamber to break the
continuity of the two ; formerly a board with holes
in it to support the receptacles of comb honey, A
queen-excluder is sometimes called a honey-board.

Honey-box. — A box for comb honey, closed on all sides,
and provided with holes to allow the bees access.
Almost obsolete.

Honeycomb. — Two series of waxen cells with a septum
between them, which septum serves as the bottom
for the cells of both series. In the Bible honeycomb
means comb honey. See Drone Comb and Worker
Comb.

Honeydew. — A sweet liquid similar to the nectar of
flowers deposited on the leaves and branches of
plants.

Honey-evaporator. — A machine for removing water from
honey deemed too thin.

Honey-extractor. — A machine for throwing the honey
from combs by centrifugal force.

Honey-gate. — An iron faucet used for drawing honey
from barrels or other receptacles.

Honey-harvest. — 1. Surplus honey taken from bees. 2.
The time when bees are gathering a surplus, or more
than enough for their daily needs.

Honey-house. — A building for the purpose of honey
extraction, storage, etc.

Honey-knife. — A knife used to shave the cappings from
combs of sealed honey preparatory to extracting.
See Extracting in the text.

Honey-sac. — An enlargement of the bee's esophagus
after it enters the abdomen ; the sac in which a bee
carries nectar or honey ; honey-bag ; honey-stomach.

House-apiary. — 1. An apiary kept in a specially con-
structed building ; 2. Tlie building itself which con-
tains the hives, the walls of the building containing
holes thru which the bees pass out and in.

Hybrids. — Usually used by beekeepers to designate a
cross between the common black bee and the Italian.

Hymetius. — A mountain district of Greece famous for
its wild-thyme honey, and celebrated in classic poetry
and history. See Sage in the text.

Imago. — The fully developed bee or other insect.

Introduce. — To give a colony a strange queen, taking
precautions so that she will not be killed by the
Ijees.

Introducing. — Giving a strange queen to a colony of
bees. Unless certain precautions are taken, a colony
is apt to kill a queen to which they are not accus-
tomed. Introducing is generally performed by hang-
ing the queen in a cage in the midst of the strange
bees several days until she acquires the odor of the
hive.

Introducing-cage. — A small box of wire and wood.

Inversion. — The process of turning a hive upside down
to compel the bees to attach their combs to the
bottom-bar, also to remove honey from brood-frames
into the supers.

Italian bee. — The native bee of Italy, the workers hav-
ing three yellow bands. In America it has been bred
to have four or five yellow bands.

Italianize. — To change a colony of any other race to
Italians by introducing an Italian queen.

Jumbo frame. — 17% inches long, IIV4. inches in depth.
See Hives in the text.

Langstroth frame. — 17% inches long by 9% inches
deep. See Hives, also Frames in the text.

Langstroth hive. — A hive having frames 17% by 9%.
In one sense, any movable-frame hive is a Langstroth
hive, since Langstroth invented the movable-frame
hive.

Larva (plural Larvae). — A bee in the worm state;

unsealed brood.
L. frame. — Langstroth frame.

L. hive. — Langstroth hive. See Hives in the text.

Laying worker. — A worker which lays eggs, such eggs
producing only drones. Laying workers do not ap-
pear except in colonies long queenless.

Light brood foundation. — Comb foundation running
about 9 square feet to the pound.

Ligurian bee. — Italian bee, named for the district in
which the best Italian bees are found.

Lining bees. — Watching the direction of the flight of
bees so as to trace them to their home (usually in
some lioJJow tree). See Bee-hunting in the text.

840

BEEKEEPERS' DICTIONARY

Loose frames or loose-hanging frames. — As opposed to
fixed frames, those which have no provision for self-
spacing, but must be spaced by the eye. See
Fkames, Self-spacing, in the text.

Mai de mat. — May sickness ; a peculiar disease of bees
occurring mostly in May, and giving much trouble in
Europe. See Diseases op Bees in the text.

Mandibles. — The jaws of the bee working like a pair
of pliers, tut sidewise, not up and down, as with
ourselves.

May pest. — Same as mal de mai.

Medium brood foundation. — Comb foundation running

about 7 square feet to the pound.
Melipona bees. — A genus of stingless bee inhabiting

South and Central America, comprising at least 50

species, some domesticated.
Mel-extractor. — Honey-extractor.

Movable frame. — A loose comb frame which can be
removed completely from the hive for the purpose
of examination or use. A Langstroth frame. See
Frames in the text.

Natural swarm. — A swarm of bees issuing spontaneous-
ly from the mother hive.

Nectar. — The sweet exudation secreted by glands in
different parts of plants, chiefly in the flowers.

Nectaries. — The parts of a flower wherein is secreted
the nectar. See Pollen in the text.

Neuter. — A name sometimes applied to worker bees.

Non-swarming hive. — A hive so constructed as to con-
trol the desire to swarm.

Nucleus (plural Nuclei). — A very small colony of bees.
The difference between a nucleus and a colony is
much like the difference between a boy and a man.
It is not easy to say just when a nucleus becomes
large enough to be called a colony. Perhaps nothing
larger than three combs with adhering bees should
be called a nucleus, altho in the spring many so-
called colonies have much less than three frames of
brood.

Nurse bees. — The worker bees that feed the young,
and do other work inside the hive. They are gener-
ally less than 16 days old.

Observatory hive. — A hive largely of glass to permit
observing the bees at work.

Ocelli. — TTie three simple eyes of the bee.

Out-apiary. — An apiary kept at some distance (gener-
ally more than a mile) from the home of the bee-
keeper.

Overstocking. — A condition reached when there are too
many bees for a given locality.

Paraffin. — A white translucent substance somewhat re-
sembling beeswax, derived froin mineral oil, and sold
very largely in the form of candles. It is used by
beekeepers to render honey-barrels tight.

Parent stock. — The parent stock of a given colony is
the colony of that queen's mother.

Parthenogenesis. — Production of a new individual from
a virgin female without intervention of a male ; re-
production by means of unfertilized eggs. In bees
the unfertilized eggs produce only males. An un-
fecundated queen, and sometimes a worker, may lay
eggs that will hatch, producing only drones. See
Parthenogenesis in the body of the work.

Perforated zinc. — Zinc sheet metal having oblong holes
1-6 of an inch in width to allow worker bees alone
to pass, and excluding queens and drones. See
Drones in the text.

Pickled Brood. — See Sacbeood.

Piping. — A series of sounds made by a queen, louder
than any sound made by a worker, consisting of a
loud, shrill tone, succeeded by several others, each
sound shorter than the one that precedes it. A lay-
ing queen is seldom heard to pipe; a virgin perhaps
always pipes at intervals after emerging from her
cell, and in response to her piping may be heard the
quahking of one or several virgins in their cells, if
such are in the hive, the quahking being uttered in
a lower key and in a more hurried manner than the
piping. Piping is also called " teeting."

Pistil. — The pistil is divided into the ovary, style, and
stigma. The ovary contains the ovules which, after
fertilization, become the seeds. See Pollen in text.

Plain sections.- — Comb-honey sections with no insets or
scalloped edges. See Comb Honey, Appliances for,
in the text.

Pollen. — Dust-like grains formed in the anthers, within
which are produced the male elements or sperms.

Pollen-basket. — A cavity on the hind legs of the bee
wherein is deposited the pollen gathered from flowers.

Prime swarm. — The first swarm — the swarm with the
old queen.

Propolis. — A kind of glue or resin collected by the
bees and chiefly used to close up cracks and small
spaces.

Pupa.— The third stage of the bee, during which it is
inactive and sealed up in its cell ; sometimes called
" chrysalis."

Quahking. — The noise made by a young queen iri her
cell in response to the piping of the queen at large.
See Piping.

Queen. — A fully developed female bee ; the mother bee.
Queen-cage. — A small box of wire and wood in which
queens are held prisoners.

Queen candy. — Candy made by kneading powdered su-
gar into extracted honey until it forms a stiff
dough ; used in queen-cages ; called Scholtz candy,
because Rev. M. Scholtz introduced it in Europe.
Afterward I. R. Good gave it prominence in Amer-
ica, and so it is often called Good candy. See
Candy in the text.

Queen-cell. — A cell in which a queen is reared, having
an inside diameter of about % of an inch, hanging
downward an inch or more in length. See Queen-
rearing in the text.

Queen-excluder. ~K device consisting wholly or in part
of sheet zinc having oblong perforations about 1-6
of an inch wide, allowing workers to pass thru but
excluding queens and drones.

Queening. — The act of introducing a queen into a
queenless colony of bees.

Queenless. — Having no queen.

Queen-nursery. — A cage or set of cages in which to

confine queen-cells or queens.
Queen-rearing. — Raising queens.

Queen-register. — A card to be attached to a hive with
pointers that may be moved so as to indicate dates,
and conditions relating to the queen, such as cell,
hatched, laying, etc. See Record-keeping in the
text.

Qaeenright. — Having a good laying queen.
Queen's voice. — A sound made by a queen. See Pip-
ing.

Queen-trap. — A device provided with perforated zinc,
to be attached to the entrance of a hive, allowing
workers to pass, but trapping any queen or drone
that attempts to issue. Called also drone-trap.
See Swarming in the text.

Quilt. — A cover for brood-frames made in the form of
a thin cushion.

Quinby frame. — The hanging Quinby frame is 18%
by 11% ; the closed-end or standing Quinby is
19 Vs by 11, is without lugs, and supported at the
bottom. See Hives in the text.

Quinby hive. — A hive invented by Mr. Quinby based
on Huber's leaf hive of the latter part of the 18th
century. See Hives in the text.

Rabbet. — Usually has reference to a narrow piece of
tin folded in a peculiar manner to form a rest for
the shoulders of the hanging frames. See Hivbs^ in
text.

Race. — The kinds of bees into which the species Apis
mellifica is divided, the race being usually named
after the place of nativity, as Italian, German, Car-
niolan. Sometimes the word variety or breed is
used with the same meaning.

Rendering wax. — TTie process of melting combs and
refining wax from its impurities, usually done by
means of hot water or steam accompanied by pres-
sure on the mass of material. See Wax in the text.

Repository. — A room, usually upon a hillside, partly
or wholly below ground, in which bees are wintered ;
a bee-cave ; a bee-cellar. In a general sense the
word may be used for any place in which bees are
wintered.

Reversing. — Turning over or inverting a hive with
bees to accomplish certain results.

Ripe honey. — Honey left in the care of the bees un-
til it contains less than 25 per cent of water.

Robbing. — As applied to bees, the taking of honey by
stealth or force from the hives of other colonies.

BEEKEEPERS' DICTIONARY

84.1

Royal cell. — Queen-cell.

Boyal jelly. — A rich food of whitish appearance placed
by the nurse bees in queen-cells as food for - the
royal larvae. See Queen-rearing in the text.

Sacbrood. — A disease of brood. Slightly contagious
but not serious. See Foul Brood at the close of
the chapter.

Scholtz candy. — See Queen Candy.

Sealed brood. — Brood that has been capped or sealed
over by the bees with a somewhat porous capping ;
mostly in the pupa stage. See Brood in the text.

Section. — A small frame or box open on two oppo-
site sides, that is placed on a hive to receive surplus
honey ; a section box. Also, the honey contained in
a section box. See Comb Honey in text.

Section holder. — A device for holding sections while in
process of being filled on the hive.

Self-hiver. — Any device by which the bees of a swarm
are induced to enter of their own accord a hive
prepared for them.

Self -spacing frames. — Frames so made that, pushed
together, they will be spaced the proper distance
apart from center to center (usually 1% inches) ;
fixed frames.

Separator. — A very thin board or sheet of tin placed
between sections to make sure that the bees will
build the combs accurately.

Septum.- — The middle of a honeycomb.

Shaken swarm or shook swarm. — An artificial swarm
made by shaking bees from a very populous colony
into a fresh hive. By this means natural swarming
is closely imitated. See Brushed Swarm. See Ar-
tificial Swarming in the text.

Shipping case. — A light box, usually with glass on one
side, of varying size, in which section honey may
be shipped. The sizes most commonly in use are
those containing 12 and 24 sections each.

Skep. — A beehive without movable frames, especially
one made of straw.

Skeppist. — An old-fashioned beekeeper.

Slumgum. — The refuse from a wax-extractor. See
"Wax in the text.

Smoker. — An implement having a fire-box with bel-
lows attached, by means of which smoke may be
blown upon bees ; a bee-smoker.

Solar ivax-extractor. — A glass-covered box melting bees-
wax by the heat of the sun.

Sour brood. — Pickled brood, which see.

Spermatheca. — A small sac attached to the oviduct of
the queen, in which are stored the spermatozoa re-
ceived from the drone in the act of copulation.

Spermatozoon. — One of the germs contained in the
semen of drones. (Plural, spermatozoa.)

Spiracles. — Air-tubes thru which the bee breathes.

Spreading brood. — Putting a comb without brood be-
tween two combs of brood to induce the queen to
lay in the former.

Stamens. — The organs of flowers producing pollen. See
Pollen in the text.

Starter. — A small piece of comb or foundation fastened
in a frame or section to start the bees to building
at the right place. See Comb Foundation in the
text.

Stigma. — That part of the pistil of a flower which
receives the pollen for the fecundation of the ovules ;
usually the end of the pistil.

Strain. — Altho scientists may not all agree as to using
this word, John Phin, in his excellent Dictionary of
Practical Apiculture, says it "is one of the most
useful, expressive, and legitimate words that we
have, and this is shown by the extraordinary diffi-
culty of finding a synonym for It." Suppose one has
a certain race of bees. Among them he finds some

I that are specially noted for some particular quality,
good or bad, as gentleness or viciousness, and this
quality descends with more or less certainty to
their posterity. This quality does not differentiate
them from others of the same race sufficiently to
constitute them a different race or breed, but it is
of sufficient importance to warrant their being called
a strain. Moreover, the characteristics of a strain
are not so fixed as the characteristics of a race, and
without great care the particular characteristics will
disappear, or as we say, "the strain runs out." See
Races of Bees in the body of the work.
Super. — A receptacle in which bees store surplus
honey ; so called because placed over the hive.

Supersede. — To rear a young queen to take the place

of the old one while the old one is still in the hive.
Surplus or surplus honey. — Honey over and above what

the bees need for their own use, and which the

beekeeper takes from them ; honey stored elsewhere

than in the brood-combs.
Surplus apartment. — The apartment in which surplus

honey is stored.
Swarm. — A large number of bees with a queen leaving

the mother colony to find new lodgings and found

a new colony.

Sivarm-catcher. — A net placed at the entrance of a
hive, a basket at the end of a pole, or any other
device intended to secure a swarm as it leaves the
hive or afterward.

Swarming season. — The period of the year when
swarms usually issue in numbers.

Syrian bees. — See Holy Land Bees.

Tarsus. — The five terminal segments of a bee's leg
are called the tarsi ; one of these segments is a
tarsus.

Tested queen. — A queen whose progeny show she has

mated with a drone of her own race.
Thin-super foundation. — Comb foundation running

about 12 square feet to the pound.
Thorax. — The middle part of a bee between the head

and abdomen, and to which the wings and legs are

attached.

Tiering up. — Adding supers on the top of a hive. See

Comb PIoney in the text.
Transferring. — Ordinarily applied to the process of

changing bees arid combs from common boxes to

movable frame hives-
Transformations. — See Bee Metamorphosis ; also De-

^'TiLOPMENT OF Bees, in the text.
Transposition process. — Taking a young larva from a

worker-cell and placing it in a queen-cell cup.
Travel-stain. — The darkened appearance upon the sur-
face of comb honey when left long upon the hive.
Trigona^ bees. — A genus of stingless bees in South

America and Asia. Some species bite furiously.
Uncapping-knife. — See Honey-knife.
Unripe honey. — Honey which has not been left in the

care of bees long enough to be thickened until it

contains less than 25 per cent of water.
Unsealed brood. — Brood not yet sealed over by the

bees. In a general way eggs are often included

with larvse under the term unsealed brood. See

Brood in the text.
Virgin comb. — Comb which has been used for honey

only once, and never for brood.
Virgin queen. — An unfecundated queen.
Wax-extractor. — An appliance for rendering wax by

heat, or by heat and pressure.
Wax-pocket. — The receptacles on the under side of the

abdomen wherein the bees secrete their wax. See

Honeycomb in the text.
Wax-press. — A press in which the wax is squeezed out

of the heated combs.
Wean. — To cease giving the highly concentrated food

that is first fed to larvae, and to give coarser food.

A worker larva is weaned when three days old.
Wedding excursion or wedding flight. — The fiight of

the queen when five days old or older, to mate with

the drone in the air.
Wild bees. — Bees that are living in hollow trees or

other abodes not prepared for them by man. Strict-
ly speaking, they are no wilder than bees in hives.
Wild queen-cells. — When queen-cells are being reared,

those which are started on combs where they are

not wanted are called wild.
Windbreaks. — Either specially constructed fences or

barriers composed of growing trees to reduce the

force of the wind. See Apiaries, also Wintering

Outdoors in the text.
Wintering. — The care of bees during winter.
Worker. — A female bee whose organs of reproduction

are undeveloped ; well named " worker," because

workers do all the work of the colony except laying

the eggs.

Worker comb. — Comb having cells which measure five
to the inch, in which workers may be reared, and
honey or pollen stored. See Honeycomb in the text.

Worker egg. — A fertilized egg laid by a queen bee,
which may produce either a worker or a queen.

Such rest is here, and peace, and quiet breath,
I scarcely know if this be sleep or death.
There is no sign of anything alive,
So solemn and so still is every hive.
No murmur here, no eager flash of wing
That thru the summer made our hearts to
sing,

But every hive is still as some old tomb
Of desolate dead dreams and withered bloom.
The earth itself is white and still and cold
And either dead or very, very old.

This bare dry twig was once a leafy vine
Whose sap went mounting like some racy
wine

That somehow made a miracle of green.
Is this, then, all the miracle shall mean,
This brown, unlovely, lifeless-looking thing?
If so, why should we ever smile or sing?
Yet smile we shall, and sing, because we
know

A brave new year is coming o 'er the. snow.

— By Grace Allen.

I

"Gleanings in Bee Culture " Ready for the PostofEce.
Note. — The view shows only about one-third of the list ready to mail.

Interior View of The A. I. Root Company's Office.

Partial View of the A. I. Root's Company's Manufacturing Plant, looldng from the south.

The \ 1 Pvoot Company's Fireproof Warehouse, 148 x 48, three stories, with loading-platforn) and

connecting old Warehouse on the south.

INDEX

A

A B C of Beekeeping 5

Abnormalities. See Hermaphrodite Bees, also Drones.

Absconding Swarms 12- 15

Absorbing Cushions vs. Sealed Covers S19

Aoacia. See Huajilla.

Acreage. See Pasturage for Bees.

Adulteration 15

Detention of Glucose 411

Less of 269

Wax, Detection of 797

Advertising Honey Observatory Hives, for : 444

After-swarming 17

Age Bees' 18

Alarm, Automatic, to Tell When Can is Full 299

Albino Bees 488, 641

Alcohol, Testing Beeswax with 793

Alexander Veil. See Veils.

Alfalfa 19- 31

Crop Increased by Bees 340

Sweet Clover Sown with 742

Alfilerilla 31

Algoroba. See MesQuite.

Alighting Board, Method of Attaching 258

Almond Pollinated by Bees 350

Alsike Clover 175- 178

Lime, not Essential 169

Poisonous to Horses, a Myth 178

Pollinated by Bees 341

Amateur Beekeeping. See Backlot Beekeeping, also

A B C of Beekeeping.
American Foul Brood. See Foul Brood.

Analysis, Honey 407- 414

Nectar 559

Anatomy of the Bee 31- 41

Anger of Bees 42

Antennae 33

Ants 45- 48

Nest, to Destroy 48

Shed, Proof Against 48

Apiaries, Distances Between 574, 576

Number of Colonies in 573

4.piary 48- 72

Arrangement of Hives 65

Byer's, Covered with Snow 56

F. J. ililler's 804

Hives in Straight Eows Cause Drifting 240

Out. See Out-apiary.

Windbreaks for 58

Apple Orchard, A. I. Boot's 341

Pollinated by Bees 354

Artificial Fertilization 72

Heat - 73

Pastiu-age 74, 451

Swarming 75, 239

Ash in Honey 409

Invert Sugar Contains None 16

Aster 77- 80

Automobiles for Out-apiaries 573, 578

Trailer 149, 578

Auto Truck, Moving Bees on 666

Stings Impossible 551

vs. Wagons 555

B

Baby Nuclei for Mating Queens 561, 619

See Queen-rearing.

Backlot Beekeeping ^ 80

Bacteria of Foul Brood. See Foul Brood.

Bags, Granulated Honey in 377

Bait Sections, Extracting Combs for 209, 211

Balling of Queeiis. See Queens.

Banat Bees ^ 640

Barrels, Uncapping into 282

for Honey 83

for Hot Water and Wax 789, 796

Leaking of 269

vs. Cans for Shipping 84

Basswood 85

Bee Anatomy 31

Bread. See Pollen.

Candy. Making - 164

Cellars. See Cellars.

Demonstration at Fairs 442, 443, 444

Dress or Clothing 775

Bee-escape Board as Super Cover 388

Escape Board, Ventilated Type 279

Escape, Brood in Super Prevents Use of 277

Escape, Double 279

Escape, Honey-house 281

Escape Hou:.e Apiary 72

Escape, Invention of 483

Escape, Method of Treating Foul Brood 321

Escape, Porter 214

Escape, Removing Bees from Trees with 98

Escape, Taking off Comb Honey with 213

Exhibits. See Exhibits.

Gloves 361

Hat for Veil 771

Hunting 92- 100

Laws. See Laws.

Louse 255

Moth. See Moth Miller.

Paralysis 235

Smoker. See Smoke and Smokers.

Space, Definition of 102

Statistics 697

Stings. See Songs.

Suits, Farmerette - 776

Tent, Folding 654

Tree Cutting, Laws on 494

Trees, Largest in the World 93

Trees, Getting Bees from. See Bee Hunting.

Veils 771- 777

Beekeepers, Farmer 301

Nvunber of 2, 698

Beekeeping. Back Lot 80

Best States for 505

iligratory 529

on Farms 301

Profits 606

Specializing in 692

Statistics 697

Women, Adapted to 100

Bees, Age of 18

and Fruit 102

and Poultry 103

and Truck Gardening 104

Anger of 42

Beginning with 113

Behavior 87

Building Comb. See Comb Building.

Chilled, Reviving of 754, S20, S33

Collecting Pollen. See Pollen.

Communication Between 651

Cross, Feeding for 44

Dead, on Cellar Bottom S27

Development of 230

Distance they Fly. See Flight of Bees.

Distance they Flj- 312

Examining when Handling Frames 520, 521

Flying Out and Chilling 820

Holy Land and Cyprian 487

in Ancient History 1

in Back Lots SO

in Cellar, See Wintering in Cellar.

Injuring Fruit, not True 107

Intelligenje of 650

Italians 435- 489

Jarring from Combs 520

Killed by Spraying 336

Large Cells do not Increase Size of 433

Nuisance 104

Nurse 88

on Shares HO

Play Spells of 240, 589

Pollinating Fruit and Plants 340-359, 599-606

Besting Period 89

Secreting Wax. See Wax.

Shaking from Combs 519

Shipped by Parcel Post 117

Soil Washing 81

Solitary 682- 688

Specialty in 691

Stingless .111

Tangled in Milkweed Pollen 531

850

INDEX

Three Kinds of 5, 6

Truck Gardening with 104

Weight of 798

Young, Introducing Queen to 478

Beeswax. See Wax.

Beet Sugar, Chemistry of 711

Beeway and Plain Sections. See Sections.

Beginning with Bees 113

Bell-flower. See Campanilla.

Berry Plants Pollinated hy Bees 343

Bingham Hive and Smoker. See Hives, Smokers.

Bird-pollinated Flowers 601

Birds Eating Bees 254

Bisulphide of Carbon for Moth Millers 547

Black Bees 639

Easily Bobbed 651

Black Brood. See Foul Brood.
Black Locust. See Locust.
Black Tupelo. See Tupelo.

Blacking, Beeswax for 782

Bleaching Comb Honey 118

Wax 797

Blending Honey for Bottling 123

Blowtorch for Sterilizing Hives 319

Blueberries Pollinated by Bees 348

Boardman. See Feeders, Wax Rendering.

Boat, Moving Bees on 552

Shipping Bees by 670

Bokhara. See Sweet Clover.

Books for Records. See Record Keeping.

Borage 118

Borrowing Instead of Robbing 660

Bottles and Jars for Honey 272

Labels for : 489

Bottling Honey 120

Box Hives, Inspecting of Difficult 470

Moving Bees in ' 116, 126

Transferring from 758

Breeding from Non-swarming Stock 723

Breeding Stock 129

Brood and Brood Rearing 130- 136

Arrangement in Combs 91

Chamber, Large Prevents Swarming 726

Comb, Spacing of 335, 690

Combs. Value of 220

Combs Worker and Drone Brood 131

Dead from Drone-laying Queens 329

Destroyed by Spraying During Bloom 336

Diseases. See Foul Brood.

Drone and Worker ui Combs 131

Frames, Sizes of. Various 384

Frames, Wiring of 188

Hatching, Introducing Queen to 478

Healthy, from Diseased Colonies 320

Interruption of Causes Swarmirg 717

Moving to Upper Story 273

Nest, Contraction of 224

Poisoned. See Fruit Blossoms.

Raised to Supers Prevents Swarming 725

Rearing Decreases after Honey Flow ■ 132

Rearing, Extracted Honey Production 273

Rearing, Feeding to Stimulate 306

Rearing in Cellar 757

Rearing, Water Needed for 780

Removing Prevents Swarming 716

Spreading of 693

Starved or Neglected 329

Brushing Bees from Combs 278

Buckeye Hive 396, 397, 398

Buckwheat and Crimson Clover 137, 183

Building, Plans for Extracting Room 298

Building up Colonies ^ 154, 207

Buildings for Beekeepers 145

Bulk Comb Honey 198

Bumblebee -pollinated Flowers 602

Bumble Bees and Flower Pollination 156

Burlap Sacks for Smoker Fuel 679

Sacks for Wax Presses 791, 793

Button Bush 136

Button Sage 662

c

Cabbage Palmetto 585

Cage, Anti-robber 653- 655

Mailing an.d Introducing 473

for Demonstrating Bees 442, 443

Caging Queen Prevents Swarming 716

Campanilla 163

Campeche. See Logwood.

Canada Thistle ' 164

Candied Honey. See Granulated Honey.

Csn(Jles, Beeswa? for „„„_„,„.,„.^,„_„,_^,^,„,,„,,^,^ 782

Candy, Bees, Making of 164

Fed in Cellar 757, 831

Cane Sugar, Chemistry of 166- 711

Cans, Bell to Tell When Full 299

Screw-top Gates for 271

Second-hand, Cleaning of 271

Shipping Cases for 270

Testing for Leaks 271

vs. Barrels for Shipping 84

Wooden Jacketed 270

Capping Honey, Variation in 90

Capping Melter. Melting Honey in 295, 376

Cappings, Disposing of 293

Car, Bees Robbing Honey from 650

Loading Bees in 667

Carbon -bisulphide to Destroy Ants 46

to Destroy Moth Millers 547

Card Index. See Record Keeping.

Carload Shipments of Bees 665- 671

Carniolan Bees 639

Hybrids from 466

Carpenter Bees. See Solitary Bees.

Carpet Grass 166

Carriers for Hives 828, 829

Carton, Safety 1 675

Catclaw 167

Catnip 168

Cattle, Sweet Clover for 743- 746

Caucasian Bees 640

Hybrids from 466

Cell Cups, Artiflcial 613, 614

Cups, Doolittle Method 613

Cutting Prevents After Swarming 17

Early Development of 230

Grafting 613

Protector, West 619

Cellar, Brood Rearing in 757

Construction of 826

David Running's 153, 821

Dysentery in 249

House 824

Entrances of Hives in 262

Gordon's 823

Griggs' 822

Sowinski's 824

Ventilation of 777, 823

Wintering 821- 830

Wintering vs. Outdoor Plan 804- 806

Cells, Cutting of Prevents Swarming 716, 720

Drone and Worker, Size of _ 429

Drone, for Storage of Honey - 433

European Foul Brood Cleaned Out of 324

Grafting 613

Honeycomb, Shape of 429

Large, do not Increase Size of Bees 433

Sizes of 90

Three Kinds for Queen-rearing 611

Worker and Drone, Size of 429

Census, Errors in 697- 698

Centrifugal Wax-extractor 785

Ceresin and Mineral Waxes 781

Ceresin, Detection of in Beeswax 798

Chaff Hive, Original Root 399

Chemical Analysis. See Analysis.

Cherry Pollinated by Bees 350

Cherry, Wild 800

Chilling of Flying Bees 820, 833

Chunk Honey. See Bulk Comb Honey.

City Apiary 50

Ordinances Declaring Bees Nuisance 497

Circulatory System of Bee 38

Clipped Queen, Hiving Swarm with 729

Clipping Queen, Method of 629

Preferable to Queen Trap 730

Prevents Swarming 13, 715

Clothing for Apiary ^— 775

Clover 169- 184

Crop Increased by Bees 340

Closed-end Frames 332. 389

Cluster, Winter Temperature of 753

Cocoon, Bee Moth ^ 533, 546, 548

Coddling Moth, Spraying for 338

Colony Records. See Record-keeping.

Colonies, Equalizing Strength of 697

Examining without Handling Frames 520, 521

Increasing of 467

Two from One (Alexander Plan) 467

Weak, Alexander Plan for 770

Weak Subject to Disease Va\

Colorado Grading Rules 367

Color Test of Honey 413

Color.i of Honey ^^^,,,„=-„._„_,„ 4Q§

INDEX

851

Comb Bucket, for Carrying Combs 280

Building in Glass Hive — 436

Building Outdoors 436

Building, Eelation to Ripening Honey 90

Building, Study of 427- 437

Building, Value of Comb Foiuidation 222

Building, Variation in 90

Building, Worker Cells from Starters 223

Built in Open Air 436

Built to Bottom Bar 647

Diseased with American Foul Brood__314, 315, 316, 318

Diseased with European Foul Brood 323

Drone and Worker 131, 431

Foundation Cutter 197

Foimdation Fasteners __193- 198

Foimdation, Invention of 184, 481

Foundation llill. Invention of 481

Foundation Mills 185

Foundation, Starters Only Produce Worker Comb__ 223
Foundation, Substitutes for Bees Wax Impossible.- 781

Foundation, Wooden Splints to Support 190

Honey 198- 219

Honey, Amount Produced 698

Honey, Artificial, not in Existence 435

Honey, Bleaching of 118

Honey, Extracting Combs at Side of Super 208

Honey, Feeding Back for 309

Honey Grading. See Grading.

Honey Granulated 217, 796

Honey, Granulation of. Due to Feeding Back 310

Honey, Granulation, Prevention of 219

Honey, Growth of 432

Honey, Pollen in 559

Honey, Production of 206- 219

Honey Production, Swarm Control Difficult 724

Honey, Scraping Propolis from 215

Honey Section, Invention of 482

Honey Sections, Fastening Foundation in 193- 198

Honey Sent to King Edward 367

Honey Separators and Fences 204

Honey Shipping Cases 671- 675

Honey Supers, When to Put on 200, 208

Honey, Travel-stained 370

Honey, Wax in Section of 796

Natural Without Foundation 430

Worker and Drone 131, 431

Combs, Brood, Value of 220

Carrying to Extractor 280

Diseased, Destroyed by Moth Miller 535

European Foul Brood, Need not be Destroyed 324

Extracting, Freeing from Bees 277

Manipulation of. See Manipulation of Colonies.

Old, Rendering Wax from 784- 800

Shaking Bees from 519

Spacing of _._335, 690

Uncapped 266

Worker and Drone Brood J— 131, 431

Commission Houses, Selling Honey to 525

Confections Made with Honey 425

Cooking Recipes Using Honey 418- 427

Use of Honey in 417

Coral Berry. See Buckbush.

Corks, Inserting in Bottles 124

Corn, Sweet Clover with 748

Corrugated Paper Shipping Cases 675

Cotton 224

Cotton Belt, Distribution of Honey Plants 461

Cover Crop, Spray Falling on Kills Bees 338

Sweet Clover for 752

Cover for Hive Seat 513

Glass, for Observation 820

Inner 388

Sealed vs. Absorbing Cushions 819

Styles, Various 387, 388

Cranberries Pollinated by Bees 347

Crimson Clover 181

Crosses of Bees. See Hybrids.

Cuba, Publishers' Apiary 50

Cuctunbers Pollinated by Bees 225, 343

Cultivated Plants Pollinated by Wind 340

Currants Pollinated by Bees 347

Cushions, Absorbing vs. Sealed Covers 819

Cutting Comb Foundation 197

Cyprians and Holy Land Bees 487

Cyprians vs. Hybrids 465

D

Daisies. See Asters.

Dandelion 227

Danzenbaker Hives and Frames. See Hives.

Demaree Plan of Swarm Control 725

Demonstrating Bees at Fairs 442- 446

Demuih Winter Case 813

Deaueening Prevents Swarming 719

Development of Bees 230

Dextrine in Honey 409

Dextrose in Honey 410

Disease Inspectors 469

Disease, Isle of Wight 236

Diseased Combs Destroyed by Moth Miller 535

Diseases of Bees 234-239, 313- 329

Distance Bees Fly 612

Dividing to Make Increase 467

Division Board, Newspaper Wrappped Comb for 808

Double vs. Single Walls. See Hives.
Dovetailed Hives. See Hives.

Drifting of Bees, when Hives too Close 53, 239

Why Not Stung Like Robbers 240

Drone and Queen, Mating of 241

Brood 134

Brood in Cells 131

Cells for Storage of Honey 433

Cells, Size of 429

Guards, Restrain Undesirable Drones__73, 246, 466, 730

Laying Queen 329, 628

Queen and Worker 612, 640

Traps Prevent Swarms Leaving 13, 730

Drones 240- 248

Age of 19

Breeding from Best 129

Effect of on Swarming 724

Drugs, Useless for American Foul Brood 321, 323

Dwindling, Spring 693

Dysentery 248

Dzierzon, Dr. 255

Dzierzon's Theory .253, 587

E

Eastern Races of Bees 641

Education and Inspection 502

Egg Production, What Controls 91

Worker, Produces Queen 6, 623

Eggs, Development of t. 231

Fertilization of 231, 253

Large View of 631

Microscopic View 134

Photographed in Cells 130

Queen's Ovaries in 42

Two Kinds Laid by Queens 631

Electric Bell to Notify When Can is Full 299

Enemies of Bees 254- 257

Disease Most Serious 313

Entrance Guard Prevents Swarming 73, 246, 466, 730

Screens 553

Small Causes Swarming 716

Small in Winter 807

Entrances, Blve 257, 263

in Cellar 831

Keeping Free from Snow and Ice 777

Plurality of 261

Enzymes in Honey 412

Escape. See Bee Escape.

Eucalyptus 263

European Foul Brood. See Foul Brood.
Excluders. See Queen Excluders.

Exhibits, Bees in Observatory Hive t 444

Honey and Wax 439- 446

Expressing Bees Long Distances 556

Extracted Honey 265- 273

Analysis of 407- 414

Big Colonies Necessary 273

Grading of 368, 369

Labels ■ 489

Production of per Year 698

Strong Flavor when New 268

Tanks for 269

When to Remove from Hives 277

Extracting 273- 300

Combs, Baits in Comb-honey Supers 209

Combs, Carrying to Extractor 280

Combs, Cleaning Out 659

Frames : 276

House, Floor Plans for 298

House Portable 149

Outfit, Beginners' 282

Outfit, Large 286

Plant, Central 150

too Closely Necessitates Feeding 302

Extractor, Interior View of in Motion 267

Invention of 481

Original 284

Small 281

Egyptian Bees 641

Bye, Compound 300

852

INDEX

F

Fairs, Demonstrating Bees at 442- 446

See Honey Exhibits.

Parmer Beekeepers 301

Farmerette Bee-suits 776

Farms, Kentunl?y, Sweet Clover Restores 739

Fasting Method of Introducing 479

Feeder, Division Board 807

Feeding and Feeders 302- 309

Back to Finish Comb Honey 309

by Equalizing Stores 273

Candy 165

Honey for BottUng 120

Outdoors 310

Midwinter 831

Pollen Substitutes 598, 696

Spring 695

Stopping Robbing by 44. 659

Unfinished Sections 659

Fences for Windbreaks 58. 816- 818

Fermented Honey 268

Fertile Workers. See Laying Workers.

Fertilization, Artificial 72

of Eggs 231, 253

of Flowers 340-359, 599-606

Figwort 313

Filling Cans. Bell to Tell when Full 299

Fireweed. See Willow-herb.

Flight of Bees. Length of 312

Flight thru Shrubbery. Wears Out Bees 312

Floor Finish. Beeswax for 782

Florida, Distribution of Honey Plants in 461

Flour. Substitute for Pollen.

Flower. Diagram of 599

Pollination. Solitary Bees, for 682

Flowers, Pollination of 599- 606

Fondant, Making of 165

Food Value of Honey 415

Formaldehyde for Foul Brood 323

Foul Brood 313- 328

American and European 313

American, Treatment of 318

Bee-escape Method of Treating 321

Carried, How 317

European, Alexander Plan 323. 325

European in South 835

Inspectors 469

Italians Immune to 485

Laws Relating to 499

Symptoms of Two Diseases Confusing 327

Foundation. Comb-building Without 430

Fasteners 193- 198

Fastener. Invention of 483

See Comb Foundation.

Frame. Hoffman. Invention of 482

Frames 329- 336

Extracting 276

Handling of 513- 519

Hoffman and Metal-spaced 276

Invention of Movable 481

Odd Sized. Combs Transferred from 760

Reversible . 647

Self-spacing 331

Size and Shape of 330

Sizes of. Various 384

Spaced 1% Inches Prevent Swarming 726

Spacing of 335. 690

Unspaced, to Handle 515

Freezing of Bees , 833

Friction -driven Extractors 286, 287

Friction-top Pail for Feeding 272, 305

Fruit, Bees Cannot Puncture 499

Bees not Injurious to 499

Blossoms. Pollination of 336- 359

Drying. Bees Troublesome 499

Growing and Bees 102

Injured by Bees not True 107

Fuel for Smoker. See Smoker and Smokers, Also 678

G

Gallberry 360

Galvanized Metal, Does not Injure Honey 269

Gasoline Engine for Extracting 286

Gates, Screw Cap, for 60 lb. Cans 271

Glands of Bee 38

Glass Covers for Observation 820

Hive, Natural Comb Building in 436

Hives, Miller's 567, 568, 569

Jars and Bottles for Honey 272

Globe Bee Veil 774

Gloves for Handling Bees 361, 511. 701

Golden Italians 487

Golden Willow 801

Goldenrod 363

Glucose 361. 410

Adulterating with 16

Detection of in Honey 411

Glue. Bees'. See Propolis.

Grading, Colorado Rules for 367

Comb Honey 366

Root Company Rules for 368

Rules Illustrated 370

Grafting Cells 613

Granulated Comb Honey 217

Honey 371. 380

Honey. Cutting up 378

Honey, Liquefying 373- 376

Honey, Removing from Barrels 85

Honey Ships the Best 269

Sugar. See Sugar.

Granulation Depends on Composition of Honey 450

not Test of Purity 371

Prevented by Heating 372

Sun's Rays to Prevent 123

Grapes Injured by Bees not True 107

Vines for Shade , 55

Pollinated by Bees 343

Greasy Waste for Smoker Fuel 679

Greasy Waste for Smoke Fuel 679

Grocery Stores. Peddling Honey at 449

Guajilla 464

Gum. See Tupelo.

H

Handling Bees. See Manipulation of Colonies.

Hat for Veil 771

Hauling Bees. See Moving Bees.

Hay. Alfalfa 25

Alsike Clover for 178

Sweet Clover 744- 747

Head of Bee 34

Heartsease 381

Heat. Artificial 73

Heating Honey Prevents Granulation 372

Honey to Facilitate Straining 297

Syrup for Cold Weather Feeding 308

Hermaphrodite Bees 382

Hibernation 832

Hive Bottoms 388

Carriers 828. 829

Dead- air Space vs. Packed 399

Double-walled. Invention of 396. 483

Dovetailed. Invention of 482

Entrances. See Entrances.

Evolution of 400

Foiuidation 61

Langstroth. Invention of 481

Lock-cornered. Invention of 482

Making 382

on Scales. See Scales.
Records. See Record-keeping.

Scale 664

Seat and Tool Box 512

Sectional View of 7. 9

Stands 61

Temperature in Winter 753

Thirteen- frame 393

Tools 511

Two-story, Original 399

Rabbet Spacers for 334

Hives, Accuracy Needed in Making — 383

Arrangement of in Apiary 65

Double vs. Single Walled 806

for Extracted Honey 274

Jumbo Depth — _ 393

Large, Prevent Swarming 727

Non- Swarming 728

Observatory 565

Sizes of. Various 384, 400

Sterilization by Burning 319

Two -story 394

Two-story, Wintering in 811

Hiving, Automatic 734

Swarms 729

Hoarhoimd - — 463

Hoffman Frames Improved 332

Invention of 482

Manipulation of 518

Spacing of 690

Hogs, Sweet Clover for 744

Holy Land and Cyprian Bees 487

INDEX

853

Holly 403

[loney. Aridity of 410

Adulteration of 15, 269

Alfalfa 20

Amount Produced 693

Analysis of 407- 414

and Wax Separator 296

Arrangement in Combs 91

Boards. See Queen Excluders.

Bottling of 120- 126

Colors of 406, 414

Comb and Extracted Both 208, 265

Comb and Extracted Compared 199, 265

Comb, Study of 427- 437

Compared to Honeydew 438

Composition of, Efifects Granulation 450

Cooking Becipes 418- 427

Crop, 78,000 lbs. from Buck\s-heat 139

Definition of 403

Diagram Showing Contents 417

Drone Cells for 433

Exhibits 439- 446

Extractor. Invention of 481

Fermented 268

Flavors of 265

Flow, Effect on Brood Bearing 132

Flow, Stopping, Makes Bees Cross 45

Food Value of 415

Friction-top Pails for 272

from Diseased Combs 320

Galvanized Metal Does not Injure 269

Gates for 60-lb. Cans 271

Grading of. See Grading.
Granulated. See Granulated Honey.

Healthfuhiess of 415

Houses 145-153, 293

Inorganic Elements Present in 416

Labels for 489

Peddling 446

Physical Characteristics 404, 406

Plants, Distribution in North America 458- 463

Plants, List of 453- 458

Pump 145, 289

Selling : 524- 527

Selling by Means of Exhibits 439

Selling House to House 446

Ships Best if Granulated 2^

Specific Gravity of 69S

Statistics 697

Strainer 282, 283, 290, 296

Tanks 269

Thinned Down for Feeding Back 310

Value of Total Crop 3

Vinegar 779

Wagon, Peddling Honey with 448

Weight of, in Honey Sac 799

Yields for Day, Abnormal 799

Honeydew 437

Causes Dysentery 249

Causes Spring Dwindling 249, 695

Compared to Honey 438

Honeys, American and Hawaiian 405

Horsemint 463

Horses not Poisoned by Alsike 178

Stinging of 703, 707

Hot-water Wax-presses 786

House Apiary 68- 72

HuajiUa 463

Htimble Bees. See Bumble Bees.

Himting Bees in Bee Trees 92- 100

Hybrids 465, 486

More Subject to European Foul Brood 324

Beplacement of 489

Hydrometer for Specific Gravity of Honey 403

I

Iced Cars for Moving Bees 669

Imbedding, Electrical Plan 192

Wires in Foundation 191

Immunity Following Stings 704

Increase, Forming Nuclei for 561

Methods of Making 467

Incubators for Queen Rearing 617

Indian Bees 641- 642

Inner Cover 388

Insect-polUnated Flowers 601

Inspection, Education Needed 502

Laws 499

Inspectors, Foul Brood 469

Introducing 471- 4S1

Cage, Also Mailing Cage 473

Direct Method of 479

Dual Plan 479. 618

Push-in-Comb Cage Plan 475

Queen Cells, not Virgins 618

Queen to Laying-worker Colony 504

' Virgins 472. 481

Inventions Relating to Bee Culttn-e 431- 484

Isle of Wight Disease 236

Italianizing, Methods of 488

ItaUans 485- 489

Five-banded 487

Immune to Disease 238, 324, 485

Protect Lives Better than Blacks 651

Pure vs. Hybrids 465

J

Jars and Bottles for Honey 272

Jaws of Bee 33

Jelly, Boyal. See Queens and Queen Bearing.

.Itimbo Hives 393

K

Kegs for Honey 83

Knives 291-293, 483

Knotweed. See Heartsease.

L

Label Mtist Indicate Contents l6, 125

Labeling 125, 489

Land, Sweet Clover Restores 741

Langstroth, Biography of 490

Hives 385

Lantern, Working Bees by 658

L.irvae, Bee Moth 536, 537, 539

Larvae, Bee, Development of 233

Feeding of 87

Growth of, Daily 135

Spinning Cocoons 88

Laws, Net Weight for Labels 125, 489

Adulteration 15

Against Spraying in Bloom 339

City, Declaring Bees Nuisance 497

Relating to Bees 494- 499

Relating to Foul Brood 499

Laying Workers, Cause of 503

Legislation on Bees. See Laws.

Legs of Bee 37

Pollen on 591, 597

Legume. See Sweet Clover;

Levulose in Honey 410

Linden. See Basswood.

LiQuefying 122, 373- 376

Granulated Comb Honey 21S

Live-bee Demonstrations 442- 446

Localities Change Tear by Tear 450

Where are Best 504

Locality. Modifies Swarming 716

Locust 506

Log Gums ^ 127

L ogwood 507

Long-idea Hive ^ 394

for Swarming 727

Lucerne. See Alfalfa.

Lye, Cleaning Separators with 609

M

Magnolia 508

Mailing also Introducing Cage 473

Mammoth Clover 181

Mandibles of Bee 33

Mangrove (Black) 508

Manipulation of Colonies 12, 510- 522

Marigold 523

Marketing Honey 524- 527

Honey, Granulated 376

Honey Hotise to House 446

Mating, Age for 628

Diflferent Races 5S7

Drone Guards Trap Undesirable Drones 466

Hives 619

Nuclei 619

Queen and Drone 241

Queen Feeds Herself Before 91

Tent Controls 72

Meal, Bye, Substitute for Pollen 597, 696

Melting Honey. See Liquefying.

Mesquite 527

Metal-spaced Hoffman Frames 333

Mice Damaging Combs 255

Entrance Screens for 261

Migratory Beekeeping 529

854

INDEX

Milkweed 530

Pollen Entaxigles Bees' Feet 531

Misbranding 16

Moisture Causing Dysentery * 249

in Honey 409

Mosquito Hawk, Enemies of Bees 257

Moth. Coddling, Spraying for 338

Moth Miller 532- 549

Motor Truck. See Auto Truck.

Mountain Sage 661- 664

Moving Bees 549- 557

Auto Truck for 554

for Migratory Beekeeping 529

in Carlots — 665- 671

Mustard 557

N

Nectar 559

" Bearing Plants, Distribution of 458- 463

Bees Extract Water from 781

Depositing Load of 89

Yielding Plants 453- 458

Net Weight Law for Labels 489

Newspaper Protecting Hive 698, 808, 834

Wrapped Comb for Division Board 808

Nitrogen Nodules on Sweet Clover 742

Nuclei for Increase 467

Increasing by 561

Bobbing of 653

Shipping Cases 557

Somerford Method of Increase 563

Swarming Out 14

Wagonload of 550

Nucleus 560- 564

Nurse Bees, Swarming Caused by too Many of 716

Nursery Cages, Queen 617

o

Oats, Sweet Clover with 747

Observatory Hive 565

Advertising Honey with 444

Odor, Factor in Introducing 472

Laying Queens' 633

Opening Hives. See Manipulation of Colonies.

Orange 570

PolLLnated by Bees 357

Orchard, Spraying in Bloom Kills Bees 336

Out Apiaries 572

Flight of Bees to 312

Rent for 577

Out Door Comb Building 436

Feeding 310, 659

Overstocking 582

Oyster Pails, Granulated Honey in 378

P

Packing Cases. See Winter Cases.

Packing Material for Double-walled Hive 400

Wintering with Small Amoimt of 807

Pail, Friction-top for Feeding 272, 305

Granulated Honey in 378

Palmetto 584

Paraffin, Detection in Beeswax Easy 797

Mineral Waxes 781

Paralysis 235

Parcel Post Package for Bees 117

Parthenogenesis 231, 251, 253, 586

Partridge Peas _ 587

Pasturage, Artificial . 74

Possibilities of 451

Sweet Clover 743

Patents on Beekeeping 484, 588

Peach Pollinated by Bees 352

Pear Pollinated by Bees 352

Peas, Partridge 587

Peavine Clover 181

Peddling Honey 446

Pennyroyal 588

Pepper Tree 588

Perforated Zinc. See Drones.
Pickled Brood. See Sacbrood.

Pistils and Stamens 600

Plain Sections. See Sections.

Plants, Nectar-bearing, Distribution of 458- 463

Pollinated by Bees 342- 359

Pollinated by Wind 340

Yielding Nectar 453- 458

Yielding Pollen 452

Play Spells of Young Bees 589

Plum Trees Pollinated by Bees 348

Poison from Stings 708

Poisoned Brood. See Fruit Blossoms.

Poisoning Ants 46

Poisonous Honey 589

Poisonous Sprays on Bloom Kills Brood 336

Polarization of Honey 410

Pollen, Arrangement in Combs 91

Artificial, Feeding 597, 696

Baskets on Bees' Legs 591, 592

Bees Collecting 593

Determines Source of Honey 404

in Comb Honey 559

Masses on Bees' Legs 595, 597

Microscopic Study 590

Milkweed, Entangles Bees' Feet 531

Plants 452

Substitutes 597, 598, 696

Unloadmg of 88

Pollination, Alfalfa 29

Alsike Clover 175

Bumble Bees' 156

by Wind 340

of Flowers 599- 606

of Fruit Blossoms 336- 359

Solitary Bees for 682

White Clover 171

Poplar. See Tulip Tree.

Portable Extracting House 149

Poultry Keeping and Bees 103

Power Extractors ^ 286

Presses, Wax, Unheated 788

Priority Rights and Overstocking 582

Profit, Backlotter's 82

in Bees 606

Propolis 608

Gathering and Using 89

Meaning of Word 5

Protein in Honey 411

Prune Trees Pollinated by Bees 349

Pump for Honey ^ 145, 289

Punic Bees 641

Pussy Willow 800

o.

Queen and Drone, Mating of 241

and Drone Trap 13, 247, 466, 730

Behavior of 91

Caging Prevents Swarming 716

Cell Protector 619

Cells 623, 624, 626

Cells, Cause Swarming 716, 720

Cells, Cutting Prevents After-swarming 17

Cells Tom Down 625

cupped. Hiving Swarm 729

Drone and Worker 612, 640

Excluder, Invention of 483

Excluders Preventing Pollen in Supers 599

Excluder, Wood and Wire 275

Feeds Herself before Mating 91

Flies Away, What to Do 480

Introducing to Lasmig-worker Colony 504

Mating Box 619

Nursery Cages 617

Rearing 611- 622

Rearing, Large Scale 613

Record Keeping 646

Trap Prevents Swarming 247, 730

Worker, Drone 612, 640

Queenless Colonies, Cry of Distress from 633

Colonies Easily Robbed 651

Queenlessness, Caution 634

Indicated by No Brood -_ 132

to Detect 479

Queens 622- 634

Age of 19

Breeding from Best 129

Brood from Drone-lasong 235, 329

Cells Introduced, not Virgins 618

Chilling of 833

Clipping Prevents Swarming 629- 715

Drone-laymg 235, 329

Drones and Workers Differentiated 5, 6

Finding. See Manuipulation of Colonies.

Introducing 471- 481

Laying of After Introducing 479

Plurality In Swarms 17

Boom for in Extracted Honey Production 273

Supersedure of 713

Two Kinds of Eggs from 253

Value of 129

Young, Prevent Swarming 719

Quinby, Moses 634- 638

Quince Pollinated by Bees 356

INDEX

855

E

Rabbet Spacers 334

Races of Bees 639

Mating of Different 587

Railroad, Liability of in Shipping Bees 498

Shipping Bees by 665- 671

Raspberry 643

Pollinated by Bees 346

Rats 644

Rearing Queens. See Queen Bearing.

Recipes Using Honey 418- 427

Record Keeping 644

Red Clover 178

See Clover.
Red Gum. See Eucalyptus.

Refining Beeswax 797

Refrigerator Car for Moving Bees 669

Remedies for Bee Stings 703

Rendering Wax. See Wax Rendering.

Reproductive System of Bee 40

Reaueening Prevents Swarming 721

Respiratory System of Bee 38

Reversible Frames 647

Rheumatism, Stings for 70S

Ripening Honey, how Bees do it ' 90

Importance of 268

Roadside Signs for Selling Honey 525

Robber Cages 653- 655

Traps 655

Robbers, Action of 90

Detecting of 649, 651

Bobbing 648- 660

Carelessness Causes 43

Feeding During 309

Feeding Outdoors for 311

Stopped by Feeding 44

Rocky Mountain Bee Plant 660

Rocky Mountains, Distribution of Honey Plants 462

Bopiness of Dead Brood. See Foul Brood.
Royal Jelly. See Queens and Queen Rearing.

Rubber Stamp for Xet Weight Marking 4S9

Rye Meal, PoUen Substitute 597, 598, 696

s

Sacbrood 328

Safety Shipping Case 673

Sage 661- 664

Sainfoin 664

Scale, Hive 664

at Out Apiary 582

Scales Used in FUllng 60-lb. Cans 299

Scent, Relation to Introducing 471

Scouts Preceding Swarm. See Absconding Swarms, also

Swarms.

Screens for Entrances 553

for Robber Traps 657

Screw-driver for Hive Tool 512

Scrub Palmetto 585

Sealed Covers 819

Section, Amount of Wax in 796

Honey-box, Evolution of 186- 199

Honey-box, Invention of 4S2

Sections and Separators Explained 9, 10

Bees Refuse to Enter 212

Fastening Foundation in 193- 198

Growth of Comb in 432

Output of aU the Factories 698

Pollen in 599

Scraping Propolis from 215

Tall vs. Sauare 201

Travel-stained 370

Unfinished, Cleaning out 659

Unfinished, Dr. Miller's Plan 216

Self-spacing Frames 331

Selling Honey, Commission Houses 525

Exhibits for 439

House to House 443

Local Market 524

Roadside Signs for 525

Sex, Determination of 587

Shade Arizona Apiary needs 51

Boards 54, 55

Prevents Swarming 722

Too much Detrimental 54

Shaking Swarms on Starters 722

Shares, Bees on 110

Shed, Wintering Under 808

Apiaries, Arizona 51

Sheep Keep Grass Down . 67

Shelter, Fences for = . 816, 818

Shipping Bees, Laws on 498, 665, 671

Bees Parcel Post for 117

Bees in Carlots 665, 671

Cases, Comb Honey 205, 671- 675

Cases for Cans 270

Cases, Nuclei 557

Comb Honey, Objections to 198

Honey, Barrels for 84

Long Distance by Express 556

Xuclei 557

Showcase for Honey 526

Shrubbery, Affects Temper of Bees 45

Effect on Flight of Bees 312

for Shade 53

Simplicity Feeder 303

Single vs. Double Walls. See Hives. ,^

Sixty-pound Cans, Shipping Cases for 270

Skep, Straw 675

Skimks Eating Bees 256

Smartweed. See Heartesase.

Smoke and Smokers 6, 676- 682

Hybrids ReQuire More 465

Method of Introducing 477

Smoker, Invention of 481

Qutnby 636

Use of 516

Smoking Bees from Combs 27S

Snow, Bees Chilling on 820

Soil, Effect on Xectar-bearing Plants 450

Sweet Clover Improves 741

Solar Wax Extractors 783

Solitary Bees 682- 688

Sorrel Tree 689

Sourwood 689

South, Wintering in 834

Spacing Brood Frames 335, 690

Spanish Needles 691

Specialty in Bees 691

Specific Gravity of Honey 692

Spiders Eating Bees 256

Spraying Bloom, Destroys Brood 336

Laws Against 339

Water for Stopping Swarms 733

Spreading Brood 693

Spring Dvrindling 693

Management : 695

Stamens and Pistils 600

Staples, Fastening Bottom to Body 553

States Best for Beekeeping 50o

Yalue of Honey in Different 699, 700

Statistics, Bee and Honey 697- 701

Steamboat, Shipping Bees by 670

Steam Keeps Wax from Chilling 789

Knives 293, 483

Wax-presses 787

Sting Magnified 710

Construction of 35, 38

Stinging Horses, Prevention of 105

Stingless Bees 111

Stings 701- 711

Gloves to Prevent 361

Queens' 634

Regular, to Secure Immunity 705

to Avoid in Handling 43, 81, 510

Stores, Observatory Hives in 444

Peddling Honey at 449

Winter 825

Stoves for Wax Rendering 789

Strained Honey, Grading of 368

Strained Honey vs. Extracted 265

Strainer, Alexander 296

Pettit 282, 283, 290

Straining, Gravity Method 296

Heating Honey Facilitates 297

Straw Skep 675

Strawberries Pollinated by Bees 345

Sugar, Chemistry of 711

Granulated, Best for Syrup 302

Invert, for Adulterating 16. 484

Reducing, in Honey 409

Sulphur, Bleaching Honey with 118

Sumac 711

Sunflower 713

Super Cover 388

Supers, Comb Honey 203

Deep, Extracted Honey 274

Examining without Lifting off 521, 522

Extracting, When to Take off 277

Shaking Bees from 523

Shallow, for Extracted Honey .274, 278

Swarming Prevented by more Room in 724

Tiering up ..,,-,,„=-,,^...==,=^,-=^ 212

856

INDEX

When to Put on 208, 274

Supersedure ; 713

Cells, Breeding from 723

Swarm Baskets 11

Catchers 731

Cells for Queen-rearing 611

Control, Doolittle Plan 76

Control in Extracting Honey Production 276

Swarming 713- 736

After 17

Artificial 75, 239

Because Conditions Abnormal 14

Fever, Placing in Cellar to Break up 13

Starting of Impulse 92

Ventilation Prevents 208, 777

Swarms Absconding 12

Brushed 75

Forced 75

Laws Eegarding 494

Leaving without Clustering 13

Plurality of Queens in 17

Shaken, Comb Honey Production 76, 208

Uniting of 769

Sweet Clover 736- 753

Swelling after Stingmg 702

Syrup, Granulated Sugar Best for 302

Pouring into Doolittle Feeder 807

T

Tanks, Extracted Honey 269

Temperature 753- 757

in Cellars. See Wintermg in Cellars.

How Low Bees can Stand 833

Tenement Cases. See Winter Cases.

Tent Controls Mating 72

Folding -. 654

Thermometers, Electric 754, 755

Thieves, to Guard Against 257

Thistle. See Canada Thistle.
Thorowort. See Boneset.

Titi 757

Tomatoes Pollinated by Bees 343

Tongue of Bee 33, 35

Tool Box and Hive Seat 512

Tool House for Smoker and Fuel 679

Tools Needed in Handling Bees 10, 11, 511

Trailer, Automobile 578

Transferring 758- 763

Trap, Bobber 655

Trapping Bees. See Bee Hunting.

Travel-stained Sections 370

Tree, Hiving Swarm in 733

Trees, Cutting, Laws on 494

Hemovin^ Bees from 92- 100

Spraying m Bloom KiUs Bees 336

Tropics, Distribution of Honey Plants 463

Truck Gardening, Bees and 104

Truck. See Auto Truck.

Tube and Escape Method of Treating Foul Brood 322

Tuhp Tree 763

Tunisian Bees 641 •

Tupelo 765

u

Uncapped Combs 266, 290

Uncapping-box 283, 294

Uncapping Knife, Bingham l 291

Boiler for Wax Press 789

Steam - 292, 483

Unfinished Sections, Feeding 659

Uniting 768- 771

Alexander Plan 770

Prevents Spring Dwindling 695

Swarms A 736

V

Veils 701, 771- 776

Ventilated Bee-escape Board 279

Ventilation ' 722, 777

in Cellai-s 823, 824

Ventilators, Sub-earth 826

Vinegar, Honey

Virgin Queens

Drone Guards to Secure Pure Mating

Dual Plan of Introducing

Flight of

Introducing of

Keproduce Parthenogenically

Voices, Bees'

w

Wagon, Extracting Boom on 149

Haulmg Bees on 549, 550

Peddling Honey with ; 443

vs. Auto Truck 555

Wash Boilers for Wax Bendering 789. 794

Washing Bottles '_ 124

Wasps, Enemies of Bees 257

Waste, Greasy, for Smoker Fuel ; 679

Water, Bees Extract from Nectar 781

Bees in Carloads Need 669

for Bees 78O

in Honey 409

Flowers, Pollinated by 601

Wax 781- 783

Amoumt in Section of Honey 796

Amount Produced 699

and Honey Separator 296

Exhibit of 440

Extractors, Solar 783

from Foul Broody Combs 320

Moth. See Moth Miller.

Bendering from Old Combs 320, 784- 800

Scales - 428

Secretion of ' 90, 428

Solvents for 793

Worms. See Moth Miller.

Waxing BaiTels 84

Weak Colonies, Alexander Plan of Uniting 770

Weed, Sweet Clover Not Noxious 736

Weeds, Pollinated by Wind .__ 603

Weighing Daily Honey Crop 664

Weight of Bees 798

White Clover 170

White Hollj'. See Gallberry.

White Sage 662

White Sweet Clover. See Sweet Clover.
White Tupelo. See Tupelo.
Whitewood. See Tulip Tree.

Wild Cherry SOO

Wild Sunflower. See Sunflower.

Willow 800

Willow Herb 801

Windbrealts for Apiary 58, 816- 818

Wind, Affects Flight of Bees 312

Pollinated Flowers 340, 601

Winter, Brood Bearing in 133

Cases : 809- 815

Cases, Drifting of Bees in 240

Entrance Block for 259

Feeding Candy 165

Feeding Syrup Hot 308

Nests, Advantages 819

Stores, Feeding for 307

Stores in Cellars 825

Stores, Quality and Quantity 1 820

Temperatiure of Cluster 753

Wintering 803- 835

Artificial Heat for 73

Cellar 821, 830

House Apiary for 72

in Southern States 834

Out Apiaries 581

Wires, Cutting Granulated Honey with 379

Imbedding in Foundation 192

Wiring Brood Frames 188

Horizontal and Vertical Compared 189

Women, Beekeeping for 100

Wooden Splints to Suppport Comb Foundations 190

Worker Cells, Size of 429

Comb from Starters Only 223

Egg Produces Queen 623

Drone Eggs from 244

Queen and Drone 612, 640

Y

Yellow Sweet Clover. See Sweet Clover.

z

779

626
466

651-

Zinc, Perforated. See Drones.

X

627

472, 481

.231, 251. 586 Xylocona . 835

I